Examining the Effect of Combining Orienteering with Music on the Development of Spatial Thinking Self-Assessment Skills

Examining the Effect of Combining Orienteering with Music on the Development of Spatial Thinking Self-Assessment Skills | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Examining the Effect of Combining Orienteering with Music on the Development of Spatial Thinking Self-Assessment Skills Fatma Gül Uzuner This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7639838/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study aimed to improve preservice classroom teachers’ spatial thinking self-assessment skills by integrating electronic music into the orienteering process. The study used a nested mixed methods design within the scope of a mixed research approach. In the quantitative dimension, a nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design, which is one of the quasi-experimental designs, was used. In the qualitative dimension, the aim was to expand upon the quantitative process. The study group of the research was selected based on criterion and convenience sampling. Accordingly, the study group consisted of a total of 12 preservice classroom teachers, of whom 6 were in the experimental group and 6 were in the control group. The Spatial Ability Self-Report Scale and a questionnaire were used as data collection tools. As a result of the study, evidence was found that orienteering combined with music was effective for the preservice teachers’ spatial thinking self-assessment skills. Social science/Education Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology orienteering electronic music mathematics spatial thinking preservice classroom teacher Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Due to the rapid development of the sport of orienteering, its popularity has increased all over the world (Khimenes et al., 2016). Boga (1997) stated that orienteering is the art of direction finding requiring the use of a map and compass. Orienteering is an outdoor sport in which there are checkpoints in dense forest areas and participants must visit the checkpoints within a specified time using a map and compass (Golden et al., 1987). While moving towards the checkpoints, participants must select the fastest route by using their physical and cognitive skills (Tanrikulu, 2011). In short, orienteering is a combination of physical and mental skills (Stones, 1994). Based on this, it can be understood how many different disciplines (mathematics, geography, medicine, education, sport, etc.) enter the scope of orienteering. In this context, orienteering has been stated numerous times in the literature to be a learning resource with undoubted potential in terms of integration and inclusion (Di Tore, 2016). In this regard, it can be argued that orienteering, which is expressed as a powerful learning resource, can be combined with different disciplines. Considering the benefits that orienteering provides to individuals in an educational context, music can be considered as one of the disciplines that can be combined to further enhance these benefits. As a matter of fact, music requires harmony of body and mind and requires the joint operation of the cognitive, affective, intuitive and psychomotor domains (Türkmen, 2013). Consequently, since there is a strong relationship between the brain and music (Yener, 2011), it can be thought that music and orienteering may have common points. Music not only facilitates the development of intellectual skills (Weinberger, 1998), but also contributes to physiological and psychological well-being (Korkmaz, 2012). For example, since music lessons contain experiential richness, the benefits they provide to the individual are similar to the benefits provided by chess, science, reading programmes and extracurricular activities (Schellenberg, 2004). In this respect, it can be thought that orienteering and music, which are both included among out-of-school activities (Balkwill, 1996), have common benefits. Therefore, it can be concluded that orienteering and music both contribute to individuals’ holistic development (Bektaş et al., 2019; Benton, 2014; Kelly, 2014; Türkmen, 2013). Consequently, it can be considered that orienteering and electronic music can be used together to develop 21st century skills in individuals, particularly in prospective classroom teachers. In fact, it can be stated that for qualified future generations, it is important for preservice classroom teachers to be trained to meet the needs of the times. Orienteering in an Educational Context Orienteering is great fun and combines practical problem solving with the need to be physically fit (Robertson, 2014). In this context, orienteering is concerned with navigation, whereby participants continually interpret information by using information on the map and terrain information. In this process, participants use a compass, interpret the map, and try to make decisions by making classifications and analyses of the land. At the same time, participants develop both socially and individually. Moreover, since orienteering is a running sport, it also benefits the participant in terms of speed, agility and endurance (McNeill et al., 1998). Orienteering also has courses with varying degrees of difficulty (Boga, 1997; Kjellstrom & Kjellstrom-Elgin, 2010). Furthermore, in addition to the basic disciplines of orienteering (foot, ski, trail, and mountain bike orienteering) (Kjellstrom & Kjellstrom-Elgin, 2010), there are also different types such as classroom orienteering (Larkin & Grogger, 1975), project orienteering (Bradford, 1977), grid orienteering, puzzle orienteering, library orienteering (Bektaş et al., 2019), and memory orienteering (Boga, 1997). Therefore, orienteering is an activity that is enjoyable and also supports healthy living (Vaskan et al. 2019). To sum up, we can state that orienteering, in addition to being an outdoor sport, has a rich interdisciplinary potential, and in these respects, it can offer all-round benefits to individuals (Uzuner & Bektaş, 2024). It is stated that orienteering has positive effects on individuals’ holistic (physical, mental, social and psychological) development (Bektaş et al., 2019). In fact, orienteering may be attractive to individuals because it incorporates numerous concepts such as a love of nature, a compass, adventure, discovery and recreation (Koukouris, 2005). In this context, orienteering develops the individual’s problem solving, independent thinking, direction finding, map reading, and quick and efficient decision-making skills, as well as fostering self-confidence in the individual (Bektaş et al., 2019). Atakurt et al. (2017) stated that orienteering has positive effects on attention and memory skills, while Vaskan et al. (2019), Paliichuk et al. (2018) and Notarnicola et al. (2012) stated that orienteering positively affects various cognitive skills. Considering the interdisciplinary potential of orienteering (Di Tore, 2016) and its benefits for the individual, it can be argued that it can be combined with different disciplines and that as a result, individuals can make more cognitive gains. Music can be considered as one of the disciplines that may be used in this context. Music in an Educational Context Music is a product of human behaviour and is “humanly organised sound” (Blacking, 1974). Music is expressed as a branch of science and art that has associations with many fields (medicine, sociology, education, etc.) (Türkmen, 2012). In fact, music has effects on three areas of functioning: physiological, task completion and therapeutic (Chertock, 1974). In this regard, music is a therapeutic method that exercises the brain (Yener, 2011) and is also a language that can be written and read (Öztürk, 2008). People produce this language in two ways. First, people produce sound and call this music. Secondly, people transform music into a cultural field by transferring their ideas and activities into a form (Titon, 2002). However, music should not be regarded only as a product of social and cultural activities. As a matter of fact, there are findings stating that music has a biological component, that it is universal like biological behaviours, that these behaviours emerge early in life, and that the human brain can process musical activities (Weinberger, 1998). In both processes, all music must have the components of rhythm, melody, harmony and form. Rhythm is concerned with the duration of musical sounds, while melody involves the sequence of different sounds in a piece of music, harmony involves the playing or singing of more than one tone simultaneously, and form refers to the way rhythm, melody and harmony are combined (Kuhtz, 2017). Due to all these, music is very beneficial for brain development as it requires activation of the brain (Yener, 2011). In this respect, it is stated that music contributes to the development of individuals’ knowledge and skills in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains (Benton, 2014). With regard to this, there are conflicting findings related to music in the literature. However, the main effect here concerns the fact that music improves many aspects of cognitive processing because it improves the listener’s mood and increases his or her level of arousal (Schellenberg & Weiss, 2013). Nevertheless, in this process, it should be noted that music is the result of a collaborative effort between individuals with different abilities, and encompasses many different genres of music and musical elements (Janosov et. al., 2020). Based on all the above, it can be stated that music can be used to develop various skills in an educational context. In this context, first of all, various studies related to music can be mentioned. In his study, Schellenberg (2004) concluded that music lessons increased intelligence scores. Similarly, Rauscher et al. (1993), in their study on high school students, concluded that classical music increased participants’ spatial intelligence scores. In support of these findings, Jaušovec et al. (2006) concluded in their study that Mozart’s music developed the learning of spatial-temporal rotation tasks by activating the relevant areas of the brain. Furthermore, Kulakaç et al. (2016), in their study on the effect of music on the quality of life, stated that relaxing types of music may have positive effects on individuals’ quality of life. It can be stated that these studies generally contain evidence for the positive effect of music. Based on this point of view, electronic music (Janosov et. al., 2020), which has become popular during the last 20 years, can also be discussed more specifically. Electronic music is a genre of music based on the production or processing of sounds digitally with the aid of a computer (Puckette, 2007). Electronic dance music is a genre that emerged in the early 1970s and is an umbrella term incorporating a range of subgenres (Hau et. al., 2024). Various studies on electronic music can be mentioned in this regard. Bocado et al. (2022) stated that electronic dance music has positive effects on auditory learners’ cognitive development, while Terry et al. (2020) stated that using music in physical activities is effective for efficiency and performance. It has also been reported that athletes use music to facilitate their training and enhance their performance (Laukka et. al., 2013). To give an example from another perspective, Hau et al. (2024) stated that electronic dance music is an unexplored field that has the potential to improve academic performance in medical students. In this context, based on the positive effects of music on intelligence scores (Schellenberg, 2004), classical music on spatial intelligence (Rauscher et al., 1993), and Mozart’s music on learning spatial-temporal rotation tasks (Jaušovec et al., 2006), and on the fact that electronic music is considered a field with potential (Hau et. al., 2024), it can be argued that including electronic music in the orienteering process may have a positive impact on individuals’ spatial thinking skills. In a Mathematical Context: Spatial Thinking Spatial thinking is described as one of the basic skills that enable many great discoveries to be made. In fact, the positions and shapes of objects, the relationships of objects with each other, and the paths of objects in motion are the basic elements related to spatial thinking (Newcombe, 2010). It is a form of thinking that is a collection of cognitive skills. This form of thinking includes spatial concepts (such as dimensionality, continuity and proximity), forms of representation (such as the ability to read graphs and maps, visual contrast, shape and ground organisation), and elements of reasoning (such as the ability to imagine the shortest distance, to extrapolate and interpolate, and to choose an alternative path). For this reason, spatial thinking has a structure that can be associated with many fields ranging from architecture to comparative literature (National Research Council [NRC], 2006). Indeed, spatial visualisation is one of the seven primal mental abilities described by Thurstone (1938). Consequently, spatial sense and geometric reasoning are expressed as one of the basic goals of geometry (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000). Based on this, we can state that the 21st century education system needs prospective classroom teachers with high spatial thinking skills. Research aim and questions When considering the orienteering process, it is stated that this a process similar to Polya’s problem-solving process. In other words, while orienteering, the individual also goes through the stages of understanding the problem, devising a plan, implementing the plan, and looking back and checking (Uzuner & Ekiz, 2023). Therefore, it can be said that the individual acts as a problem solver in this process. In fact, it can be stated here that spatial thinking skills are included in the problems solved by the individual. The individual’s cognitive activity during the orienteering process includes not only reading the map and determining the route, but also spatial thinking (Di Tore et al., 2015). Paliichuk et al. (2018) and Vaskan et al. (2019) stated that orienteering has positive effects on cognitive functions; Özcan (2007) stated that orienteering has a positive impact on mathematical intelligence; and Şengör and Babayiğit İrez (2018) stated that orienteering has a positive effect on spatial visualisation. At this juncture, it was considered worth investigating what effect combining orienteering with music has on spatial thinking self-assessment skills. In the literature review, no study was found in which music and orienteering were used together. Accordingly, it is thought that the study will contribute to the literature on orienteering, music, mathematics, spatial thinking, and preservice classroom teacher education. The first research question of this study is “What is the effect of orienteering combined with music on the development of preservice teachers’ spatial self-assessment skills?” The other research question of this study is “What are the opinions of preservice teachers about the process of orienteering combined with music?” METHOD Research Model A mixed research approach was adopted in this study. Within the framework of this approach, a nested mixed methods design was used (Creswell, 2014). In the quantitative dimension of the study, a nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design, which is one of the quasi-experimental designs, was taken as the basis (Creswell, 2014). The research process was conducted by creating an experimental group and a control group within the scope of the relevant experimental design. In the qualitative dimension, an attempt was made to add depth to the quantitative process with the data collection tools used. Study Gr oup The study group of the research was created using the purposive sampling techniques of criterion sampling and convenience sampling. Within the scope of criterion sampling, the criteria were based on the participants being classroom teacher candidates, not having done orienteering before, and not having a condition that would prevent them from doing sport. Within the scope of convenience sampling, participants selected by criterion sampling who were easily accessible were included in the study. The study group consisted of two groups: the experimental group (n = 6) and the control group (n = 6). Participants in the experimental group performed orienteering while listening to music. Participants in the control group did not perform any practice. Information about the experimental and control groups is given in Table 1. [Table 1. near here] As seen in Table 1, it can be stated that the participants in the experimental and control groups have similar profiles in terms of the specified variables. While selecting the participants, the initial loss of subjects was considered and an attempt was made to select participants accordingly. However, subject losses occurred during the process. Due to this, the total number of participants in the study was 12. Research Instruments Personal information form: Within the scope of the study, participants were asked to provide information on their age, gender, department of study, whether they had any previous knowledge of orienteering, and whether they listened to music, did sports, and listened to music while doing sports. The personal information form was used for the purpose of obtaining this information. Spatial Ability Self-Report Scale (SASRS): This scale was developed by Turgut (2015) to measure the spatial abilities of undergraduate students. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted. With regard to reliability, item analysis, internal consistency analysis and test-retest analysis were conducted. The developed scale includes 18 items and has a three-factor structure: Object Manipulation Spatial Ability (OMSA), Spatial Navigational Ability (SNA), and Visual Memory (VM). The scale is a five-point Likert type and is rated as “strongly agree”, “agree”, “undecided”, “disagree”, and “strongly disagree”. Two items on this scale are reverse-scored. Cronbach’s alpha values for the sub-dimensions of the scale were calculated as .883, .802 and .622, respectively. Cronbach’s alpha value for the overall scale was calculated as .884 (Turgut, 2015). Questionnaire: In order to add depth to the quantitative data on a larger scale, a questionnaire was administered to all participants at the end of the study. While developing the questionnaire, opinions were obtained from relevant experts and the items were revised accordingly. A pilot implementation was conducted with three university students and the questionnaire items were finalised. The questionnaire includes one open-ended and one closed-ended question. In the open-ended question, participants were asked about the benefits to them of the process of orienteering combined with music. The open-ended question was used only during the posttest process. In the closed-ended question, participants were asked for their opinions about the level of their spatial thinking self-assessment skills during the pretest and posttest process. Three response options were used for this question: good (3), moderate (2) and need to be improved (1). Research Process Within the scope of the study, firstly a work plan was made and a timetable was prepared accordingly. In this context, the following tasks and procedures were carried out respectively. Firstly, orienteering maps of the university campus, which was the area where orienteering would be performed, were obtained. The necessary permission to use the orienteering map drawn by K. Başar (2022) was obtained. After the orienteering map was obtained, the course planning process was carried out by the author, who works in the field of orienteering. It was planned to divide the university campus map into six different parts, and orienteering would be performed in a different area each week. While planning the course, the fact that the participants had no orienteering experience was taken into consideration. Ten checkpoints were used on each course and the length of all courses was determined as 1 km. The aim was for the participants to find all the checkpoints in order according to the map. It was planned to use punched orienteering checkpoints in this process. The necessary security measures were taken regarding implementation of the orienteering process. The technical planning of the orienteering process was made in this way. Secondly, the pieces of music to be used in the orienteering process were selected. Expert opinion was obtained for choosing the pieces of music. Suitable examples of electronic music were selected by an expert who is a researcher in the field of music. When choosing the music, the nature of the sport of orienteering was taken into account. In this context, electronic music produced by Alan Walker was selected for orienteering practice. One piece of music was determined for each week of practice. Accordingly, the selected Alan Walker songs are as follows: 1st week, The Spectre; 2nd week, Faded, Ignite, feat. Julie Bergan & Seungri; 3rd week, Diamond Heart, feat. Sophia Somajo; 4th week, Play (Lyrics) feat. K-391, Tungevaag, and Mangoo; 5th week, On My Way feat. Sabrina Carpenter & Farruko; 6th week, Alone. The selected songs were tested on all orienteering courses by the author, who works in orienteering. At the end of this process, it was decided that the music was appropriate for the course. The integration process of orienteering and music was carried out in this way. Within the scope of the study, participants were selected for the experimental and control groups. The necessary information about the process of orienteering combined with music was given to the selected participants. Participants were also given a three-hour seminar on the orienteering process. After this, a suitable day, which was to be a weekday, was determined for all participants. The designated day was divided into time periods and the orienteering times of all participants were determined. The time schedule was arranged as E1 at 09.00, E2 at 09.30, E3 at 10.00, and so on, so that all participants could practise orienteering. The main aim here is to minimise possible confounding variables and therefore errors in the intervention process. The necessary information was also given to the experimental group participants to listen to music with similar headphones. In this way, an attempt was made to ensure that the participants practised under the same experimental conditions. Internal and External Validity In this process, regarding internal validity, the evaluation criteria outlined by Gliner et al. (2016) were taken into consideration. Accordingly, since unbiased assignment could not be made when creating the experimental and control groups, it was assessed whether the groups were similar in terms of pretest scores. Moreover, attention was paid to whether there was equivalence between the groups in terms of important variables. An attempt was made to keep the loss of subjects during the research process at the same level for the experimental and control groups. Care was taken to ensure that the environmental conditions were the same for both groups. Furthermore, an attempt was made to control the environmental conditions and external variables as much as possible. Precautions were also taken regarding the threats to internal validity highlighted by Creswell (2012). In this regard, an attempt was made to create the experimental and control groups with participants from similar backgrounds. Plans were made to reduce the participants’ interaction with each other during the implementation process. Since the process of orienteering combined with music depends on the implementation and weather conditions, a six-week implementation period was considered sufficient in terms of implementing the pretest and posttest. Regarding external validity, the evaluation criteria outlined by Gliner et al. (2016) were taken into consideration. According to this, the sample may not fully represent the target population. However, an attempt was made to select a sample that would represent the population. It was also thought that the conditions under which the study was conducted would be appropriate to real life conditions and that the time allocated for the implementation would be realistic. In light of all the above, efforts were made to increase the internal and external validity of the study. Data Anal ysis During the analysis of the data obtained from the SASRS, attention was first paid to the stages outlined by Pallant (2015). Accordingly, the data were first checked and edited, then the variables were created and structured, and at the end of this process, the data were entered. The Excel and SPSS programs were used for data entry. After data entry, possible errors were checked. After this, descriptive statistics values were obtained; missing data, outliers and normality were examined. Following these examinations, the data manipulation process began, and after this, the main analyses were started. Within the scope of the main analysis, the total SASRS score was first calculated. Analyses were made based on this total score. First of all, evidence (p > .05) was obtained that there was no statistically significant difference between the pretest scores of the experimental and control groups. Then, the mixed-model ANOVA test, which is recommended for repeated measures analyses of two different groups, and the independent samples t-test, which compares sets of difference scores (Can, 2018), were used. In addition, since the study sample size was quite small, the bootstrap sampling technique (Cebeci, 2020) was used. In this context, mixed-model ANOVA was primarily used as recommended and applied in scientific sources (Can, 2018; Pallant, 2015; Kilmen, 2024). Following the mixed-model ANOVA, the difference scores for the pretest and posttest were calculated and an independent samples t-test was conducted for the two groups (experimental and control). In this process, first of all, assumption checks regarding the relevant analyses were made. Evidence that the variances were equal (p>.05) was obtained using Levene’s test. Within the scope of the normality assumption, the Q-Q plot (DeCarlo, 1997), which is created by plotting the chi-square distribution of model residuals according to their percentage values, was examined. In this examination, although there were points in the analysis where the percentage values of residuals deviated from the theoretical values, it can be stated that the data were generally distributed normally. Furthermore, since the results obtained from the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (Drezner et al., 2010), which is stated to be frequently used for normality testing, were higher than .05, we can say that the data were normally distributed. To evaluate homoscedasticity, the residuals were plotted against the predicted values and evaluated accordingly (Bates et al., 2014; Field, 2017; Osborne & Walters, 2002). In this regard, it can be stated that the assumption of homoscedasticity was met since it was seen that the data were randomly distributed around the zero mean. In addition, in order to identify multivariate outliers, Mahalanobis distances were calculated and compared with the χ 2 distribution (Newton & Rudestam, 2012). No outliers were detected in the model. Additionally, no missing data were found in the research data. Quantitative data analysis was completed as specified above. SPSS, JASP and Intellectus Statistics software were used to analyse the quantitative data. A thematic coding approach was taken as the basis for analysing the qualitative data obtained from the questionnaire. Accordingly, the data were first transcribed, edited, and read several times, then the draft codes were created, the themes were defined, the relationships between the defined themes were determined, and the relevant comments were made (Robson, 2011). In the qualitative data analysis dimension of the study, assistance was sought from experts as external auditors when necessary (Creswell, 2014), an attempt was made to create a conceptually consistent system, the data were approached from a part-to-whole perspective, and attention was paid to the standards regarding the quality of the research results (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The qualitative data were analysed as specified above. Findings Within the framework of the mixed research approach, an effort has been made to present the findings as a whole. Evidence on the Effect of Combining Orienteering with Music on Spatial Thinking Self-Assessment Skills Mixed-model ANOVA was conducted to reveal the effect of combining orienteering with music on the spatial thinking self-assessment skills of the participants in the experimental group in comparison with the control group. Within the scope of the analysis, information on descriptive statistics is given in Table 2. [Table 2. near here] In the mixed-model ANOVA analysis, a significance value of .05 was taken as the basis. Accordingly, no statistically significant difference was found in the main effects related to the between-groups factor ( F (1, 10) = 0.15, p = .709). Accordingly, we can state that the pretest and posttest results of both groups are similar to each other. Similarly, no statistically significant difference was found in the main effects related to the within-group factor ( F (1, 10) = 0.01, p = .906). Based on this, there is evidence that the pretest and posttest scores are similar to each other. However, the within-group and between-group interaction effect was found to be statistically significant ( F (1, 10) = 12.22, p = .006). In other words, evidence was found that the score differences between the pretest and posttest differ significantly with regard to the two groups. Findings regarding the mixed-model ANOVA results are given in Table 3. [Table 3. near here] Examining Table 3, it can be seen that, according to Cohen (1988), the main effect of the between-group factor is small, the effect size for the main effect of the within-group factor is very small, and the effect size for the interaction effect is small but close to the medium level. The findings for the estimated marginal means of measure for the mixed-model ANOVA are given in Graph 1. [Graph 1. near here] In the findings for mixed-model ANOVA, statistically significant evidence was found only for the interaction effect, while no statistically significant evidence was found for the other main effects. Therefore, an independent samples t-test, which compares sets of difference scores and is recommended as a second way of revealing the differences for pretest-posttest control group designs (Can, 2018), was conducted. The results of the independent samples t-test are given in Table 4. [Table 4. near here] As can be seen in Table 4, there is a statistically significant difference in favour of the experimental group. Furthermore, it can be stated that there is strong evidence (Cohen, 1988) that the significant difference also has a high effect size. To further strengthen this evidence, the independent samples t-test, based on the comparison of sets of difference scores, was conducted again with the bootstrap resampling technique. Accordingly, within the scope of a bootstrap process with 1000 repetitions, the 95% confidence interval for the experimental group was calculated as [1.751, 8.500], while the 95% confidence interval for the control group was calculated as [-8.571,-.670]. A significant difference was obtained between the measurements in favour of the experimental group (p = .009). Therefore, based on the total scores obtained from the SASRS, it can be stated that there is evidence that orienteering combined with music had an impact on the preservice teachers’ spatial thinking self-assessment skills. Based on the obtained quantitative findings, we can state that various statistical evidence was obtained that orienteering combined with music had an impact on the spatial thinking self-assessments of the participants in the experimental group. Qualitative data was also obtained to support the quantitative data (see Figure 1). Participants were asked the questionnaire question: “At what level do you consider your spatial thinking self-assessment skills?” Response options for the participants were arranged as good (3), moderate (2), and need to be improved (1). [Figure 1. near here] When Figure 1 is examined, it can be stated that the performances of the students in the experimental group and the control group are similar in terms of their responses to the questionnaire item. However, we can state that the opinions of the experimental group students regarding their spatial thinking self-assessment skills are more positive and consistent. As evidence supporting this statement, the total scores for the questionnaire items in the context of the groups can be shown (see Figure 2). [Figure 2. near here] It can be stated that Figure 2 contains evidence that orienteering combined with music is effective in developing spatial thinking self-assessment skills. It can be understood that this finding also supports the results of the mixed-model ANOVA and other statistical findings. Figure 2 can provide an interpretation of why there is a significant difference in the interaction factor even though there is no significant difference in the within-group factor, apart from technical reasons such as the small sample size. In order to further deepen the findings obtained so far, findings regarding the open-ended question in the questionnaire (see Table 5) can be included. Participants were asked: “Do you think orienteering combined with music improves your physical and mental skills? If your answer is yes, which skills do you think have improved?” [Table 5. near here] As seen in Table 5, the participants stated that orienteering combined with music contributed to their spatial thinking, higher-order thinking and healthy living skills. Within the scope of spatial thinking skills, participants stated that their geometric thinking, direction finding, visual perception, map reading, and attention and focus skills improved. In addition, participants also stated that their higher-order thinking skills such as problem solving, metacognitive thinking, and decision making improved. It can be stated that these skills are interrelated. Therefore, it can be inferred that the obtained data support each other. Moreover, participants emphasised that orienteering combined with music is an enjoyable and active process and that it increases physical and mental fitness. Some participant opinions regarding the stated findings may be included. For example, E6, E5, E4 and E3 stated that orienteering combined with music is enjoyable and entertaining. E1 and E3 emphasised that the process of orienteering combined with music helps them to relax mentally, while E2 stressed that this process also contributes to spiritual relaxation. It can also be seen that the findings obtained here indirectly support the quantitative findings. When we examine the obtained findings as a whole, we can state that the findings support each other. In this regard, we can state that various evidence has been obtained that orienteering combined with music has a positive effect on participants’ spatial self-assessment skills. Discussion Classroom teachers play a very important role in an individual’s basic education. Therefore, in the current era, classroom teachers are expected to be competent. To achieve this competence, the necessary skills of prospective classroom teachers must be developed. Spatial thinking self-assessment skill is one of these skills. It can be stated that active learning experiences are important for developing spatial thinking self-assessment skills in an effective and permanent way. In this study the disciplines of music and orienteering were combined using an interdisciplinary approach for an effective active learning experience. In this way, the effect of combining orienteering with music on preservice classroom teachers’ spatial thinking self-assessment skills was examined. An experimental study was conducted in this process, as a result of which, various evidence was found that orienteering combined with music has an impact on prospective classroom teachers’ spatial thinking self-assessment skills. This evidence is worth discussing. The first evidence of the positive effect of orienteering combined with music on spatial thinking self-assessment skills can be seen in the descriptive statistics values. Accordingly, based on the total score results obtained from the SASRS scale, it was observed that the arithmetic means of the participants in the experimental group showed a positive change, while the arithmetic means of the participants in the control group showed a negative change. Accordingly, there was an increase in the scores of the participants in the experimental group in terms of arithmetic mean values. In order to better examine this increase in participant scores, the mixed-model ANOVA results can be examined. Mixed-model ANOVA allows for the examination of main effects and interaction effects (Frey, 2018). According to the mixed-model ANOVA results, no significant difference was found regarding the within-group and between-group factors. Moreover, a small effect size was found for the relevant values. However, as a result of this analysis, a significant difference and an effect size close to the medium level were found in terms of the interaction effect. It is stated that in cases such as these, main effects can be ignored (Lorah, 2020; Lorah & Wong, 2018). However, when there is a significant interaction effect, the idea that the main effects are not significant is not a correct approach (Genç & Mendeş, 2022). For these reasons, as recommended by Genç and Mendeş (2022), interaction plots and effect sizes were also examined within the scope of the study. However, since the existence of an interaction effect may require complex solutions (Kutner et al., 2005), an independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the sets of difference scores. Like the mixed-model ANOVA, this test can also be used in studies with pretest-posttest control group designs (Can, 2018). As a result of this test, a significant difference was obtained in favour of the experimental group. Additionally, since the sample size in the study was small, the independent samples t-test was performed again using the bootstrap technique. As a result of the t-test analysis performed with the bootstrap technique, a significant difference was again found in favour of the experimental group. In this way, stronger evidence was obtained regarding the positive effect of orienteering on prospective classroom teachers’ spatial thinking self-assessment skills. In the social sciences, obtaining evidence for an intervention process and providing explanations for this evidence can be described as a very complex process. As a matter of fact, spatial thinking self-assessment skill is a latent trait. For this reason, an attempt was made to add depth to the evidence obtained from the above mentioned statistical analyses by means of a questionnaire. In this context, the personal opinions of the participants in the experimental group regarding their spatial thinking self-assessment skill levels were slightly more positive than those in the control group. Stated more clearly, while the total scores of the participants in the control group for the closed-ended questionnaire item did not change during the pretest and posttest period, the total scores of the participants in the experimental group for this questionnaire item increased. Here, a small increase in score is the case. Nevertheless, the reasons for this score increase can be examined. In this context, within the scope of the data obtained from the questionnaire, participants reported that orienteering combined with music contributed to their spatial thinking (geometric thinking, direction finding, visual perception, map reading, and attention and focus), higher-order thinking (such as problem solving, metacognitive thinking, and decision making) and healthy living (physical and mental well-being) skills. Indeed, it is stated in the literature that orienteering is effective for spatial thinking, cognitive processes and thinking skills (Atakurt et. al., 2017; Bektaş et. al., 2019; Di Tore et. al., 2015; Notarnicola et. al., 2012; Özcan, 2007; Paliichuk et. al., 2018; Şengör & Babayiğit İrez, 2018; Vaskan et. al., 2019). Furthermore, it is emphasised that orienteering is an activity that supports healthy living (Vaskan et. al., 2019) and is also an outdoor sport with a strong interdisciplinary (e.g., mathematics, geography) potential (Uzuner & Bektaş, 2024). To give an example here, based on the data they collected using head cameras, Uzuner and Ekiz (2023) reported in their study that the individual acts according to Polya’s intuitive problem-solving stages during the orienteering process. For this reason, it has been suggested that orienteering can offer all-round benefits to the individual (Uzuner & Bektaş, 2024). Music, which requires harmony between body and mind (Türkmen, 2013), also facilitates the development of intellectual skills (Weinberger, 1998). In fact, studies have revealed the positive effects of music on intelligence scores (Schellenberg, 2004), classical music on spatial intelligence (Rauscher et al., 1993), and Mozart’s music on learning spatial-temporal rotation tasks (Jaušovec et al., 2006). Furthermore, music also contributes to physiological and psychological well-being (Korkmaz, 2012). In fact, music can provide the individual with the same benefits as chess, science and extracurricular activities (Schellenberg, 2004). Accordingly, it can be understood that the benefits expressed by the participants regarding the process of orienteering combined with music are compatible with the literature. Moreover, the benefits stated by the participants can be regarded as a possible explanation for the increase in scores in the questionnaire in favour of the experimental group. In addition, the small score increase in the questionnaire may also contain different clues about the results in the mixed-model ANOVA analysis. Based on all the above, it can be claimed that the data obtained within the scope of the study are consistent with each other in many respects. This consistency also supports the strengthening of the evidence obtained within the scope of the study. Implications for Practice This interdisciplinary study was aimed at the development of preservice teachers by combining music and orienteering. Within this scope, various evidence was obtained. It can be said that this study, which is only preliminary, has potential in terms of fostering skills expected in the current century. In fact, music and orienteering can be described as disciplines with high interdisciplinary potential. Therefore, various programmes on orienteering combined with music can be carried out from preschool to university and studies can be conducted on the effectiveness of these programmes. Limitations and Future Research Directions As a result of the study, various evidence was obtained that orienteering combined with music is effective in the development of prospective classroom teachers’ spatial thinking self-assessment skills. However, in the context of the present study, some suggestions can be made for future research aimed at obtaining stronger evidence. Regarding these suggestions, firstly the limitations of this study can be mentioned. The small sample size can be stated as one of the biggest limitations of this study. Furthermore, having only two study groups as experimental and control groups, the six-week implementation period of orienteering combined with music, the use of electronic music, and the use of a conventional orienteering course and a limited number of data collection tools in the implementation process can be expressed as other prominent limitations of the study. If the above mentioned limitations are taken into consideration in future studies in this field, stronger research findings can be obtained. For individuals of all ages, including preservice classroom teachers, orienteering combined with music can be considered as a different and effective practice for the development of mathematical skills, particularly spatial skills. Conclusion In this study, evidence was found that orienteering combined with music has positive effects on the spatial thinking skills of prospective classroom teachers. Orienteering combined with music can be used as a development tool with high interdisciplinary potential. This study can be considered as a preliminary study on combining orienteering with music. It can be suggested that new studies be conducted by improving on the limited aspects of this study. Declarations Ethics Approval Ethical approval was obtained from the Kafkas University Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee (Approval No: E-17972, Date: 01.06. 2022). The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Consent to Participate Participants were informed about the research and joined voluntarily. All participants took part in the study voluntarily and provided both written and verbal informed consent prior to participation in June 2022. Conflict of Interest The author declare no conflict of interes. Funding No funding was received for this research. Author Contribution F.G.U conducted all aspects of the study and prepared the manuscript. Data Availability In this study, data were obtained as part of an experimental process. For ethical reasons, the data is not publicly available. However, the author can provide the data upon reasonable request. References Atakurt, E., Şahan, A., & Erman, K. A. (2017). Oryantiring eğitiminin dikkat ve bellek üzerine etkisinin incelenmesi. SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 15 (4), 127-134. Balkwill, T. L. (1996). Determinants of teacher participation in outdoor education: A survey of Kent County teachers (Unpublished master’s thesis) . University of Windsor, Canada. Başar, K. [Cartographer] (2022). Oryantiring haritası . Turgut, M. (2015). Development of the spatial ability self-report scale (SASRS): Reliability and validity studies. 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An investigation of students’ orienteerıng process as to the steps of Polya’s problem-solving method. International Online Journal of Primary Education , 12 (1), 61-83. Vaskan, I., Koshura, A., Kurnyshev, Y., Moseychuk, Y., Tsybanyuk, O., Yarmak, O., & Galan, Y. (2019). Orienteering in the system of recreational and health-improving activity of student youth. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 19 (Supplement issue 2), 489-494. Weinberger, N. M. (1998). The music in our minds. Educational Leadership, 56 (3), 36-41. Yener, Y. (2011). Müziğin çocuklar ve yaşlılar üzerindeki etkileri. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 29 (1), 119-124. http://pauegitimdergi.pau.edu.tr/Makaleler/1372410153_9.pdf Tables Table 1 Information on study group Participants Age Gender Previous knowledge of orienteering Academic Grade Point Average Does the participant listen to music, do sports, and listen to music while doing sports? E1 21 Male None Average Yes E2 23 Female None Average Yes E3 20 Female None High Yes E4 20 Male None High Yes E5 21 Female None Average Yes E6 24 Female None Average Yes C1 21 Male None Average Yes C2 21 Female None Average Yes C3 21 Female None High Yes C4 20 Female None High Yes C5 21 Male None High Yes C6 19 Female None Average Yes E1: Participant code for experimental group, C1: Participant code for control group. Table 2 Findings Regarding Descriptive Statistics Within the Scope of Mixed-Model ANOVA Measure Group Mean Std. Deviation N Pretest Experimental 63.667 4.227 6 Control 67.000 8.649 6 Total 65.333 6.719 12 Posttest Experimental 68.333 5.354 6 Control 62.000 9.187 6 Total 65.167 7.895 12 Table 3 Mixed-Model ANOVA Results Source df SS MS F p η p 2 Between-Subjects Groups 1 13.50 13.50 0.15 .709 0.01 Residuals 10 914.00 91.40 Within-Subjects Within Factor 1 0.17 0.17 0.01 .906 0.001 Within Factor*Group 1 140.17 140.17 12.22 .006 0.55 Residuals 10 114.67 11.47 Table 4 Independent Samples t-Test for Difference Score Experimental Control Variable M SD n M SD n t p d Difference Score 4.67 4.27 6 -5.00 5.25 6 3.50 .006 2.02 Note. N = 12. Degrees of freedom for the t -statistic = 10. d represents Cohen’s d. M: Mean, SD: Standard deviation, n: Sample size Table 5 Opinions on the Benefits of Orienteering Combined with Music Main themes Sub-themes Participants Frequency Spatial thinking skills Geometric thinking E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6 6 Direction finding E1, E2, E3, E4, E5 5 Visual perception E1, E3, E4, E5, E6 5 Map reading E1, E2, E3, E4, E6 4 Attention and focus E3, E5 2 Higher-order thinking skills Problem solving E1, E2, E3, E4, E6 5 Metacognitive thinking E1, E2, E4, E6 4 Decision making E4, E6 2 Perseverance E1, E2 2 Quick thinking E5 1 Reasoning E6 1 Healthy living skills Keeping physically and mentally fit E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6 6 Graph Graph 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files graph1.png Graph 1. Estimated Marginal Means of Measure Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 16 Apr, 2026 Reviews received at journal 23 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 19 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 16 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 08 Mar, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 03 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 12 Jan, 2026 Editor invited by journal 24 Oct, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 08 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 08 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7639838","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":601017158,"identity":"3f534ba7-41f4-46b4-8275-d6c4217cf7fb","order_by":0,"name":"Fatma Gül Uzuner","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAyUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC9gYGxgcJFQfAnAMPiNHCc4CB2eDBmQMMPCAtCURqYRN82AbRwkCcFv41ZgyJ8+7I2Ysdfgi0xU5Ot4GQFok3Zg8Stz0z5pFOMwBqSTY2O0BAi73EGXODxG2HE3ukE0BaDiRuI6SFR+KMmUTiHJCW9A9EauHvAWppAGnJIdoWtmKDhGOHjXlu5xQcSDAgwi88/Ic3PvxRc1iOfXb65g8fKuzkCGphkEhA5hkQUg4C/AQNHQWjYBSMghEPAAHjSGoluQyEAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Kafkas University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fatma","middleName":"Gül","lastName":"Uzuner","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-17 11:53:26","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7639838/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7639838/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":104402968,"identity":"73f382f1-d76b-42e3-abd7-b9121bed243d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:17:03","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24882,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipants’ Opinions on Their Spatial Thinking Self-Assessment Skill Levels\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639838/v1/b1cf1c407789db7ee0284d3f.png"},{"id":104090312,"identity":"c051aed1-4703-4ffe-b0d5-5f2fdf166d03","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-06 16:12:11","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":20302,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipants’ Opinions on Their Spatial Thinking Self-Assessment Skill Levels\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639838/v1/25bb6963c317d429f9176c9a.png"},{"id":104408487,"identity":"4462457f-c340-4ad6-b705-6c0be5c427b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:42:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":835061,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639838/v1/11e2d3de-0a98-440e-8770-6b38769578f8.pdf"},{"id":104090310,"identity":"65a5befa-ca6e-400d-bf3a-7bef5d86c2ae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-06 16:12:11","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":37235,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph 1. \u003cem\u003eEstimated Marginal Means of Measure\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"graph1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639838/v1/8d1aa590c579994b6ea9eba0.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Examining the Effect of Combining Orienteering with Music on the Development of Spatial Thinking Self-Assessment Skills","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDue to the rapid development of the sport of orienteering, its popularity has increased all over the world (Khimenes et al., 2016). Boga (1997) stated that orienteering is the art of direction finding requiring the use of a map and compass. Orienteering is an outdoor sport in which there are checkpoints in dense forest areas and participants must visit the checkpoints within a specified time using a map and compass (Golden et al., 1987). While moving towards the checkpoints, participants must select the fastest route by using their physical and cognitive skills (Tanrikulu, 2011). In short, orienteering is a combination of physical and mental skills (Stones, 1994). Based on this, it can be understood how many different disciplines (mathematics, geography, medicine, education, sport, etc.) enter the scope of orienteering. In this context, orienteering has been stated numerous times in the literature to be a learning resource with undoubted potential in terms of integration and inclusion (Di Tore, 2016). In this regard, it can be argued that orienteering, which is expressed as a powerful learning resource, can be combined with different disciplines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsidering the benefits that orienteering provides to individuals in an educational context, music can be considered as one of the disciplines that can be combined to further enhance these benefits. As a matter of fact, music requires harmony of body and mind and requires the joint operation of the cognitive, affective, intuitive and psychomotor domains (T\u0026uuml;rkmen, 2013). Consequently, since there is a strong relationship between the brain and music (Yener, 2011), it can be thought that music and orienteering may have common points. Music not only facilitates the development of intellectual skills (Weinberger, 1998), but also contributes to physiological and psychological well-being (Korkmaz, 2012). For example, since music lessons contain experiential richness, the benefits they provide to the individual are similar to the benefits provided by chess, science, reading programmes and extracurricular activities (Schellenberg, 2004). In this respect, it can be thought that orienteering and music, which are both included among out-of-school activities (Balkwill, 1996), have common benefits. Therefore, it can be concluded that orienteering and music both contribute to individuals\u0026rsquo; holistic development (Bektaş et al., 2019; Benton, 2014; Kelly, 2014; T\u0026uuml;rkmen, 2013). Consequently, it can be considered that orienteering and electronic music can be used together to develop 21st century skills in individuals, particularly in prospective classroom teachers. In fact, it can be stated that for qualified future generations, it is important for preservice classroom teachers to be trained to meet the needs of the times.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOrienteering in an Educational Context\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOrienteering is great fun and combines practical problem solving with the need to be physically fit (Robertson, 2014). In this context, orienteering is concerned with navigation, whereby participants continually interpret information by using information on the map and terrain information. In this process, participants use a compass, interpret the map, and try to make decisions by making classifications and analyses of the land. At the same time, participants develop both socially and individually. Moreover, since orienteering is a running sport, it also benefits the participant in terms of speed, agility and endurance (McNeill et al., 1998). Orienteering also has courses with varying degrees of difficulty (Boga, 1997; Kjellstrom \u0026amp; Kjellstrom-Elgin, 2010). Furthermore, in addition to the basic disciplines of orienteering (foot, ski, trail, and mountain bike orienteering) (Kjellstrom \u0026amp; Kjellstrom-Elgin, 2010), there are also different types such as classroom orienteering (Larkin \u0026amp; Grogger, 1975), project orienteering (Bradford, 1977), grid orienteering, puzzle orienteering, library orienteering (Bektaş et al., 2019), and memory orienteering (Boga, 1997). Therefore, orienteering is an activity that is enjoyable and also supports healthy living (Vaskan et al. 2019). To sum up, we can state that orienteering, in addition to being an outdoor sport, has a rich interdisciplinary potential, and in these respects, it can offer all-round benefits to individuals (Uzuner \u0026amp; Bektaş, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is stated that orienteering has positive effects on individuals\u0026rsquo; holistic (physical, mental, social and psychological) development (Bektaş et al., 2019). In fact, orienteering may be attractive to individuals because it incorporates numerous concepts such as a love of nature, a compass, adventure, discovery and recreation (Koukouris, 2005). In this context, orienteering develops the individual\u0026rsquo;s problem solving, independent thinking, direction finding, map reading, and quick and efficient decision-making skills, as well as fostering self-confidence in the individual (Bektaş et al., 2019). Atakurt et al. (2017) stated that orienteering has positive effects on attention and memory skills, while Vaskan et al. (2019), Paliichuk et al. (2018) and Notarnicola et al. (2012) stated that orienteering positively affects various cognitive skills. Considering the interdisciplinary potential of orienteering (Di Tore, 2016) and its benefits for the individual, it can be argued that it can be combined with different disciplines and that as a result, individuals can make more cognitive gains. Music can be considered as one of the disciplines that may be used in this context.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMusic in an Educational Context\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMusic is a product of human behaviour and is \u0026ldquo;humanly organised sound\u0026rdquo; (Blacking, 1974). Music is expressed as a branch of science and art that has associations with many fields (medicine, sociology, education, etc.) (T\u0026uuml;rkmen, 2012). In fact, music has effects on three areas of functioning: physiological, task completion and therapeutic (Chertock, 1974). In this regard, music is a therapeutic method that exercises the brain (Yener, 2011) and is also a language that can be written and read (\u0026Ouml;zt\u0026uuml;rk, 2008). People produce this language in two ways. First, people produce sound and call this music. Secondly, people transform music into a cultural field by transferring their ideas and activities into a form (Titon, 2002). However, music should not be regarded only as a product of social and cultural activities. As a matter of fact, there are findings stating that music has a biological component, that it is universal like biological behaviours, that these behaviours emerge early in life, and that the human brain can process musical activities (Weinberger, 1998). In both processes, all music must have the components of rhythm, melody, harmony and form. Rhythm is concerned with the duration of musical sounds, while melody involves the sequence of different sounds in a piece of music, harmony involves the playing or singing of more than one tone simultaneously, and form refers to the way rhythm, melody and harmony are combined (Kuhtz, 2017). Due to all these, music is very beneficial for brain development as it requires activation of the brain (Yener, 2011). In this respect, it is stated that music contributes to the development of individuals\u0026rsquo; knowledge and skills in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains (Benton, 2014). With regard to this, there are conflicting findings related to music in the literature. However, the main effect here concerns the fact that music improves many aspects of cognitive processing because it improves the listener\u0026rsquo;s mood and increases his or her level of arousal (Schellenberg \u0026amp; Weiss, 2013). Nevertheless, in this process, it should be noted that music is the result of a collaborative effort between individuals with different abilities, and encompasses many different genres of music and musical elements (Janosov et. al., 2020). Based on all the above, it can be stated that music can be used to develop various skills in an educational context.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this context, first of all, various studies related to music can be mentioned. In his study, Schellenberg (2004) concluded that music lessons increased intelligence scores. Similarly, Rauscher et al. (1993), in their study on high school students, concluded that classical music increased participants\u0026rsquo; spatial intelligence scores. In support of these findings, Jau\u0026scaron;ovec et al. (2006) concluded in their study that Mozart\u0026rsquo;s music developed the learning of spatial-temporal rotation tasks by activating the relevant areas of the brain. Furthermore, Kulaka\u0026ccedil; et al. (2016), in their study on the effect of music on the quality of life, stated that relaxing types of music may have positive effects on individuals\u0026rsquo; quality of life. It can be stated that these studies generally contain evidence for the positive effect of music. Based on this point of view, electronic music (Janosov et. al., 2020), which has become popular during the last 20 years, can also be discussed more specifically. Electronic music is a genre of music based on the production or processing of sounds digitally with the aid of a computer (Puckette, 2007). Electronic dance music is a genre that emerged in the early 1970s and is an umbrella term incorporating a range of subgenres (Hau et. al., 2024). Various studies on electronic music can be mentioned in this regard. Bocado et al. (2022) stated that electronic dance music has positive effects on auditory learners\u0026rsquo; cognitive development, while Terry et al. (2020) stated that using music in physical activities is effective for efficiency and performance. It has also been reported that athletes use music to facilitate their training and enhance their performance (Laukka et. al., 2013). To give an example from another perspective, Hau et al. (2024) stated that electronic dance music is an unexplored field that has the potential to improve academic performance in medical students. In this context, based on the positive effects of music on intelligence scores (Schellenberg, 2004), classical music on spatial intelligence (Rauscher et al., 1993), and Mozart\u0026rsquo;s music on learning spatial-temporal rotation tasks (Jau\u0026scaron;ovec et al., 2006), and on the fact that electronic music is considered a field with potential (Hau et. al., 2024), it can be argued that including electronic music in the orienteering process may have a positive impact on individuals\u0026rsquo; spatial thinking skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIn a Mathematical Context: Spatial Thinking\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpatial thinking is described as one of the basic skills that enable many great discoveries to be made. In fact, the positions and shapes of objects, the relationships of objects with each other, and the paths of objects in motion are the basic elements related to spatial thinking (Newcombe, 2010). It is a form of thinking that is a collection of cognitive skills. This form of thinking includes spatial concepts (such as dimensionality, continuity and proximity), forms of representation (such as the ability to read graphs and maps, visual contrast, shape and ground organisation), and elements of reasoning (such as the ability to imagine the shortest distance, to extrapolate and interpolate, and to choose an alternative path). For this reason, spatial thinking has a structure that can be associated with many fields ranging from architecture to comparative literature (National Research Council [NRC], 2006). Indeed, spatial visualisation is one of the seven primal mental abilities described by Thurstone (1938). Consequently, spatial sense and geometric reasoning are expressed as one of the basic goals of geometry (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000). Based on this, we can state that the 21st century education system needs prospective classroom teachers with high spatial thinking skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch aim and questions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen considering the orienteering process, it is stated that this a process similar to Polya\u0026rsquo;s problem-solving process. In other words, while orienteering, the individual also goes through the stages of understanding the problem, devising a plan, implementing the plan, and looking back and checking (Uzuner \u0026amp; Ekiz, 2023). Therefore, it can be said that the individual acts as a problem solver in this process. In fact, it can be stated here that spatial thinking skills are included in the problems solved by the individual. The individual\u0026rsquo;s cognitive activity during the orienteering process includes not only reading the map and determining the route, but also spatial thinking (Di Tore et al., 2015). Paliichuk et al. (2018) and Vaskan et al. (2019) stated that orienteering has positive effects on cognitive functions; \u0026Ouml;zcan (2007) stated that orienteering has a positive impact on mathematical intelligence; and Şeng\u0026ouml;r and Babayiğit İrez (2018) stated that orienteering has a positive effect on spatial visualisation. At this juncture, it was considered worth investigating what effect combining orienteering with music has on spatial thinking self-assessment skills. In the literature review, no study was found in which music and orienteering were used together. Accordingly, it is thought that the study will contribute to the literature on orienteering, music, mathematics, spatial thinking, and preservice classroom teacher education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first research question of this study is \u0026ldquo;What is the effect of orienteering combined with music on the development of preservice teachers\u0026rsquo; spatial self-assessment skills?\u0026rdquo; The other research question of this study is \u0026ldquo;What are the opinions of preservice teachers about the process of orienteering combined with music?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHOD","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan id=\"_Toc94770831\"\u003eA mixed research approach was adopted in this study. Within the framework of this approach, a nested mixed methods design was used (Creswell, 2014). In the quantitative dimension of the study, a nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design, which is one of the quasi-experimental designs, was taken as the basis (Creswell, 2014). The research process was conducted by creating an experimental group and a control group within the scope of the relevant experimental design. In the qualitative dimension, an attempt was made to add depth to the quantitative process with the data collection tools used.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Gr\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eoup\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study group of the research was created using the purposive sampling techniques of criterion sampling and convenience sampling. Within the scope of criterion sampling, the criteria were based on the participants being classroom teacher candidates, not having done orienteering before, and not having a condition that would prevent them from doing sport. Within the scope of convenience sampling, participants selected by criterion sampling who were easily accessible were included in the study. The study group consisted of two groups: the experimental group (n = 6) and the control group (n = 6). Participants in the experimental group performed orienteering while listening to music. Participants in the control group did not perform any practice. Information about the experimental and control groups is given in Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Table 1. near here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs seen in Table 1, it can be stated that the participants in the experimental and control groups have similar profiles in terms of the specified variables. While selecting the participants, the initial loss of subjects was considered and an attempt was made to select participants accordingly. However, subject losses occurred during the process. Due to this, the total number of participants in the study was 12.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch Instruments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePersonal information form: Within the scope of the study, participants were asked to provide information on their age, gender, department of study, whether they had any previous knowledge of orienteering, \u0026nbsp;and whether they listened to music, did sports, and listened to music while doing sports. The personal information form was used for the purpose of obtaining this information.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpatial Ability Self-Report Scale (SASRS): This scale was developed by Turgut (2015) to measure the spatial abilities of undergraduate students. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted. With regard to reliability, item analysis, internal consistency analysis and test-retest analysis were conducted. The developed scale includes 18 items and has a three-factor structure: Object Manipulation Spatial Ability (OMSA), Spatial Navigational Ability (SNA), and Visual Memory (VM). The scale is a five-point Likert type and is rated as \u0026ldquo;strongly agree\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;agree\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;undecided\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;disagree\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;strongly disagree\u0026rdquo;. Two items on this scale are reverse-scored. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha values for the sub-dimensions of the scale were calculated as .883, .802 and .622, respectively. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha value for the overall scale was calculated as .884 (Turgut, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuestionnaire: In order to add depth to the quantitative data on a larger scale, a questionnaire was administered to all participants at the end of the study. While developing the questionnaire, opinions were obtained from relevant experts and the items were revised accordingly. A pilot implementation was conducted with three university students and the questionnaire items were finalised. The questionnaire includes one open-ended and one closed-ended question. In the open-ended question, participants were asked about the benefits to them of the process of orienteering combined with music. The open-ended question was used only during the posttest process. In the closed-ended question, participants were asked for their opinions about the level of their spatial thinking self-assessment skills during the pretest and posttest process. Three response options were used for this question: good (3), moderate (2) and need to be improved (1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch Process\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithin the scope of the study, firstly a work plan was made and a timetable was prepared accordingly. In this context, the following tasks and procedures were carried out respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFirstly, orienteering maps of the university campus, which was the area where orienteering would be performed, were obtained. The necessary permission to use the orienteering map drawn by K. Başar (2022) was obtained. After the orienteering map was obtained, the course planning process was carried out by the author, who works in the field of orienteering. It was planned to divide the university campus map into six different parts, and orienteering would be performed in a different area each week. While planning the course, the fact that the participants had no orienteering experience was taken into consideration. Ten checkpoints were used on each course and the length of all courses was determined as 1 km. The aim was for the participants to find all the checkpoints in order according to the map. It was planned to use punched orienteering checkpoints in this process. The necessary security measures were taken regarding implementation of the orienteering process. The technical planning of the orienteering process was made in this way.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSecondly, the pieces of music to be used in the orienteering process were selected. Expert opinion was obtained for choosing the pieces of music. Suitable examples of electronic music were selected by an expert who is a researcher in the field of music. When choosing the music, the nature of the sport of orienteering was taken into account. In this context, electronic music produced by Alan Walker was selected for orienteering practice. One piece of music was determined for each week of practice. Accordingly, the selected Alan Walker songs are as follows: 1st week, The Spectre; 2nd week, Faded, Ignite, feat. Julie Bergan \u0026amp; Seungri; 3rd week, Diamond Heart, feat. Sophia Somajo; 4th week, Play (Lyrics) feat. K-391, Tungevaag, and Mangoo; 5th week, On My Way feat. Sabrina Carpenter \u0026amp; Farruko; 6th week, Alone. The selected songs were tested on all orienteering courses by the author, who works in orienteering. At the end of this process, it was decided that the music was appropriate for the course. The integration process of orienteering and music was carried out in this way.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWithin the scope of the study, participants were selected for the experimental and control groups. The necessary information about the process of orienteering combined with music was given to the selected participants. Participants were also given a three-hour seminar on the orienteering process. After this, a suitable day, which was to be a weekday, was determined for all participants. The designated day was divided into time periods and the orienteering times of all participants were determined. The time schedule was arranged as E1 at 09.00, E2 at 09.30, E3 at 10.00, and so on, so that all participants could practise orienteering. The main aim here is to minimise possible confounding variables and therefore errors in the intervention process. The necessary information was also given to the experimental group participants to listen to music with similar headphones. In this way, an attempt was made to ensure that the participants practised under the same experimental conditions.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInternal and External Validity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this process, regarding internal validity, the evaluation criteria outlined by Gliner et al. (2016) were taken into consideration. Accordingly, since unbiased assignment could not be made when creating the experimental and control groups, it was assessed whether the groups were similar in terms of pretest scores. Moreover, attention was paid to whether there was equivalence between the groups in terms of important variables. An attempt was made to keep the loss of subjects during the research process at the same level for the experimental and control groups. Care was taken to ensure that the environmental conditions were the same for both groups. Furthermore, an attempt was made to control the environmental conditions and external variables as much as possible. Precautions were also taken regarding the threats to internal validity highlighted by Creswell (2012). In this regard, an attempt was made to create the experimental and control groups with participants from similar backgrounds. Plans were made to reduce the participants\u0026rsquo; interaction with each other during the implementation process. Since the process of orienteering combined with music depends on the implementation and weather conditions, a six-week implementation period was considered sufficient in terms of implementing the pretest and posttest. Regarding external validity, the evaluation criteria outlined by Gliner et al. (2016) were taken into consideration. According to this, the sample may not fully represent the target population. However, an attempt was made to select a sample that would represent the population. It was also thought that the conditions under which the study was conducted would be appropriate to real life conditions and that the time allocated for the implementation would be realistic. In light of all the above, efforts were made to increase the internal and external validity of the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"_Toc94770834\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Anal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the analysis of the data obtained from the SASRS, attention was first paid to the stages outlined by Pallant (2015). Accordingly, the data were first checked and edited, then the variables were created and structured, and at the end of this process, the data were entered. The Excel and SPSS programs were used for data entry. After data entry, possible errors were checked. After this, descriptive statistics values were obtained; missing data, outliers and normality were examined. Following these examinations, the data manipulation process began, and after this, the main analyses were started.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithin the scope of the main analysis, the total SASRS score was first calculated. Analyses were made based on this total score. First of all, evidence (p \u0026gt; .05) was obtained that there was no statistically significant difference between the pretest scores of the experimental and control groups. Then, the mixed-model ANOVA test, which is recommended for repeated measures analyses of two different groups, and the independent samples t-test, which compares sets of difference scores (Can, 2018), were used. In addition, since the study sample size was quite small, the bootstrap sampling technique (Cebeci, 2020) was used. In this context, mixed-model ANOVA was primarily used as recommended and applied in scientific sources (Can, 2018; Pallant, 2015; Kilmen, 2024). Following the mixed-model ANOVA, the difference scores for the pretest and posttest were calculated and an independent samples t-test was conducted for the two groups (experimental and control). In this process, first of all, assumption checks regarding the relevant analyses were made. Evidence that the variances were equal (p\u0026gt;.05) was obtained using Levene\u0026rsquo;s test. Within the scope of the normality assumption, the Q-Q plot (DeCarlo, 1997), which is created by plotting the chi-square distribution of model residuals according to their percentage values, was examined. In this examination, although there were points in the analysis where the percentage values of residuals deviated from the theoretical values, it can be stated that the data were generally distributed normally. Furthermore, since the results obtained from the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (Drezner et al., 2010), which is stated to be frequently used for normality testing, were higher than .05, we can say that the data were normally distributed.\u0026nbsp;To evaluate homoscedasticity, the residuals were plotted against the predicted values and evaluated accordingly (Bates et al., 2014; Field, 2017; Osborne \u0026amp; Walters, 2002). In this regard, it can be stated that the assumption of homoscedasticity was met since it was seen that the data were randomly distributed around the zero mean. In addition, in order to identify multivariate outliers, Mahalanobis distances were calculated and compared with the \u0026chi; \u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003edistribution (Newton \u0026amp; Rudestam, 2012). No outliers were detected in the model. Additionally, no missing data were found in the research data. Quantitative data analysis was completed as specified above. SPSS, JASP and Intellectus Statistics software were used to analyse the quantitative data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA thematic coding approach was taken as the basis for analysing the qualitative data obtained from the questionnaire. Accordingly, the data were first transcribed, edited, and read several times, then the draft codes were created, the themes were defined, the relationships between the defined themes were determined, and the relevant comments were made (Robson, 2011). In the qualitative data analysis dimension of the study, assistance was sought from experts as external auditors when necessary (Creswell, 2014), an attempt was made to create a conceptually consistent system, the data were approached from a part-to-whole perspective, and attention was paid to the standards regarding the quality of the research results (Miles \u0026amp; Huberman, 1994). The qualitative data were analysed as specified above.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eWithin the framework of the mixed research approach, an effort has been made to present the findings as a whole.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEvidence on the Effect of Combining Orienteering with Music on Spatial Thinking Self-Assessment Skills\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMixed-model ANOVA was conducted to reveal the effect of combining orienteering with music on the spatial thinking self-assessment skills of the participants in the experimental group in comparison with the control group. Within the scope of the analysis, information on descriptive statistics is given in Table 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Table 2. near here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the mixed-model ANOVA analysis, a significance value of .05 was taken as the basis. Accordingly, no statistically significant difference was found in the main effects related to the between-groups factor (\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1, 10)\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.15, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .709). Accordingly, we can state that the pretest and posttest results of both groups are similar to each other. Similarly, no statistically significant difference was found in the main effects related to the within-group factor (\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1, 10)\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.01, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .906). Based on this, there is evidence that the pretest and posttest scores are similar to each other. However, the within-group and between-group interaction effect was found to be statistically significant (\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1, 10)\u003c/sub\u003e = 12.22, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .006). In other words, evidence was found that the score differences between the pretest and posttest differ significantly with regard to the two groups. Findings regarding the mixed-model ANOVA results are given in Table 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Table 3. near here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExamining Table 3, it can be seen that, according to Cohen (1988), the main effect of the between-group factor is small, the effect size for the main effect of the within-group factor is very small, and the effect size for the interaction effect is small but close to the medium level. The findings for the estimated marginal means of measure for the mixed-model ANOVA are given in Graph 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Graph 1. near here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the findings for mixed-model ANOVA, statistically significant evidence was found only for the interaction effect, while no statistically significant evidence was found for the other main effects. Therefore, an independent samples t-test, which compares sets of difference scores and is recommended as a second way of revealing the differences for pretest-posttest control group designs (Can, 2018), was conducted. The results of the independent samples t-test are given in Table 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Table 4. near here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs can be seen in Table 4, there is a statistically significant difference in favour of the experimental group. Furthermore, it can be stated that there is strong evidence (Cohen, 1988) that the significant difference also has a high effect size.\u0026nbsp;To further strengthen this evidence, the independent samples t-test, based on the comparison of sets of difference scores, was conducted again with the bootstrap resampling technique.\u0026nbsp;Accordingly, within the scope of a bootstrap process with 1000 repetitions, the 95% confidence interval for the experimental group was calculated as [1.751, 8.500], while the 95% confidence interval for the control group was calculated as [-8.571,-.670]. A significant difference was obtained between the measurements in favour of the experimental group (p = .009). Therefore, based on the total scores obtained from the SASRS, it can be stated that there is evidence that orienteering\u0026nbsp;combined with music had an impact on the preservice teachers\u0026rsquo; spatial thinking self-assessment skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the obtained quantitative findings, we can state that various statistical evidence was obtained that orienteering combined with music had an impact on the spatial thinking self-assessments of the participants in the experimental group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQualitative data was also obtained to support the quantitative data (see Figure 1). Participants were asked the questionnaire question: \u0026ldquo;At what level do you consider your spatial thinking self-assessment skills?\u0026rdquo; Response options for the participants were arranged as good (3), moderate (2), and need to be improved (1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Figure 1. near here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen Figure 1 is examined, it can be stated that the performances of the students in the experimental group and the control group are similar in terms of their responses to the questionnaire item. However, we can state that the opinions of the experimental group students regarding their spatial thinking self-assessment skills are more positive and consistent. As evidence supporting this statement, the total scores for the questionnaire items in the context of the groups can be shown (see Figure 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Figure 2. near here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt can be stated that Figure 2 contains evidence that orienteering combined with music is effective in developing spatial thinking self-assessment skills. It can be understood that this finding also supports the results of the mixed-model ANOVA and other statistical findings. Figure 2 can provide an interpretation of why there is a significant difference in the interaction factor even though there is no significant difference in the within-group factor, apart from technical reasons such as the small sample size.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn order to further deepen the findings obtained so far, findings regarding the open-ended question in the questionnaire (see Table 5) can be included. Participants were asked: \u0026ldquo;Do you think orienteering combined with music improves your physical and mental skills? If your answer is yes, which skills do you think have improved?\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Table 5. near here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs seen in Table 5, the participants stated that orienteering combined with music contributed to their spatial thinking, higher-order thinking and healthy living skills. Within the scope of spatial thinking skills, participants stated that their geometric thinking, direction finding, visual perception, map reading, and attention and focus skills improved. In addition, participants also stated that their higher-order thinking skills such as problem solving, metacognitive thinking, and decision making improved. It can be stated that these skills are interrelated. Therefore, it can be inferred that the obtained data support each other. Moreover, participants emphasised that orienteering combined with music is an enjoyable and active process and that it increases physical and mental fitness. Some participant opinions regarding the stated findings may be included. For example, E6, E5, E4 and E3 stated that orienteering combined with music is enjoyable and entertaining. E1 and E3 emphasised that the process of orienteering combined with music helps them to relax mentally, while E2 stressed that this process also contributes to spiritual relaxation. It can also be seen that the findings obtained here indirectly support the quantitative findings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen we examine the obtained findings as a whole, we can state that the findings support each other. In this regard, we can state that various evidence has been obtained that orienteering combined with music has a positive effect on participants\u0026rsquo; spatial self-assessment skills.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eClassroom teachers play a very important role in an individual\u0026rsquo;s basic education. Therefore, in the current era, classroom teachers are expected to be competent. To achieve this competence, the necessary skills of prospective classroom teachers must be developed. Spatial thinking self-assessment skill is one of these skills. It can be stated that active learning experiences are important for developing spatial thinking self-assessment skills in an effective and permanent way. In this study the disciplines of music and orienteering were combined using an interdisciplinary approach for an effective active learning experience. In this way, the effect of combining orienteering with music on preservice classroom teachers\u0026rsquo; spatial thinking self-assessment skills was examined. An experimental study was conducted in this process, as a result of which, various evidence was found that orienteering combined with music has an impact on prospective classroom teachers\u0026rsquo; spatial thinking self-assessment skills. This evidence is worth discussing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first evidence of the positive effect of orienteering combined with music on spatial thinking self-assessment skills can be seen in the descriptive statistics values. Accordingly, based on the total score results obtained from the SASRS scale, it was observed that the arithmetic means of the participants in the experimental group showed a positive change, while the arithmetic means of the participants in the control group showed a negative change. Accordingly, there was an increase in the scores of the participants in the experimental group in terms of arithmetic mean values. In order to better examine this increase in participant scores, the mixed-model ANOVA results can be examined. Mixed-model ANOVA allows for the examination of main effects and interaction effects (Frey, 2018). According to the mixed-model ANOVA results, no significant difference was found regarding the within-group and between-group factors. Moreover, a small effect size was found for the relevant values. However, as a result of this analysis, a significant difference and an effect size close to the medium level were found in terms of the interaction effect. It is stated that in cases such as these, main effects can be ignored (Lorah, 2020; Lorah \u0026amp; Wong, 2018). However, when there is a significant interaction effect, the idea that the main effects are not significant is not a correct approach (Gen\u0026ccedil; \u0026amp; Mendeş, 2022). For these reasons, as recommended by Gen\u0026ccedil; and Mendeş (2022), interaction plots and effect sizes were also examined within the scope of the study. However, since the existence of an interaction effect may require complex solutions (Kutner et al., 2005), an independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the sets of difference scores. Like the mixed-model ANOVA, this test can also be used in studies with pretest-posttest control group designs (Can, 2018). As a result of this test, a significant difference was obtained in favour of the experimental group. Additionally, since the sample size in the study was small, the independent samples t-test was performed again using the bootstrap technique. As a result of the t-test analysis performed with the bootstrap technique, a significant difference was again found in favour of the experimental group. In this way, stronger evidence was obtained regarding the positive effect of orienteering on prospective classroom teachers\u0026rsquo; spatial thinking self-assessment skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the social sciences, obtaining evidence for an intervention process and providing explanations for this evidence can be described as a very complex process. As a matter of fact, spatial thinking self-assessment skill is a latent trait. For this reason, an attempt was made to add depth to the evidence obtained from the above mentioned statistical analyses by means of a questionnaire. In this context, the personal opinions of the participants in the experimental group regarding their spatial thinking self-assessment skill levels were slightly more positive than those in the control group. Stated more clearly, while the total scores of the participants in the control group for the closed-ended questionnaire item did not change during the pretest and posttest period, the total scores of the participants in the experimental group for this questionnaire item increased. Here, a small increase in score is the case. Nevertheless, the reasons for this score increase can be examined. In this context, within the scope of the data obtained from the questionnaire, participants reported that orienteering combined with music contributed to their spatial thinking (geometric thinking, direction finding, visual perception, map reading, and attention and focus), higher-order thinking (such as problem solving, metacognitive thinking, and decision making) and healthy living (physical and mental well-being) skills. Indeed, it is stated in the literature that orienteering is effective for spatial thinking, cognitive processes and thinking skills (Atakurt et. al., 2017; Bektaş et. al., 2019; Di Tore et. al., 2015; Notarnicola et. al., 2012; \u0026Ouml;zcan, 2007; Paliichuk et. al., 2018; Şeng\u0026ouml;r \u0026amp; Babayiğit İrez, 2018; Vaskan et. al., 2019). Furthermore, it is emphasised that orienteering is an activity that supports healthy living (Vaskan et. al., 2019) and is also an outdoor sport with a strong interdisciplinary (e.g., mathematics, geography) potential (Uzuner \u0026amp; Bektaş, 2024). To give an example here, based on the data they collected using head cameras, Uzuner and Ekiz (2023) reported in their study that the individual acts according to Polya\u0026rsquo;s intuitive problem-solving stages during the orienteering process. For this reason, it has been suggested that orienteering can offer all-round benefits to the individual (Uzuner \u0026amp; Bektaş, 2024). Music, which requires harmony between body and mind (T\u0026uuml;rkmen, 2013), also facilitates the development of intellectual skills (Weinberger, 1998). In fact, studies have revealed the positive effects of music on intelligence scores (Schellenberg, 2004), classical music on spatial intelligence (Rauscher et al., 1993), and Mozart\u0026rsquo;s music on learning spatial-temporal rotation tasks (Jau\u0026scaron;ovec et al., 2006). Furthermore, music also contributes to physiological and psychological well-being (Korkmaz, 2012). In fact, music can provide the individual with the same benefits as chess, science and extracurricular activities (Schellenberg, 2004). Accordingly, it can be understood that the benefits expressed by the participants regarding the process of orienteering combined with music are compatible with the literature. Moreover, the benefits stated by the participants can be regarded as a possible explanation for the increase in scores in the questionnaire in favour of the experimental group. In addition, the small score increase in the questionnaire may also contain different clues about the results in the mixed-model ANOVA analysis. Based on all the above, it can be claimed that the data obtained within the scope of the study are consistent with each other in many respects. This consistency also supports the strengthening of the evidence obtained within the scope of the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImplications for Practice\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis interdisciplinary study was aimed at the development of preservice teachers by combining music and orienteering. Within this scope, various evidence was obtained. It can be said that this study, which is only preliminary, has potential in terms of fostering skills expected in the current century. In fact, music and orienteering can be described as disciplines with high interdisciplinary potential. Therefore, various programmes on orienteering combined with music can be carried out from preschool to university and studies can be conducted on the effectiveness of these programmes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimitations and Future Research Directions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs a result of the study, various evidence was obtained that orienteering combined with music is effective in the development of prospective classroom teachers\u0026rsquo; spatial thinking self-assessment skills. However, in the context of the present study, some suggestions can be made for future research aimed at obtaining stronger evidence. Regarding these suggestions, firstly the limitations of this study can be mentioned. The small sample size can be stated as one of the biggest limitations of this study. Furthermore, having only two study groups as experimental and control groups, the six-week implementation period of orienteering combined with music, the use of electronic music, and the use of a conventional orienteering course and a limited number of data collection tools in the implementation process can be expressed as other prominent limitations of the study. If the above mentioned limitations are taken into consideration in future studies in this field, stronger research findings can be obtained. For individuals of all ages, including preservice classroom teachers, orienteering combined with music can be considered as a different and effective practice for the development of mathematical skills, particularly spatial skills.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, evidence was found that orienteering combined with music has positive effects on the spatial thinking skills of prospective classroom teachers. Orienteering combined with music can be used as a development tool with high interdisciplinary potential. This study can be considered as a preliminary study on combining orienteering with music. It can be suggested that new studies be conducted by improving on the limited aspects of this study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eEthics Approval\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was obtained from the Kafkas University Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee (Approval No: E-17972, Date: 01.06. 2022). The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were informed about the research and joined voluntarily. All participants took part in the study voluntarily and provided both written and verbal informed consent prior to participation in June 2022.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declare no conflict of interes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding was received for this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eF.G.U conducted all aspects of the study and prepared the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, data were obtained as part of an experimental process. For ethical reasons, the data is not publicly available. However, the author can provide the data upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAtakurt, E., Şahan, A., \u0026amp; Erman, K. A. (2017). 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(2017). \u003cem\u003eMusic: Techniques, Styles, Instruments, and Practice\u003c/em\u003e: Vol. First edition. Britannica Educational Publishing.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKulaka\u0026ccedil;, N., \u0026Ccedil;olak, A., \u0026amp; Aktuğ, C. (2016). Yaşam kalitesi \u0026uuml;zerine m\u0026uuml;ziğin etkisi. \u003cem\u003eG\u0026uuml;m\u0026uuml;şhane \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 5\u003c/em\u003e(4), 67-70. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/371624 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKutner, M. H., Nachtsheim, C. J., Neter, J., \u0026amp; Li, W. (2005). \u003cem\u003eApplied linear statistical models\u003c/em\u003e. McGraw-Hill.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLarkin, R. P., \u0026amp; Grogger, P. K. (1975). Map and compass skills for the elementary school. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED138529.pdf on 5 May 2020 (ED138529)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLaukka, P., \u0026amp; Quick, L. (2013). Emotional and motivational uses of music in sports and exercise: A questionnaire study among athletes. \u003cem\u003ePsychology of Music\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e41\u003c/em\u003e(2), 198-215.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLorah, J. A. (2020). Interpretation of main effects in the presence of non-significant interaction effects. \u003cem\u003eThe Quantitative Methods for Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e16\u003c/em\u003e(1), 33-45.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLorah, J. A., \u0026amp; Wong, Y. J. (2018). Contemporary applications of moderation analysis in counseling psychology. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Counseling Psychology, 65\u003c/em\u003e(5), 629\u0026ndash;640. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcNeill, C., Cory-Wright, J., \u0026amp; Renfrew, T. (1998). \u003cem\u003eTeaching orienteering\u003c/em\u003e. British Orienteering Federation. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMiles, M. B., \u0026amp; Huberman, A. M. 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(2012). \u003cem\u003eYour statistical consultant.\u003c/em\u003e Sage Publications.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNotarnicola, A., Vicenti, G., Tafuri, S., Fischetti, F., Laricchia, L., Guastamacchia, R., \u0026amp; Moretti, B. (2012). Improved mental representation of space in beginner orienteers. \u003cem\u003ePerceptual and motor skills, 114\u003c/em\u003e(1), 250-260. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOsborne, J., \u0026amp; Waters, E. (2002). Four assumptions of multiple regression that researchers should always test. \u003cem\u003ePractical Assessment, Research \u0026amp; Evaluation, 8\u003c/em\u003e(2), 1-9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026Ouml;zcan F. (2007). Oryantiring sporunun ilk\u0026ouml;ğretim \u0026ouml;ğrencilerinin sosyal bireysel davranışları ile matematik-mantıksal zeka gelişimleri \u0026uuml;zerindeki etkisinin incelenmesi (\u003cem\u003eUnpublished master\u0026rsquo;s thesis\u003c/em\u003e). Dumlupınar \u0026Uuml;niversitesi/T\u0026uuml;rkiye.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026Ouml;zt\u0026uuml;rk, A. (2008). Temel m\u0026uuml;zik bilgileri. L. Kılı\u0026ccedil; \u0026amp; A. \u0026Ouml;zt\u0026uuml;rk (Ed.), \u003cem\u003eM\u0026uuml;zik ve g\u0026ouml;rsel sanatlar \u0026ouml;ğretimi\u003c/em\u003e i\u0026ccedil;inde (s. 3-20). Eskişehir: Anadolu \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Yayını No: 1799. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePaliichuk, Y., Dotsyuk, L., Kyselytsia, O., Moseychuk, Y., Martyniv, O., Yarmak, O., \u0026amp; Galan, Y. (2018). The influence of means of orienteering on the psychophysiological state of girls aged 15-16-years. \u003cem\u003eJournal Of Human Sport \u0026amp; Exercise, 13\u003c/em\u003e(2), 443-454. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePallant, J. (2015) SPSS Survival Manual. Open University Press\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePuckette, M. (2007). \u003cem\u003eThe theory and technique of electronic music\u003c/em\u003e. World Scientific.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRauscher, F., Shaw, G. \u0026amp; Ky, C. (1993). Music and spatial task performance. \u003cem\u003eNature, 365\u003c/em\u003e(6447).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRobertson, J. (2014). Dirty teaching: a beginner\u0026rsquo;s guide to learning outdoors. Crown House Publishing, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ege/detail.action?docID=1584407. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRobson, C. (2011). \u003cem\u003eReal world research\u003c/em\u003e. John Wiley \u0026amp; Sons Limited.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchellenberg, E. G. (2004). Music lessons enhance IQ\u003cem\u003e. Psychological Science, 15\u003c/em\u003e(8), 511-514.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchellenberg, E. G., \u0026amp; Weiss, M. W. (2013). Music and cognitive abilities. In D. Deutsch (Ed.), \u003cem\u003eThe psychology of music\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 499\u0026ndash;550). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-381460-9.00012-2. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStones, E. (1994). \u003cem\u003eQuality teaching: A sample of cases\u003c/em\u003e. Routledge. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eŞeng\u0026ouml;r, \u0026Ccedil;., \u0026amp; Babayiğit İrez, G. B. (2018). Investigation of the effect of orienteering training on spatial visualization and spatial anxiety in 11-13 year-old students. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Sports for All and Recreation\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(2), 64-69.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTanrıkulu, M. (2011). Harita ve pusulanın farklı bir kullanım alanı: Oryantiring. \u003cem\u003eMilli Eğitim Dergisi\u003c/em\u003e, 191, 120-121.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTerry, P. C., Karageorghis, C. I., Curran, M. L., Martin, O. V., \u0026amp; Parsons-Smith, R. L. (2020). Effects of music in exercise and sport: A meta-analytic review. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Bulletin, 146\u003c/em\u003e(2), 91\u0026ndash;117. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000216\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThurstone, L. M. (1938). \u003cem\u003ePrimary mental abilities\u003c/em\u003e. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. doi:10.1080/21674086.1939.11925404.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTiton, J. T. (2002). The music-culture as a world of music. In J. T. Titon (Ed.), \u003cem\u003eWorlds of music \u003c/em\u003e(pp. 1-30). USA, Belmont, CA: Schirmer Cengage Learning. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eT\u0026uuml;rkmen, U. (2012). M\u0026uuml;zik bilgisine girişi. A. B. Alaner (Ed.), \u003cem\u003eOkul \u0026ouml;ncesinde m\u0026uuml;zik eğitimi \u0026ndash; 1 i\u0026ccedil;inde\u003c/em\u003e (s. 2-17). Eskişehir: Anadolu \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Yayınları 2614. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eT\u0026uuml;rkmen, U. (2013). Okul\u0026ouml;ncesinde farklı \u0026ouml;ğrenenler ve m\u0026uuml;zik. A. B. Alaner (Ed.), \u003cem\u003eOkul \u0026ouml;ncesinde m\u0026uuml;zik eğitimi \u0026ndash; II\u003c/em\u003e i\u0026ccedil;inde (s. 34-50). Eskişehir: Anadolu \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Yayınları No: 2834. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUzuner, F. G., \u0026amp; Bektaş, F. (2024). Examination of Teachers\u0026rsquo; Views on the Use of Orienteering in Education. \u003cem\u003eInternational Primary Education Research Journal\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(1), 54-71.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUzuner, F. G., \u0026amp; Ekız, D. (2023). An investigation of students\u0026rsquo; orienteerıng process as to the steps of Polya\u0026rsquo;s problem-solving method. \u003cem\u003eInternational Online Journal of Primary Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(1), 61-83.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVaskan, I., Koshura, A., Kurnyshev, Y., Moseychuk, Y., Tsybanyuk, O., Yarmak, O., \u0026amp; Galan, Y. (2019). Orienteering in the system of recreational and health-improving activity of student youth. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Physical Education and Sport, 19\u003c/em\u003e(Supplement issue 2), 489-494. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWeinberger, N. M. (1998). The music in our minds. \u003cem\u003eEducational Leadership, 56\u003c/em\u003e(3), 36-41.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYener, Y. (2011). M\u0026uuml;ziğin \u0026ccedil;ocuklar ve yaşlılar \u0026uuml;zerindeki etkileri. \u003cem\u003ePamukkale \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Eğitim Fak\u0026uuml;ltesi Dergisi, 29\u003c/em\u003e(1), 119-124. http://pauegitimdergi.pau.edu.tr/Makaleler/1372410153_9.pdf \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 Information on study group\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"548\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParticipants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrevious knowledge of orienteering\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAcademic Grade Point Average\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDoes the participant listen to music, do sports, and listen to music while doing sports?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eE1: Participant code for experimental group, C1: Participant code for control group.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 \u003cem\u003eFindings Regarding Descriptive Statistics Within the Scope of Mixed-Model ANOVA\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"517\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMeasure\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStd. Deviation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePretest\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.667\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.227\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.649\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.333\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.719\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePosttest\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.333\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.187\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.167\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.895\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 \u003cem\u003eMixed-Model ANOVA Results\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"544\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSS\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMS\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026eta; \u003csub\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBetween-Subjects\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGroups\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.709\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResiduals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e914.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWithin-Subjects\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWithin Factor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.906\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWithin Factor*Group\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e140.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e140.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResiduals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4 \u003cem\u003eIndependent Samples t-Test for Difference Score\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"576\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifference Score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e N = 12. Degrees of freedom for the \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-statistic = 10. \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e represents Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM: Mean, SD: Standard deviation, n: Sample size\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 5\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eOpinions on the Benefits of Orienteering Combined\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ewith Music\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMain themes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSub-themes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParticipants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpatial thinking skills\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeometric thinking\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDirection finding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE1, E2, E3, E4, E5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVisual perception\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE1, E3, E4, E5, E6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMap reading\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE1, E2, E3, E4, E6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAttention and focus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE3, E5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigher-order thinking skills\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProblem solving\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE1, E2, E3, E4, E6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMetacognitive thinking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE1, E2, E4, E6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDecision making\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE4, E6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerseverance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE1, E2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuick thinking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReasoning\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHealthy living skills\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKeeping physically and mentally fit\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Graph","content":"\u003cp\u003eGraph 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e\n"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"orienteering, electronic music, mathematics, spatial thinking, preservice classroom teacher","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7639838/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7639838/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to improve preservice classroom teachers\u0026rsquo; spatial thinking self-assessment skills by integrating electronic music into the orienteering process. The study used a nested mixed methods design within the scope of a mixed research approach. In the quantitative dimension, a nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design, which is one of the quasi-experimental designs, was used. In the qualitative dimension, the aim was to expand upon the quantitative process. The study group of the research was selected based on criterion and convenience sampling. Accordingly, the study group consisted of a total of 12 preservice classroom teachers, of whom 6 were in the experimental group and 6 were in the control group. The Spatial Ability Self-Report Scale and a questionnaire were used as data collection tools. As a result of the study, evidence was found that orienteering combined with music was effective for the preservice teachers\u0026rsquo; spatial thinking self-assessment skills.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Examining the Effect of Combining Orienteering with Music on the Development of Spatial Thinking Self-Assessment Skills","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-06 16:12:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7639838/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-16T06:22:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-23T05:37:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-19T18:33:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"67259562327806946404507503782552320487","date":"2026-03-19T14:16:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"290586160196869825352623884835746534661","date":"2026-03-16T15:06:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"28516689365211270549698973065715606224","date":"2026-03-08T23:49:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-03T05:25:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-12T15:08:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-24T08:41:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-08T07:44:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","date":"2025-10-08T07:40:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f44a9716-12e8-451d-9444-c85a0c7edb88","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 6th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":63960977,"name":"Social science/Education"},{"id":63960978,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":63960979,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-13T02:23:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-06 16:12:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7639838","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7639838","identity":"rs-7639838","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}