Sex Differences in the Development of Object Imagery Abilities Across Age Groups

Sex Differences in the Development of Object Imagery Abilities Across Age Groups | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Sex Differences in the Development of Object Imagery Abilities Across Age Groups Maria Kozhevnikov, Alessia Bonavita, Laura Piccardi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7530430/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 05 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Sex differences in spatial abilities, such as the capacity to mentally rotate objects and manipulate them in space, are well-documented, typically emerging around age 13, with males consistently showing an advantage in response speed over females. However, little is known about the sex differences in the development of object imagery ability — the ability to mentally visualize the appearance of objects in terms of color and shape. Given neuroscience evidence that the ventral pathway, associated with object imagery, develops differently from the dorsal pathway involved in spatial processing, we hypothesized that the development of sex differences would vary between these two domains. In this study, we examined the development of three components of object imagery ability (shape, color, and texture) across four different age groups (13, 14, 15, and adults aged 18–35). A sample of 514 secondary school students from Singapore and 323 adults from the National University of Singapore were administered a series of spatial and object imagery tests. The results revealed that females outperformed males in texture and shape imagery. These differences remained consistent across all age groups and were significant in the adult population, independent of academic specialization. Biological sciences/Neuroscience Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology Sex differences Object imagery Spatial Imagery Cognitive development Cross-age comparison Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 INTRODUCTION Sex differences in spatial ability and the capacity to process spatial relationships between objects or their components and to perform spatial transformations have been a central focus of visual-spatial cognition research for decades. Numerous studies have consistently shown that males tend to outperform females in tasks requiring speed and accuracy in spatial skills, such as mental rotation and object manipulation [ 1 , 2 ]. Males have also reported higher spatial imagery ratings, indicating differences in how spatial information is processed [ 3 ]. Sex differences in spatial ability are reported to emerge during puberty, typically around the ages of 13–14, a period when spatial skills often peak [ 2 , 4 ]. This developmental stage coincides with the rise in testosterone levels, which have been linked to improvements in spatial performance, particularly in males. Testosterone is thought to influence neural development and activity in brain regions such as the parietal cortex, involved in spatial processing [ 5 ]. In addition to these biological factors, cultural and educational contexts also contribute to the development of spatial abilities. For instance, disparities in access to spatially enriching activities, such as STEM-focused education and training, might further contribute to the observed differences between males and females [ 6 , 7 ]. While significant attention has been devoted to studying spatial ability, a distinct, less-studied domain of visual ability is known as object imagery ability. Object imagery refers to the mental visualization of an object’s appearance, such as shape, color, or texture. Behavioral and neuroimaging studies [ 8 – 10 ] have demonstrated that these two abilities are independent and serve distinct functions. While spatial abilities are primarily supported by the dorsal pathway, which processes spatial relationships and coordinates visually guided actions [ 11 , 12 ], object imagery ability relies on the ventral pathway [ 10 ] that processes visual information about objects or scenes, as well as their perceptual characteristics. The significance of object and spatial imagery abilities also diverges across different fields, with spatial ability being important for science and STEM disciplines [ 13 ] and object imagery ability is critical for creative professions such as the arts and design [ 9 , 14 ]. Despite their clear dissociation in neural substrates and functional relevance, however, little is known about how object imagery develops or whether sex differences emerge in its components of shape, color, and texture. The current study is the first exploratory investigation of these developmental patterns during adolescence and into adulthood. While prior studies have shown that spatial abilities often peak in adolescence and then decline with age, object imagery tends to increase in childhood and does not exhibit the same decline across the lifespan [ 15 ]. This difference may be attributed to the fact that object imagery tasks place fewer demands on working memory and executive functions, which are shown to be more vulnerable to age-related decline[ 16 ]. Furthermore, some studies indicate that specific aspects of visual-object processing, such as object recognition and detailed feature visualization, may remain stable or even improve with age [ 17 , 18 ]. This stability could be reinforced by the continued use of object imagery in daily tasks, such as recognizing faces, objects, and scenes, which helps maintain these abilities as individuals age. Despite its clear dissociation from spatial imagery abilities and its unique relevance to cognitive and creative tasks, the structure and developmental characteristics of object imagery remain poorly understood, particularly regarding potential sex differences. Most of the evidence for sex differences in object imagery comes from self-reports, with females consistently reporting higher vividness ratings of object imagery [ 3 , 19 , 20 ]. It is also important to note that object imagery is not a homogeneous but complex construct that relies on distinct neural mechanisms specialized for processing specific attributes of visual information, such as shape, color, and texture. Shape processing primarily involves the lateral occipital complex (LOC), a key region in the ventral visual pathway responsible for object recognition and shape representation [ 21 ]. Color perception is strongly associated with area V4 in the visual cortex, which plays a critical role in color discrimination and constancy [ 22 , 23 ], whereas texture processing recruits regions such as the fusiform gyrus and surrounding areas involved in detailed visual analysis and pattern recognition [ 24 ]. Research studies suggest that females might exhibit superior performance in tasks involving color discrimination and texture recognition, potentially due to differences in visual processing strategies and neural activation patterns [ 25 ]. Additionally, females tend to perform better on tasks related to object recognition, such as recognizing degraded images [ 14 ]. These findings, combined with the distinct developmental trajectories of object imagery, raise important questions about how and when sex differences in this ability emerge and whether these differences mirror patterns observed in spatial abilities. They also highlight the importance of examining object imagery components related to shape, texture, and color individually to fully understand their development and potential sex differences. The present study investigates three components of object imagery: shape, color, and texture across four age groups: adolescents aged 13, 14, and 15 years, and a group of adults consisting of university students aged 18 to 35. These specific age groups were chosen based on prior research showing that the development of both spatial and object imagery abilities begins around age 13 and is typically fully developed by age 17 [ 15 ]. The adult group was further divided into two subgroups: students specializing in humanities and those in science and engineering. This distinction is critical, as science and engineering students generally perform better on spatial tests but may exhibit less developed object imagery abilities [ 14 ]. The current study was conducted in Singapore, which consistently ranks among the highest in international education assessments [ 26 ] because the country’s education system strongly emphasizes science and mathematics. This emphasis, reflecting cultural values prioritizing engineering, scientific, and technical professions, allowed for the examination of an additional research question as to how the sociocultural focus on STEM disciplines influences the development of sex differences in spatial ability. RESULTS All statistical analyses are performed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 28 (IBM Corp., Armonk, N.Y., USA). Previous studies have highlighted the issue of a speed-accuracy trade-off in spatial ability tasks, where faster response times may come at the cost of reduced accuracy [ 27 ]. To minimize confounds arising from this trade-off, we calculated a processing efficiency score for the Mental Rotation Task (MRT) by dividing each participant’s proportion of correct responses by their average response time (RT). A logarithmic transformation (lnRT) was then used to normalize the RT data, which were positively skewed. The resulting efficiency score we used in the analysis below represents the proportion of correct responses made per unit of normalized time (ln seconds). In contrast to the MRT that involves dynamic spatial transformation, the object imagery tasks [(Degraded Picture Task (DPT), Texture Imagery (TI), Color Recognition (CR)] require participants to recognize specific visual attributes after a short delay, and therefore, do not require participants to optimize their processing speed. Thus, RT was not incorporated into the scoring for these tasks. Instead, the primary measure used for analysis of all object imagery tasks was the proportion of correct responses, which directly reflects the participant's ability to accurately identify or match the target features. The descriptive statistics for MRT (efficiency), DPT, TI, and CR (proportion correct) are summarized in Table 1 . Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the overall performance obtained in each task. The groups are divided by age, major and sex. AD corresponds to adults majoring in social sciences, arts, and humanities, and ADE to adults majoring in science, computer science, and engineering. MRT = Mental Rotation Task efficiency; DPT = Degraded Picture Task proportion correct; TI = Texture Imagery proportion correct; CR = Color Recognition proportion correct Groups Sex N Mean SD MRT 13 M 107 4.71 2.32 F 117 5.515 2.154 14 M 85 4.749 2.273 F 84 5.631 2.007 15 M 54 5.51 1.989 F 70 5.871 2.032 AD M 27 7.418 3.092 F 58 8.864 3.907 ADE M 7 7.045 3.441 F 9 10.108 3.875 DPT 13 M 107 0.217 0.133 F 115 0.266 0.139 14 M 85 0.229 0.13 F 82 0.261 0.139 15 M 55 0.335 0.16 F 70 0.34 0.168 AD M 55 0.401 0.155 F 120 0.409 0.146 ADE M 32 0.365 0.162 F 24 0.386 0.139 TI 13 M 107 0.674 0.206 F 115 0.735 0.167 14 M 85 0.622 0.241 F 82 0.729 0.19 15 M 55 0.726 0.196 F 70 0.75 0.176 AD M 46 0.795 0.17 F 109 0.786 0.171 ADE M 24 0.781 0.156 F 16 0.777 0.179 CR 13 M 106 0.432 0.113 F 115 0.441 0.117 14 M 85 0.419 0.134 F 82 0.43 0.115 15 M 54 0.431 0.121 F 69 0.453 0.103 AD M 41 0.615 0.13 F 103 0.664 0.148 ADE M 12 0.579 0.148 F 6 0.603 0.179 A total of 18.43% of the data were missing, with some participants completed only a subset of the imagery tests. Participants who exhibited an average RT exceeding 30 seconds on the MRT (indicating the use of alternative strategies) were also removed from the MRT analysis. Due to this, participants’ performance on each imagery test was analyzed separately based on the number of participants who successfully completed it. In addition to this, for the MRT, outlier response times (RTs), defined as RTs greater or less than 2.5 standard deviations (SD) from a participant’s mean, were excluded, accounting for 2.85% of all MRT responses. After data cleaning, the following number of participants were available for each test and used in the analyses MRT (338 females and 280 males), CR (298 males, 375 females) Texture (317 males and 391 females), and DPT (334 males and 411 females). The results are presented in Fig. 1 . For MRT efficiency, a two-way between-subjects ANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of Group (13, 14, 15, AD, and ADE) and Sex (male, female) as between-subject variables. The results revealed a significant main effect of Group, F (4, 608) = 28.51, p < .0001. Tukey post hoc tests indicated significant differences between specific age groups. Participants in the adult groups (both AD and ADE) scored significantly better than those in the younger groups (13, 14, and 15 years old), all ps .21. Furthermore, the main effect of Sex was significant, F (1, 608) = 18.56, p < .0001. However, the interaction between Group and Sex was not significant, F (4, 608) = 1.37, p = .24, indicating that, overall, males were significantly more efficient than females on MRT across all age groups. A series of two-way ANOVAs were conducted to examine the effects of gender and age on performance in the DPT, CR, and TI tasks. The independent variables were Sex (male, female) and Group (13, 14, 15, AD, and ADE). Separate analyses were performed for each dependent variable to assess how these factors influenced performance individually. For DPT (334 males and 411 females), there was a significant main effect of Group, F (4, 735) = 40.50, p < .0001. Tukey post hoc tests revealed that the group of adults (both AD and ADE) scored significantly higher than younger adolescents aged 13 and 14 years (all ps < .05). No significant differences were found between the AD and ADE groups ( p = .58). Additionally, 15-year-olds performed significantly worse than both adult groups (p < .05) but better than the younger adolescents aged 13 and 14 years (all ps < .05). The effect of Sex was significant, F (1, 735) = 3.59, p = .05, with females performing better than males overall. However, there was no significant interaction between Sex and Group, F < 1. For TI (317 males and 391 females), there was a significant main effect of Group, F (4, 699) = 8.21, p < .0001. Tukey post hoc tests revealed that adults (both AD and ADE) scored significantly higher than younger adolescents aged 13 and 14 years (all ps .27) or among the 15-year-olds, AD, and ADE groups (all ps > .83). The effect of Sex was significant, F (1, 699) = 4.24, p = .04, with females performing significantly better than males overall. There was also a marginally significant interaction between Group and Sex, F (4, 699) = 2.11, p = .07. Simple effects analysis for each age group revealed significant differences between males and females for the 13-year-old group, t (220) = 2.56, p = .02, and the 14-year-old group, t (165) = 3.19, p = .002, but not for other age groups (all ps > .48). For CR (298 males, 375 females): There was a significant main effect of Group, F (4, 663) = 68.85, p < .001. Tukey post hoc tests revealed that adults (both AD and ADE) scored significantly higher than younger adolescents aged 13, 14, and 15 years (all ps < .001). The effect of Sex was not significant, F (1, 663) = 2.31, p = .57, and there was no significant interaction between Group and Sex, F < 1. DISCUSSION Consistent with previous findings [ 1 – 4 ], our study showed that spatial ability, as measured by the MRT, begins to develop around age 13, with sex differences emerging during this period. However, contrary to prior research suggesting that these differences diminish over the years or even could be eliminated by targeted training during early years, and emphasis on STEM education[ 28 , 29 ], our results indicate a persistent and significant male advantage, even among undergraduate students specializing in science and engineering. These results suggest that a strong emphasis on STEM education alone may not be sufficient to reduce sex differences in spatial ability. Despite the limited sample size of the ADE group in the Mental Rotation Task, our data provide preliminary evidence that the male advantage in spatial ability persists even among STEM-educated undergraduates. One possible explanation for the persistence of the observed sex differences in spatial ability within Singapore college students may be rooted in Singapore’s high-pressure academic environment with its emphasis on measurable academic achievements, such as test scores. This emphasis on outcomes might prioritize rule-based analytical approaches to problem solving in science and mathematics over the development of spatial reasoning skills. For example, teaching methods may also focus on formulaic problem-solving that reward precision and speed, leaving little room for spatial exploration and visualization. Similarly, assessment criteria might heavily favor analytical reasoning and rote learning over tasks that demand spatial manipulation or mental transformation. In addition, research has shown that a high-pressure environment can amplify the effects of sociocultural factors, such as stereotype threat, potentially negatively affecting student performance [ 30 ]. In Singapore’s competitive academic system, where students are continuously evaluated and compared, these stereotypes may exert even greater influence, discouraging females from engaging with spatially intensive tasks and increasing performance gaps. Indeed, research shows that prompting Asian female students to disclose their gender before taking a mathematics test adversely affected their performance [ 31 – 33 ]. Taken together, these factors may explain why, despite the strong emphasis on STEM education in Singapore, we did not observe a reduction in sex differences in spatial ability among Singapore college students, even those specializing in science and engineering. Developing approaches to reduce stereotypes and to increase emphasis on spatial reasoning within the education system may be essential for minimizing these differences. Importantly, our result demonstrated that, compared to spatial ability, the sex differences in object imagery abilities and their trajectories followed a markedly distinct pattern, generally favoring females, particularly for shape and texture imagery. Moreover, they highlighted the nonhomogeneity of object imagery processing, as the three object imagery abilities examined in our study (texture, shape, and color) exhibited distinct patterns of sex differences and developmental trajectories. For shape imagery, as measured by the DPT, we observed sex differences favoring females, particularly pronounced in students aged 13–14 years old, although still noticeable in the two groups of adults. For texture imagery, measured by the TI, the sex differences favoring females were pronounced only during early adolescence (13–14 years old), diminishing by age 15 as this ability further developed. As for color imagery, as measured by the CR task, no significant differences were observed in any age groups, despite previous research suggesting female advantage on color discrimination tasks [ 23 ]. One possible explanation for this finding might involve the nature of our color recognition task, which primarily measured perceptual color matching rather than broader cognitive processes. Tasks involving higher cognitive demands, such as memory for color sequences or creative applications of color, might be more sensitive to detecting sex differences. Future research should investigate how task design influences the detection of sex differences in color processing by comparing performance across various types of color imagery tasks with differing cognitive demands. Additionally, cultural and environmental factors may have played a significant role. In Singapore’s educational context, there is generally less emphasis on artistic activities compared to STEM disciplines, which might limit opportunities for students to develop fine-tuned color discrimination skills through exposure to art-related tasks. This uniform focus on STEM-related activities for both males and females could further diminish inherent differences, particularly for tasks like perceptual color matching that place lower demands on cognitive resources. Another factor to consider is that the ADE subgroup had limited power for sex-based analyses in MRT and CR, so results for these tasks in this subgroup should be interpreted with caution. Nevertheless, including the ADE group across all four tasks allows for an initial comparison of object and spatial imagery components within the same design, providing a framework that future studies can build on with larger samples. In conclusion, our research is the first to highlight the complexity of object imagery, as its various components, such as texture and shape processing, appear to develop along different timelines and exhibit distinct patterns of sex differences. Unlike spatial abilities, where sex differences favoring males persist across all age groups, both texture and shape imagery processing abilities showed differences favoring females. It is possible that the earlier cortical development and neural reorganization observed in females as compared to males, leading to improved brain connectivity during the teenage years [ 34 ] may provide females with an advantage in tasks requiring efficient integration of information during this developmental stage. The exact neural mechanisms underlying the development of sex differences in visual processing, however, remain unclear, particularly regarding the role of ventral stream regions, such as the fusiform gyrus and lateral occipital complex, in mediating fine-grained visual processing. These regions are highly specialized and develop along distinct trajectories, suggesting that specific components of the ventral stream may contribute differently to different aspects of object processing. Further research is needed to explore how the development of ventral stream regions influences sex differences across different object imagery tasks and how these differences evolve throughout adolescence and into adulthood. In addition, given the importance of object imagery in various creative professions (e.g., design, architecture, and visual arts), further research is essential to develop effective training methods to enhance object imagery abilities and address any persisting sex differences. This broader focus would complement the substantial body of work on spatial imagery and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of visual cognition. MATERIALS AND METHODS Participants A total of 837 participants (370 males) were recruited from two different participant pools. The first group consisted of 514 participants (age mean = 13.81 SD = 0.799; 247 males) recruited through school representatives from a typical secondary school in Singapore with students with average academic abilities (relative to Singapore’s national average). All students with parental consent were invited, resulting in broad participation within each age cohort: 13 years old (n = 224, 107 males), 14 years old (n = 169, 85 males), and 15 years old (n = 125, 55 males). All testing was conducted on standardized school-issued iPads with identical screen size and display settings; cases completed on non-standard devices (e.g., mobile phones or laptops), identified via Qualtrics metadata, were excluded. The second participant pool comprised 323 participants (123 males) who were undergraduate and graduate students from the National University of Singapore, aged 18–35 years (mean = 21.60, SD = 2.245). They were recruited either from the online portal of the Research Participation (RP) Program at the Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, for course credits or through an advertisement offering monetary reimbursement. They were further divided into two subgroups: the first subgroup, AD (adults), included 265 students (89 males) from disciplines such as social sciences, arts, and humanities, while the second subgroup, ADE (adults experts), included 51 students (34 males) specialized in science, computing, and engineering. Data collected on non-standard devices (e.g., mobile phones or laptops), as well as incomplete or inactive sessions, were excluded to ensure consistency and data quality The research adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (Singapore). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants or their legal guardians prior to their involvement in the study. Materials Mental Rotation Test (MRT) The MRT assesses the ability to mentally rotate spatial forms [ 35 ]. We used a computerized version of the MRT in which the participants were shown pairs of 2D pictures of 3D geometric shapes rotated from 0 to 180 degrees relative to each other. Each participant was presented with 36 pairs of such objects with 18 ‘same’ and 18 ‘different’ (Fig. 2 ). They were instructed to determine whether each pair was ‘same’ or ‘different.’ The MRT internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) is α = 0.88. Degraded Picture Task (DPT) The DPT assesses object imagery ability, as it requires participants to use top-down mental imagery to reconstruct familiar shapes from incomplete or noisy visual input, rather than relying on object recognition mechanisms [ 9 ]. We used a computerized version of the DPT, adapted from the Object Imagery Ability Test (MM Virtual Design, LLC, 2004). It included 20 degraded line drawings of everyday objects embedded in visual noise. Participants were asked to name the identified object if they could recognize it or select the option ‘cannot recognize.’ The total score was calculated as the number of correct answers (Fig. 3 ). The DPT internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) is α = 0.84 (MM Virtual Design, LLC, 2004). Texture Imagery (TI) The Texture Imagery (TI) task assesses the ability to encode two-dimensional visual textures, such as differences in granularity and pattern complexity, maintain them for short durations, and compare them against similar alternatives. It consists of 19 trials, along with one practice trial. In each trial, a visual image of a specific texture is presented on a computer screen for 4 seconds. Following the presentation, a fixation point is displayed for a 4-second retention interval. Subsequently, four images with different textures are shown, and participants are instructed to select the image that matches the original texture. The practice trial shown in Fig. 4 illustrates the procedure. The internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) of the TI task is α = 0.70. Color Recognition Test (CR) . The CR task assesses the ability to encode, temporarily retain, and match specific colors. It consists of 25 trials, along with one practice trial. Each specific color was selected randomly from the standardized color palette available in Microsoft Office PowerPoint, while the generation of possible choices was manipulated to achieve transparency and the hue of the original target stimuli. In each trial, a visual image of a specific color is presented on a computer screen for 4 seconds. Following the presentation, a fixation point is displayed for a 4-second retention interval. Subsequently, four images with different colors are shown, and participants are instructed to select the image that matches the original texture (Fig. 5 ). The internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) of the CR task is α = 0.70. Procedure The study was conducted online through Qualtrics (First release: 2005, Provo, Utah, USA, Available at: https://www.qualtrics.com ) as part of a larger study where participants completed a series of visual imagery and creativity tests. The secondary school students completed all the tests in their classrooms using their personal learning devices, while undergraduate and graduate students completed the tests on their computers at home. Participants were allocated one hour to complete the tests, starting with the MRT, followed by the DPT, TI, and CR tasks. Accuracy scores and response times for all assessments were recorded via Qualtrics. Participants were given multiple-choice attention checks at the end of the assessment. Data availability The anonymized data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding authors. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions. Declarations Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE) for MOE Tier 1 grant, Grant No. Y2023-FRC1-011 and MOE Academies Fund (MAF, Grant No. AFR 01/17 MK) given to Maria Kozhevnikov to support the current research project. We would like to extend our appreciation to the personnel at the secondary schools in Singapore, where we conducted this research for coordinating the administrative matters regarding the field data collection. Authors contributions M.K. and L.P. conceived and designed the study. A.B. organized the dataset and curated the data prior to analysis. M.K. conducted the statistical analyses. M.K., L.P., and A.B. provided input for the interpretation of the results. A.B. and M.K. created the tables and figures. M.K. drafted the initial version of the manuscript. M.K., L.P., and A.B. reviewed, edited, and approved the final version of the manuscript. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests References Linn, M. C. & Petersen, A. C. Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Dev 56 , 1479–1498 (1985). Voyer, D., Voyer, S. & Bryden, M. P. 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Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 05 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 13 Nov, 2025 Reviews received at journal 06 Nov, 2025 Reviews received at journal 16 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 15 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 09 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 05 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 03 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7530430","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":530813509,"identity":"7727474f-bc90-4234-a294-ae8d81e08a8b","order_by":0,"name":"Maria 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07:30:05","extension":"html","order_by":29,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":111355,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7530430/v1/dc3faa3c14483c98ef13d631.html"},{"id":94638557,"identity":"28ce62e9-548f-4051-bdf9-f7afd498a4f2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 07:30:04","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":184153,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePerformance among groups. The figure shows the performance differences between males (blue) and females (green) within each group in the MRT, DPT, TI, and CR tasks. The groups are divided by age and major. AD corresponds to adults majoring in social sciences, arts, and humanities, and ADE to adults majoring in science, computer science, and engineering. The error bars represent ±1 SEM.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7530430/v1/7436ca8f0d38bbd4c07cb1c3.png"},{"id":94638559,"identity":"e63ec6ea-fa6e-4d08-94bc-6ac10cd52b21","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 07:30:04","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67099,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe figure shows an example of items used in the MRT task\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7530430/v1/a362c81b705dd1f254d68ef0.png"},{"id":94640946,"identity":"ddf308b0-0390-4838-a5d2-ce21c9897ee3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 07:50:24","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":493176,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAn example of items from DPT. Note. Participants will get a score of ‘1’ for correctly identifying the object as ‘pliers’ and ‘0.5’ for ‘tweezers. Reproduced with the permission of MM Virtual Design, LLC.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7530430/v1/819269c3a77a867c594e7e55.png"},{"id":94638570,"identity":"66bdb7d8-72cc-4b91-ac74-85b3de913dfd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 07:30:04","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":122913,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe figure shows an example of the TI task\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7530430/v1/c4c63eaf6425ebb710bf1f66.png"},{"id":94672064,"identity":"b5d5f9e2-c865-4a24-8233-18e89855e834","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:38:08","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22444,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe figure shows an example of the CR task\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7530430/v1/85ca88c57c51eaec423ae6f2.png"},{"id":102234376,"identity":"8c75c139-f238-48b3-8107-9636972fff55","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-09 16:10:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1415500,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7530430/v1/bf3ceda2-c83d-42ca-a6b7-b1f3c133f98b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Sex Differences in the Development of Object Imagery Abilities Across Age Groups","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eSex differences in spatial ability and the capacity to process spatial relationships between objects or their components and to perform spatial transformations have been a central focus of visual-spatial cognition research for decades. Numerous studies have consistently shown that males tend to outperform females in tasks requiring speed and accuracy in spatial skills, such as mental rotation and object manipulation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Males have also reported higher spatial imagery ratings, indicating differences in how spatial information is processed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSex differences in spatial ability are reported to emerge during puberty, typically around the ages of 13\u0026ndash;14, a period when spatial skills often peak [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. This developmental stage coincides with the rise in testosterone levels, which have been linked to improvements in spatial performance, particularly in males. Testosterone is thought to influence neural development and activity in brain regions such as the parietal cortex, involved in spatial processing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition to these biological factors, cultural and educational contexts also contribute to the development of spatial abilities. For instance, disparities in access to spatially enriching activities, such as STEM-focused education and training, might further contribute to the observed differences between males and females [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile significant attention has been devoted to studying spatial ability, a distinct, less-studied domain of visual ability is known as object imagery ability. Object imagery refers to the mental visualization of an object\u0026rsquo;s appearance, such as shape, color, or texture. Behavioral and neuroimaging studies [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] have demonstrated that these two abilities are independent and serve distinct functions. While spatial abilities are primarily supported by the dorsal pathway, which processes spatial relationships and coordinates visually guided actions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], object imagery ability relies on the ventral pathway [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] that processes visual information about objects or scenes, as well as their perceptual characteristics. The significance of object and spatial imagery abilities also diverges across different fields, with spatial ability being important for science and STEM disciplines [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] and object imagery ability is critical for creative professions such as the arts and design [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite their clear dissociation in neural substrates and functional relevance, however, little is known about how object imagery develops or whether sex differences emerge in its components of shape, color, and texture. The current study is the first exploratory investigation of these developmental patterns during adolescence and into adulthood.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile prior studies have shown that spatial abilities often peak in adolescence and then decline with age, object imagery tends to increase in childhood and does not exhibit the same decline across the lifespan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. This difference may be attributed to the fact that object imagery tasks place fewer demands on working memory and executive functions, which are shown to be more vulnerable to age-related decline[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, some studies indicate that specific aspects of visual-object processing, such as object recognition and detailed feature visualization, may remain stable or even improve with age [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. This stability could be reinforced by the continued use of object imagery in daily tasks, such as recognizing faces, objects, and scenes, which helps maintain these abilities as individuals age.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite its clear dissociation from spatial imagery abilities and its unique relevance to cognitive and creative tasks, the structure and developmental characteristics of object imagery remain poorly understood, particularly regarding potential sex differences. Most of the evidence for sex differences in object imagery comes from self-reports, with females consistently reporting higher vividness ratings of object imagery [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is also important to note that object imagery is not a homogeneous but complex construct that relies on distinct neural mechanisms specialized for processing specific attributes of visual information, such as shape, color, and texture. Shape processing primarily involves the lateral occipital complex (LOC), a key region in the ventral visual pathway responsible for object recognition and shape representation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Color perception is strongly associated with area V4 in the visual cortex, which plays a critical role in color discrimination and constancy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], whereas texture processing recruits regions such as the fusiform gyrus and surrounding areas involved in detailed visual analysis and pattern recognition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Research studies suggest that females might exhibit superior performance in tasks involving color discrimination and texture recognition, potentially due to differences in visual processing strategies and neural activation patterns [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, females tend to perform better on tasks related to object recognition, such as recognizing degraded images [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings, combined with the distinct developmental trajectories of object imagery, raise important questions about how and when sex differences in this ability emerge and whether these differences mirror patterns observed in spatial abilities. They also highlight the importance of examining object imagery components related to shape, texture, and color individually to fully understand their development and potential sex differences. The present study investigates three components of object imagery: shape, color, and texture across four age groups: adolescents aged 13, 14, and 15 years, and a group of adults consisting of university students aged 18 to 35. These specific age groups were chosen based on prior research showing that the development of both spatial and object imagery abilities begins around age 13 and is typically fully developed by age 17 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. The adult group was further divided into two subgroups: students specializing in humanities and those in science and engineering. This distinction is critical, as science and engineering students generally perform better on spatial tests but may exhibit less developed object imagery abilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe current study was conducted in Singapore, which consistently ranks among the highest in international education assessments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] because the country\u0026rsquo;s education system strongly emphasizes science and mathematics. This emphasis, reflecting cultural values prioritizing engineering, scientific, and technical professions, allowed for the examination of an additional research question as to how the sociocultural focus on STEM disciplines influences the development of sex differences in spatial ability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eAll statistical analyses are performed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 28 (IBM Corp., Armonk, N.Y., USA). Previous studies have highlighted the issue of a speed-accuracy trade-off in spatial ability tasks, where faster response times may come at the cost of reduced accuracy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. To minimize confounds arising from this trade-off, we calculated a processing efficiency score for the Mental Rotation Task (MRT) by dividing each participant\u0026rsquo;s proportion of correct responses by their average response time (RT). A logarithmic transformation (lnRT) was then used to normalize the RT data, which were positively skewed. The resulting efficiency score we used in the analysis below represents the proportion of correct responses made per unit of normalized time (ln seconds). In contrast to the MRT that involves dynamic spatial transformation, the object imagery tasks [(Degraded Picture Task (DPT), Texture Imagery (TI), Color Recognition (CR)] require participants to recognize specific visual attributes after a short delay, and therefore, do not require participants to optimize their processing speed. Thus, RT was not incorporated into the scoring for these tasks. Instead, the primary measure used for analysis of all object imagery tasks was the proportion of correct responses, which directly reflects the participant's ability to accurately identify or match the target features. The descriptive statistics for MRT (efficiency), DPT, TI, and CR (proportion correct) are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics for the overall performance obtained in each task. The groups are divided by age, major and sex. AD corresponds to adults majoring in social sciences, arts, and humanities, and ADE to adults majoring in science, computer science, and engineering. MRT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Mental Rotation Task efficiency; DPT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Degraded Picture Task proportion correct; TI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Texture Imagery proportion correct; CR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Color Recognition proportion correct\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroups\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMRT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.217\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.133\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.266\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.229\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.261\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.335\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.168\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.365\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.162\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.386\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.674\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.206\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.735\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.167\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.622\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.241\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.729\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.726\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.196\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.176\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.795\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e109\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.786\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.171\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eADE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.781\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.156\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.777\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.179\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.432\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.113\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.441\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.117\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.419\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.134\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.115\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.431\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.121\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.453\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.103\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.615\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.664\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eADE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.579\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.603\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.179\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 18.43% of the data were missing, with some participants completed only a subset of the imagery tests. Participants who exhibited an average RT exceeding 30 seconds on the MRT (indicating the use of alternative strategies) were also removed from the MRT analysis. Due to this, participants\u0026rsquo; performance on each imagery test was analyzed separately based on the number of participants who successfully completed it. In addition to this, for the MRT, outlier response times (RTs), defined as RTs greater or less than 2.5 standard deviations (SD) from a participant\u0026rsquo;s mean, were excluded, accounting for 2.85% of all MRT responses. After data cleaning, the following number of participants were available for each test and used in the analyses MRT (338 females and 280 males), CR (298 males, 375 females) Texture (317 males and 391 females), and DPT (334 males and 411 females).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor MRT efficiency, a two-way between-subjects ANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of Group (13, 14, 15, AD, and ADE) and Sex (male, female) as between-subject variables. The results revealed a significant main effect of Group, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4, 608)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;28.51, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001. Tukey post hoc tests indicated significant differences between specific age groups. Participants in the adult groups (both AD and ADE) scored significantly better than those in the younger groups (13, 14, and 15 years old), all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001. No significant differences were observed among the younger groups (13, 14, and 15 years old), all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.21. Furthermore, the main effect of Sex was significant, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 608)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18.56, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001. However, the interaction between Group and Sex was not significant, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4, 608)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.37, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.24, indicating that, overall, males were significantly more efficient than females on MRT across all age groups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA series of two-way ANOVAs were conducted to examine the effects of gender and age on performance in the DPT, CR, and TI tasks. The independent variables were Sex (male, female) and Group (13, 14, 15, AD, and ADE). Separate analyses were performed for each dependent variable to assess how these factors influenced performance individually.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor DPT (334 males and 411 females), there was a significant main effect of Group, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4, 735)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;40.50, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001. Tukey post hoc tests revealed that the group of adults (both AD and ADE) scored significantly higher than younger adolescents aged 13 and 14 years (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05). No significant differences were found between the AD and ADE groups (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.58). Additionally, 15-year-olds performed significantly worse than both adult groups (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05) but better than the younger adolescents aged 13 and 14 years (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05). The effect of Sex was significant, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 735)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.59, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.05, with females performing better than males overall. However, there was no significant interaction between Sex and Group, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor TI (317 males and 391 females), there was a significant main effect of Group, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4, 699)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001. Tukey post hoc tests revealed that adults (both AD and ADE) scored significantly higher than younger adolescents aged 13 and 14 years (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05). However, no significant differences were observed among the 13-, 14-, and 15-year-olds (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.27) or among the 15-year-olds, AD, and ADE groups (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.83). The effect of Sex was significant, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 699)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.24, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.04, with females performing significantly better than males overall. There was also a marginally significant interaction between Group and Sex, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4, 699)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.11, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07. Simple effects analysis for each age group revealed significant differences between males and females for the 13-year-old group, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(220)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.56, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.02, and the 14-year-old group, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(165)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.19, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002, but not for other age groups (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.48).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor CR (298 males, 375 females): There was a significant main effect of Group, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4, 663)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;68.85, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. Tukey post hoc tests revealed that adults (both AD and ADE) scored significantly higher than younger adolescents aged 13, 14, and 15 years (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). The effect of Sex was not significant, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 663)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.31, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.57, and there was no significant interaction between Group and Sex, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eConsistent with previous findings [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], our study showed that spatial ability, as measured by the MRT, begins to develop around age 13, with sex differences emerging during this period. However, contrary to prior research suggesting that these differences diminish over the years or even could be eliminated by targeted training during early years, and emphasis on STEM education[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], our results indicate a persistent and significant male advantage, even among undergraduate students specializing in science and engineering. These results suggest that a strong emphasis on STEM education alone may not be sufficient to reduce sex differences in spatial ability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the limited sample size of the ADE group in the Mental Rotation Task, our data provide preliminary evidence that the male advantage in spatial ability persists even among STEM-educated undergraduates. One possible explanation for the persistence of the observed sex differences in spatial ability within Singapore college students may be rooted in Singapore\u0026rsquo;s high-pressure academic environment with its emphasis on measurable academic achievements, such as test scores. This emphasis on outcomes might prioritize rule-based analytical approaches to problem solving in science and mathematics over the development of spatial reasoning skills. For example, teaching methods may also focus on formulaic problem-solving that reward precision and speed, leaving little room for spatial exploration and visualization. Similarly, assessment criteria might heavily favor analytical reasoning and rote learning over tasks that demand spatial manipulation or mental transformation. In addition, research has shown that a high-pressure environment can amplify the effects of sociocultural factors, such as stereotype threat, potentially negatively affecting student performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. In Singapore\u0026rsquo;s competitive academic system, where students are continuously evaluated and compared, these stereotypes may exert even greater influence, discouraging females from engaging with spatially intensive tasks and increasing performance gaps. Indeed, research shows that prompting Asian female students to disclose their gender before taking a mathematics test adversely affected their performance [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR32\" citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Taken together, these factors may explain why, despite the strong emphasis on STEM education in Singapore, we did not observe a reduction in sex differences in spatial ability among Singapore college students, even those specializing in science and engineering. Developing approaches to reduce stereotypes and to increase emphasis on spatial reasoning within the education system may be essential for minimizing these differences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eImportantly, our result demonstrated that, compared to spatial ability, the sex differences in object imagery abilities and their trajectories followed a markedly distinct pattern, generally favoring females, particularly for shape and texture imagery. Moreover, they highlighted the nonhomogeneity of object imagery processing, as the three object imagery abilities examined in our study (texture, shape, and color) exhibited distinct patterns of sex differences and developmental trajectories. For shape imagery, as measured by the DPT, we observed sex differences favoring females, particularly pronounced in students aged 13\u0026ndash;14 years old, although still noticeable in the two groups of adults. For texture imagery, measured by the TI, the sex differences favoring females were pronounced only during early adolescence (13\u0026ndash;14 years old), diminishing by age 15 as this ability further developed. As for color imagery, as measured by the CR task, no significant differences were observed in any age groups, despite previous research suggesting female advantage on color discrimination tasks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. One possible explanation for this finding might involve the nature of our color recognition task, which primarily measured perceptual color matching rather than broader cognitive processes. Tasks involving higher cognitive demands, such as memory for color sequences or creative applications of color, might be more sensitive to detecting sex differences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuture research should investigate how task design influences the detection of sex differences in color processing by comparing performance across various types of color imagery tasks with differing cognitive demands. Additionally, cultural and environmental factors may have played a significant role. In Singapore\u0026rsquo;s educational context, there is generally less emphasis on artistic activities compared to STEM disciplines, which might limit opportunities for students to develop fine-tuned color discrimination skills through exposure to art-related tasks. This uniform focus on STEM-related activities for both males and females could further diminish inherent differences, particularly for tasks like perceptual color matching that place lower demands on cognitive resources. Another factor to consider is that the ADE subgroup had limited power for sex-based analyses in MRT and CR, so results for these tasks in this subgroup should be interpreted with caution. Nevertheless, including the ADE group across all four tasks allows for an initial comparison of object and spatial imagery components within the same design, providing a framework that future studies can build on with larger samples.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, our research is the first to highlight the complexity of object imagery, as its various components, such as texture and shape processing, appear to develop along different timelines and exhibit distinct patterns of sex differences. Unlike spatial abilities, where sex differences favoring males persist across all age groups, both texture and shape imagery processing abilities showed differences favoring females. It is possible that the earlier cortical development and neural reorganization observed in females as compared to males, leading to improved brain connectivity during the teenage years [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e] may provide females with an advantage in tasks requiring efficient integration of information during this developmental stage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe exact neural mechanisms underlying the development of sex differences in visual processing, however, remain unclear, particularly regarding the role of ventral stream regions, such as the fusiform gyrus and lateral occipital complex, in mediating fine-grained visual processing. These regions are highly specialized and develop along distinct trajectories, suggesting that specific components of the ventral stream may contribute differently to different aspects of object processing. Further research is needed to explore how the development of ventral stream regions influences sex differences across different object imagery tasks and how these differences evolve throughout adolescence and into adulthood.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, given the importance of object imagery in various creative professions (e.g., design, architecture, and visual arts), further research is essential to develop effective training methods to enhance object imagery abilities and address any persisting sex differences. This broader focus would complement the substantial body of work on spatial imagery and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of visual cognition.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 837 participants (370 males) were recruited from two different participant pools. The first group consisted of 514 participants (age mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.81 SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.799; 247 males) recruited through school representatives from a typical secondary school in Singapore with students with average academic abilities (relative to Singapore\u0026rsquo;s national average). All students with parental consent were invited, resulting in broad participation within each age cohort: 13 years old (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;224, 107 males), 14 years old (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;169, 85 males), and 15 years old (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;125, 55 males). All testing was conducted on standardized school-issued iPads with identical screen size and display settings; cases completed on non-standard devices (e.g., mobile phones or laptops), identified via Qualtrics metadata, were excluded.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second participant pool comprised 323 participants (123 males) who were undergraduate and graduate students from the National University of Singapore, aged 18\u0026ndash;35 years (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21.60, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.245). They were recruited either from the online portal of the Research Participation (RP) Program at the Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, for course credits or through an advertisement offering monetary reimbursement. They were further divided into two subgroups: the first subgroup, AD (adults), included 265 students (89 males) from disciplines such as social sciences, arts, and humanities, while the second subgroup, ADE (adults experts), included 51 students (34 males) specialized in science, computing, and engineering. Data collected on non-standard devices (e.g., mobile phones or laptops), as well as incomplete or inactive sessions, were excluded to ensure consistency and data quality\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The research adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (Singapore). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants or their legal guardians prior to their involvement in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMaterials\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMental Rotation Test (MRT)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe MRT assesses the ability to mentally rotate spatial forms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. We used a computerized version of the MRT in which the participants were shown pairs of 2D pictures of 3D geometric shapes rotated from 0 to 180 degrees relative to each other. Each participant was presented with 36 pairs of such objects with 18 \u0026lsquo;same\u0026rsquo; and 18 \u0026lsquo;different\u0026rsquo; (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). They were instructed to determine whether each pair was \u0026lsquo;same\u0026rsquo; or \u0026lsquo;different.\u0026rsquo; The MRT internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) is α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.88.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDegraded Picture Task (DPT)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe DPT assesses object imagery ability, as it requires participants to use top-down mental imagery to reconstruct familiar shapes from incomplete or noisy visual input, rather than relying on object recognition mechanisms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. We used a computerized version of the DPT, adapted from the Object Imagery Ability Test (MM Virtual Design, LLC, 2004). It included 20 degraded line drawings of everyday objects embedded in visual noise. Participants were asked to name the identified object if they could recognize it or select the option \u0026lsquo;cannot recognize.\u0026rsquo; The total score was calculated as the number of correct answers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The DPT internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) is α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.84 (MM Virtual Design, LLC, 2004).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTexture Imagery (TI)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Texture Imagery (TI) task assesses the ability to encode two-dimensional visual textures, such as differences in granularity and pattern complexity, maintain them for short durations, and compare them against similar alternatives. It consists of 19 trials, along with one practice trial. In each trial, a visual image of a specific texture is presented on a computer screen for 4 seconds. Following the presentation, a fixation point is displayed for a 4-second retention interval. Subsequently, four images with different textures are shown, and participants are instructed to select the image that matches the original texture. The practice trial shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the procedure. The internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) of the TI task is α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.70.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eColor Recognition Test (CR)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe CR task assesses the ability to encode, temporarily retain, and match specific colors. It consists of 25 trials, along with one practice trial. Each specific color was selected randomly from the standardized color palette available in Microsoft Office PowerPoint, while the generation of possible choices was manipulated to achieve transparency and the hue of the original target stimuli. In each trial, a visual image of a specific color is presented on a computer screen for 4 seconds. Following the presentation, a fixation point is displayed for a 4-second retention interval. Subsequently, four images with different colors are shown, and participants are instructed to select the image that matches the original texture (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) of the CR task is α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.70.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted online through Qualtrics (First release: 2005, Provo, Utah, USA, Available at: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.qualtrics.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.qualtrics.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) as part of a larger study where participants completed a series of visual imagery and creativity tests. The secondary school students completed all the tests in their classrooms using their personal learning devices, while undergraduate and graduate students completed the tests on their computers at home. Participants were allocated one hour to complete the tests, starting with the MRT, followed by the DPT, TI, and CR tasks. Accuracy scores and response times for all assessments were recorded via Qualtrics. Participants were given multiple-choice attention checks at the end of the assessment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe anonymized data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding authors. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to thank the Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE) for MOE Tier 1 grant, Grant No. Y2023-FRC1-011 and MOE Academies Fund (MAF, Grant No. AFR 01/17 MK) given to Maria Kozhevnikov to support the current research project. We would like to extend our appreciation to the personnel at the secondary schools in Singapore, where we conducted this research for coordinating the administrative matters regarding the field data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM.K. and L.P. conceived and designed the study. A.B. organized the dataset and curated the data prior to analysis. M.K. conducted the statistical analyses. M.K., L.P., and A.B. provided input for the interpretation of the results. A.B. and M.K. created the tables and figures. M.K. drafted the initial version of the manuscript. M.K., L.P., and A.B. reviewed, edited, and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003einterests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests\u003c/h3\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLinn, M. C. \u0026amp; Petersen, A. C. Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003eChild Dev\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e56\u003c/strong\u003e, 1479\u0026ndash;1498 (1985).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVoyer, D., Voyer, S. \u0026amp; Bryden, M. P. Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. \u003cem\u003ePsychol Bull\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e117\u003c/strong\u003e, 250\u0026ndash;270 (1995).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlajenkova, O., Kozhevnikov, M. \u0026amp; Motes, M. A. 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Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects. \u003cem\u003eScience\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e171\u003c/strong\u003e, 701\u0026ndash;703 (1971).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Sex differences, Object imagery, Spatial Imagery, Cognitive development, Cross-age comparison","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7530430/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7530430/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSex differences in spatial abilities, such as the capacity to mentally rotate objects and manipulate them in space, are well-documented, typically emerging around age 13, with males consistently showing an advantage in response speed over females. However, little is known about the sex differences in the development of object imagery ability\u003cb\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/b\u003ethe ability to mentally visualize the appearance of objects in terms of color and shape. Given neuroscience evidence that the ventral pathway, associated with object imagery, develops differently from the dorsal pathway involved in spatial processing, we hypothesized that the development of sex differences would vary between these two domains. In this study, we examined the development of three components of object imagery ability (shape, color, and texture) across four different age groups (13, 14, 15, and adults aged 18\u0026ndash;35). A sample of 514 secondary school students from Singapore and 323 adults from the National University of Singapore were administered a series of spatial and object imagery tests. The results revealed that females outperformed males in texture and shape imagery. These differences remained consistent across all age groups and were significant in the adult population, independent of academic specialization.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Sex Differences in the Development of Object Imagery Abilities Across Age Groups","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-29 07:29:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7530430/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-11-13T20:14:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-06T18:33:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-16T18:22:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"63829511996117379294978502623140734327","date":"2025-10-15T19:36:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"280897980308080581714148253256282322633","date":"2025-10-15T16:07:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-15T14:26:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-09T12:00:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-05T07:38:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-09-03T21:56:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b493271a-3c88-400e-9304-ab19037a585c","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 29th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":56431541,"name":"Biological sciences/Neuroscience"},{"id":56431542,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":56431543,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-09T16:05:58+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7530430","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-37983-0","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-05 15:57:56","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 5th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-29 07:29:59","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-026-37983-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-37983-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7530430","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7530430","identity":"rs-7530430","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}