The effect of combined inorganic and organic fertilizer on maize yield at Bako Agricultural Research Center in Western Ethiopia

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A study was conducted to evaluate the impact of combining vermicompost and NPS fertilizer rates on maize yield and yield components at Bako Agricultural Research Center (BARC). The experiment involved four levels of vermicompost (0, 2.32, 3.48, and 4.64 tons ha − 1 ) and four levels of NPS fertilizer (0, 50, 75, and 100 kg ha − 1 ) in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. The application of 4.64 tons ha − 1 of vermicompost resulted in significantly higher ear heights (108.3 cm), while the highest ear height (108.56 cm) was achieved with 100 kg NPS ha − 1 . The combination of 4.64 tons ha-1 of vermicompost and 100 kg NPS ha − 1 led to the best overall performance in terms of plant height, days to silking and tasseling, grain yield, harvest index, above-ground biomass yield, and thousand seed weight. The most profitable combination was found to be 2.32 tons VC ha − 1 and 100 kg NPS ha − 1 , with a net profit of 112030 ETB and an MRR of 3161.5%. This combination showed superior grain yield and economic benefits and is recommended for maize production in the area. Agronomy NPS Vermicompost Productivity Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction In Ethiopia, the shift from natural vegetation to cultivated lands has led to rapid nutrient depletion due to poor soil fertility management practices [ 4 ]. This decline in soil quality affects crop yields and exacerbates food shortages in the country [ 7 ]. Factors contributing to soil fertility depletion include erosion, continuous cultivation, inadequate crop residue management, lack of crop rotation, and insufficient nutrient inputs [ 8 ]. Addressing poor soil fertility management is crucial for sustaining agricultural productivity. Improving soil fertility through proper nutrient management is essential for ensuring food security for the growing global population. Soil fertility and plant nutrition are closely related, emphasizing nutrient forms, availability, uptake by plants, and utilization within plants. In Ethiopia, low soil fertility, particularly due to acidity and inadequate agricultural inputs, is are major constraint to crop production. Aluminum and manganese toxicity, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and molybdenum deficiencies limit productivity in acid soils. Organic fertilizers can help alleviate soil acidification, enhance microbial activity, improve soil structure, increase nutrient availability, and boost crop yields [ 10 ]. The integrated use of organic and mineral fertilizers is effective in maintaining soil productivity while minimizing environmental impact [ 14 ]. Organic fertilizers enhance the soil's physical, chemical, and biological properties, while inorganic fertilizers provide readily available nutrients to plants. Combining both types of fertilizers optimizes soil fertility and crop productivity without degrading soil health. Integrated soil fertility management strategies involve using soil amendments, organic materials, and mineral fertilizers to replenish soil nutrients and enhance external inputs. Maize is a vital crop in Ethiopia, crucial for food self-sufficiency. However, low soil fertility, improper fertilizer use, and inadequate crop management practices hinder maize productivity [ 4 ]. Western Oromia is known for its maize production, but the area has been experiencing a decrease in yield over time due to soil fertility issues. Bako Tibe is one of the main maize belt areas, but the yield is limited due to soil acidity constraints and fertility problems. The integrated application of organic and inorganic fertilizers can address these challenges and improve crop yields. Research on the combined use of vermicompost and inorganic fertilizers for maize production is limited in the study area, highlighting the need for further investigation to enhance soil fertility and crop productivity. This study aims to evaluate the impact of vermicompost and NPS fertilizers on soil fertility and maize productivity in the Bako area. It will assess the effects of vermicompost and NPS fertilizer on maize growth, yield, and yield components, as well as determine economically viable rates for maize production. By understanding the benefits of integrated fertilization, farmers can enhance soil fertility, increase crop yields, and mitigate climate change impacts in the region. Materials and Methods Description of the Study Area Location The study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research Center (BARC) in Western Oromia during the 2022 cropping season. The research center is located in the Oromia Regional National State at coordinates 9°12'35" − 9°7'30"N latitude and 37°58'25" − 37°13'40"E longitude, with an altitude of 1650 meters above sea level (Fig. 1 ). It is situated 258 km west of Addis Ababa, 8 km from the town of Bako, and 4 km from the highway to Nekemte town in western Ethiopia. Climate The study area falls under the mid-altitude agroecology according to Ethiopian agro-climatic zoning. Meteorological data from the Bako Agricultural Research Center near the experimental sites show an unimodal rainfall pattern from April to November, with peak rainfall in June, July, and August. Over ten years (2013–2022), the mean annual rainfall was 1356.77mm (Fig. 2 ). During the main cropping season, the mean annual temperature was 21.02°C, with mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures of 13.9°C and 28.07°C, respectively. Long-term temperature data for the study area were consistent with the 2022 cropping season, with mean minimum, mean maximum, and average air temperatures over the ten years (2013–2022) recorded at 13.6°C, 28°C, and 20.80°C, respectively.. Soil types The primary soil type in the study area is Nitisols, which are deep, well-drained, red tropical soils with clay-rich nitric subsurface horizons. These soils are derived from basic parent rocks through strong weathering and are more fertile than other red tropical soils. The soils in the area are generally well-drained, clay-textured, and moderately to strongly acidic [ 13 ]. Farming and cropping systems Subsistence agriculture is the primary livelihood in the community, with a focus on crop-livestock mixed farming. The area's climate is conducive to both practices, aimed at meeting household needs. Livestock are used for transport, plowing, income, manure, and crop residues for construction and fuel, creating a mutually beneficial system. Rain-fed cultivation of maize, sorghum, teff, hot pepper, sweet potato, and haricot bean is common in the Bako district. Maize is a key crop due to favorable conditions. Farmers often sell surplus maize for agricultural inputs. An improved maize hybrid (BH-547) with a yield potential of 9.5–12 t ha-1 was used in the experiment (Table 1 ). NPS fertilizer (19% N, 38% P 2 O 5 , 7% S) and vermicompost from soybean residue and cow dung were used. The vermicompost was prepared at Bako Agricultural Research Center and applied at a rate of 4.64 t ha -1 , equivalent to the recommended amount for optimum maize production. The NPS fertilizer rate was 100–200 kg ha -1 based on ATA recommendations. Table 1 Description of the maize variety (BH-547) used in the experiment Year of release 2013 Remark Altitude 1600–2200 (masl) Maturity group/date Intermediate 145 days Yield in the farmers' field 6 to 8.5-ton ha − 1 Yield at the research center 9.5 to 12-ton ha − 1 Seed rate kg ha − 1 25 kg ha − 1 Source: BNMRC (2013) Treatments and Experimental Design The experiment included four levels of NPS (0, 50, 75, 100 kg NPS ha − 1 ) and four levels of vermicompost rates (0, 2.32, 3.48, 4.64 ton/ha). The treatments were arranged in a 4 x 4 factorial combination in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Each plot consisted of five rows of width 3.75m and 2 m in length (7.5 m 2 ), with one border row on each side. The central three rows (4.5 m 2 ) were used for data collection. The spacing between plots and blocks was 1 m and 2 m, respectively. Standard agronomic practices were followed as recommended. Experimental Procedures and Field Management The experimental field was plowed three times using ox-drawn implements according to the conventional farming system in the study area. Nitrogen from urea (200 kg ha − 1 ) was applied in three splits, 35 days after sowing, during the knee height and flowering stages of the maize crop. NPS fertilizer was applied in a band at planting time, and Vermicompost was applied one month before planting. An improved maize hybrid (BH-547) was used for the experiment in the 2022 cropping season. Maize was planted in five rows, each 3.75 m wide, with inter-row spacing or distance between row to rows of 0.75 m and intra-row spacing or distance between plat to plants of 0.30 m. Two seeds per hill were planted, and thinning was done two weeks after planting to achieve a plant population of 44,444 plants per ha − 1 . Weed control was carried out through hand weeding, hoeing at the recommended time after sowing, and slashing at the milk stage. Crop phonological data Days to 50% tasseling It was recorded when 50% of the plants in the net plot were shaded with pollen from the date of planting. Days to 50% silking It was determined as the number of days from the date of planting to the stage when 50% of plants in the plot showed extrusion of silks. Days to 90% physiological maturity It was recorded as the number of days from planting to the stage when a black layer formed at the point of attachment of the grain with cob on 90% of the plants on a plot. Growth parameters Plant height (cm ): It was determined by measuring the height of five randomly selected plants from ground level or soil surface to the base of the tassel at physiological maturity. The total measured plant height was summed and divided by the number of plants to get the average. Ear height (cm) It was recorded from five randomly taken plants by measuring the height of the stem from ground level to the point of attachment of the uppermost ears at physiological maturity. Yield and yield components Plant stand count The number of plants per plot was counted at physiological maturity before harvesting. The plant population per hectare was obtained by converting the number of plants counted from 7.5 m 2 to 10,000 m 2 . The number of cobs per plot It was determined by counting the number of cobs from the net plot area and dividing by the stand count at harvest. Thousand seed weight (g) After shelling, random kernels from the bulk of each plot were counted using a photoelectric seed counter and weighed in grams after the moisture was adjusted to 12.5%. Grain yield (kg ha − 1 ): Grain yield per plot was measured using an electronic balance and then adjusted to 12.5% moisture and converted to a hectare basis. Aboveground biomass yield (kg ha − 1 ): At maturity, the whole above-ground parts of the plant, including leaves, stalks, and seeds from the net plot area, were harvested and sun-dried until constant weight, and then the above-ground biomass yield was weighed and converted into kg ha- 1 . Harvesting Index (HI): The harvest index was calculated as the ratio of grain yield to total above-ground biomass yield and calculated as the following formula: $$\:\text{H}\text{I}\left(\text{%}\right)=\frac{Grain\:Yield}{Biological\:Yield}x100$$ Data Analysis All collected parameters underwent analysis of variance using the R statistical software package. If the treatment effects are significant, the means were compared using the LSD test at a 5% significance level. Results and Discussion Effect of NPS Fertilizer and Vermicompost on Maize Growth and Yields Phenological Parameters Days to 50% tasseling Different levels of vermicompost and NPS affected the number of days to tassel in maize plants. The interaction between vermicompost and NPS was found to be highly significant (P ≤ 0.01). The shortest time to tasseling (72 days) was observed in maize plants treated with 100 kg NPS ha -1 , 75 kg NPS ha -1, and 75% and 100% of vermicompost rates, respectively, while the longest time to tasseling (80 days) was seen in plants from control plots (Table 2 ). The shorter time to tasseling with higher vermicompost and NPS rates may be due to increased vegetative growth and improved light use efficiency resulting from the higher nitrogen content in both fertilizers. Nitrogen is essential for stimulating vegetative growth and development, as well as for chlorophyll production, which is crucial for photosynthesis. Similarly, [ 1 ] found that higher levels of NPS and vermicompost reduced the time to tasseling in maize plants. Table 2 Interaction effects of NPS and vermicompost on the date of 50% tasseling of maize. VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) NPS (kg ha − 1 ) 0 2.32 3.48 4.64 0 80.00 a 79.33 ab 78.67 ab 78.33 abc 50 79.33 ab 76.67 abcd 74.67 bcd 73.67 cd 75 78.67 ab 75.33 abcd 74.67 bcd 72.33 d 100 78.67 ab 75.00 bcd 73.00 d 72.00 d LSD (5%) 4.095 CV (%) 3.25 Means with the followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference. Days of 50% Silking The analysis of variance indicated that the interaction effects of VC and NPS were significantly related to the days of silking in maize (p < 0.01). The longest silking period (84.33 days) was observed in maize plants from the control plots, while the shortest silking period (76.33 days) was noted in plants treated with 75 kg NPS ha -1 ,100 kg NPS ha -1, and 100% vermicompost (4.64 t ha -1 ), respectively (Table 3 ). Previous research also reported a decrease in silking days with increasing fertilizer levels. Interaction effects of NPS and vermicompost on the date of 50% silking of maize. Table 3 Interaction effects of NPS and vermicompost on the date of 50% Silking of maize VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) NPS (kg ha − 1 ) 0 2.32 3.48 4.64 0 84.33 a 83.67 a 82.67 ab 81.33 abc 50 83.33 a 50.67 abcd 78.67 bcde 78.67 bcde 75 82.67 ab 78.67 bcde 79.00 bcde 76.00 e 100 82.33 ab 78 bcde 76.67 de 76.33 e LSD (5%) 4.093 CV (%) 3.25 Means with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference. Days to 90% physiological maturity The number of days required to reach physiological maturity was influenced by varying levels of vermicompost and NPS. The analysis of variance showed that the interaction effects of VC and NPS were statistically significant on physiological maturity (P < 0.05) (Table 4 ). Increasing rates of vermicompost and NPS application resulted in a significant increase in the time taken to reach physiological maturity. The shortest period to reach physiological maturity (140.67 days) was observed under the control treatment, while the longest period (161.34 days) was noted under the treatment with 100 kg NPS ha -1 and 100% of the recommended rate of vermicompost (4.64 t ha -1 ) application. This delay could be attributed to the application of 100 kg NPS ha -1 and 100% of the recommended rate of vermicompost (4.64 t ha -1 ), causing the plants to stay green for a longer period, leading to delayed maturity. [ 9 ] Also reported a similar result, indicating that the main effects of NPS and vermicompost were highly significant (P < 0.01) on the days required to reach 90% physiological maturity of bread wheat varieties. Table 4 Interaction effects of NPS and vermicompost on the date of 90% physiological maturity of maize. VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) NPS (kg ha − 1 ) 0 2.32 3.48 4.64 0 140.67 b 151 ab 150.33 ab 152.67 ab 50 146.67 ab 153 ab 155.67 ab 155.67 ab 75 142.33 ab 154.67 ab 156.67 ab 161.33 ab 100 156.33 ab 155.33 ab 155.33 ab 161.34 a LSD (5%) 19.53 CV (%) 7.21 Means with the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance. CV stands for Coefficient of Variation, and LSD represents the Least Significant Difference. Growth parameters Plant height Plant height was significantly influenced by the interaction of vermicompost and NPS (P < 0.01). The tallest plant (262.5 cm) was observed with a combined application of 100% recommended vermicompost (4.64 t ha -1 ) and 100 kg NPS ha -1 , while the shortest plant (186.58 cm) was in the control plots(Table 5 ). This increase in plant height could be attributed to cell elongation and vegetative growth due to balanced nutrition. This result aligns with [ 11 ], who found that organic and inorganic fertilizers increased plant height compared to the control. [ 12 ] Also noted that an inadequate balance of nutrient elements could stunt plant growth and development. Table 5 Interaction effects of NPS and vermicompost on maize plant height(cm). VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) NPS (kg ha − 1 ) 0 2.32 3.48 4.64 0 186.58 d 243.67 abc 224.58 c 237.91 abc 50 238.4 abc 245.33 abc 227.67 abc 249.2 abc 75 238.93 abc 252.08 abc 239.91 bc 259.33 abc 100 257.5 abc 254.33 abc 257.67 abc 262.5 a LSD (5%) 7.89 CV (%) 9.48 Means with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference. Ear height Ear height was significantly affected by NPS fertilizer and vermicompost, with the highest ear height at 100 kg NPS ha -1 (108.56 cm) and the lowest in control treatments (87.38 cm)(Table 6 ). Increasing vermicompost levels led to higher ear height due to improved nutrient availability. The maximum ear height (108.31 cm) was at 4.64 t ha -1 vermicompost. Similar studies showed increased ear height with higher fertilizer levels. Nutrient availability likely influenced the ear height increase, while nutrient unavailability may have caused the decrease in control plots. Table 6 Main effects of vermicompost and NPS on ear height of maize(cm). NPS (Kg ha-1) Ear height 0 87.38 b 50 98.05 ab 75 100.63 ab 100 108.56 a LSD (5%) 13.8 VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) 0 89.68 b 2.32 94.1 ab 3.48 102.48 ab 4.64 108.31 a LSD (5%) 14.24 CV (%) 17.53 Means with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference. Yield parameters Plant population The effects of NPS fertilizer and vermicompost application, as well as their interaction, did not significantly impact plant population in hybrid maize net plots after thinning and at harvest (Table 7 ). Counting plant populations is essential for data analysis because it provides the foundational data needed to assess and understand changes in plant communities. Table 7 Main effects of vermicompost and NPS on the plant stand count of maize at harvesting NPS (kg ha-1) Stand count. 0 20.08 50 20.08 75 19.58 100 19.33 LSD (5%) NS VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) 0 19.75 2.32 20.16 3.48 19.58 4.64 19.58 LSD (5%) NS CV (%) 8.35 Means with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference. Number of ears per plant The number of ears per plant was not significantly affected by vermicompost, NPS application rate, or their interaction (Table 8 ). Previous studies have shown that the number of ears per plant is mainly determined by genetic factors rather than plant nutrition. Additionally, research has found no significant changes in the number of ears per plant with the application of NPS and N fertilizer rates. Table 8 Main effects of vermicompost and NPS on the number of ears per plant. NPS (kg ha-1) Ear per plant 0 1.21 50 1.27 75 1.25 100 1.27 LSD (5%) NS VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) 0 1.21 2.32 1.19 3.48 1.34 4.64 1.27 LSD (5%) NS CV (%) 17.97 Means with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference. Grain yield The interaction effects of vermicompost and NPS fertilizer were highly significant (p < 0.01) on maize crop grain yield. The highest yield (6769.3 kg ha − 1 ) was from plots treated with 100% vermicompost (4.64 t ha − 1 ) and 75 kg NPS ha − 1, 100 kg NPS ha − 1, followed by 6724.67 kg ha − 1 from plots with 100% vermicompost (3.48 t ha − 1 ) and 100 kg NPS ha − 1, respectively. The lowest yield (3236.6 kg ha − 1 ) was from control plots (Table 9 ). Combining 4.64 t VC ha − 1 and 100 NPS kg ha − 1 increased maize yield by 16.33% over sole NPS application and by 43.69% over sole vermicompost application. This suggests that combining organic and inorganic fertilizers may be more beneficial for maize productivity. The combined use of 500% vermicompost and 50% NPS at half the recommended rate increased yield by 43.6% over the control. The improved yield with combined application is due to enhanced soil properties, nutrient status, and microbial activity, leading to sustainable plant growth and production [ 5 ]. Table 9 Interaction effect of vermicompost and NPS on grain yield of maize. VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) NPS (kg ha − 1 ) 0 2.32 3.48 4.64 0 3236.6 h 4042.13 fgh 3854.52 gh 4710.83 defg 50 3532.43 h 4647.82 efg 6102.5 ab 6159.49 ab 75 4648.56 efg 4827.81 cdefg 5919.11 abc 6724.67 a 100 4819.04 defg 5588.62 bcde 5792.97 abcd 6769.3 a LSD (5%) 993.8 CV (%) 11.65 Means with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference. Thousand-seed weight The thousand-seed weight of maize was significantly affected by the interaction of NPS and VC application (P < 0.05). The highest thousand-seed weight (361.46 g) was observed with the integrated application of 75% vermicompost (3.48 t VC ha -1 ) and 100 kg NPS ha -1 , while the lowest weight (283.1 g) was recorded in the control treatment (Table 10 ). The increase in thousand-seed weight with higher vermicompost and NPS levels may be attributed to increased leaf area, leading to more light interception and carbohydrate production. These carbohydrates were likely translocated to the sink, resulting in increased grain weight compared to the control. Previous studies have also shown that increased plant nutrient application can enhance the thousand-seed weight of maize. Table 10 Interaction effects of vermicompost and NPS on the thousand-grain weight of maize (kg ha -1 ). VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) NPS (kg ha − 1 ) 0 2.32 3.48 4.64 0 283.1 e 304.46 bcd 321.7 abcd 301.5 cd 50 286.7 cd 315 abcd 316.23 abcd 333.6 abcd 75 292.26 cd 287 cd 340.0 abc 342.5 abc 100 328.36 abcd 357.9 ab 361.46 a 359.16 ab LSD (5%) 55.76 CV (%) 10.62 Means with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference. Above-ground biomass yield The maize biomass yield is the total aboveground biomass accumulated by the plant. The interaction between vermicompost and NPS fertilizer significantly affected biomass yield (p < 0.01). The plot treated with 4.64 t VC/ha and 100 kg NPS/ha had the highest above-ground biomass yield (12,196.49 kg/ha), while the control plot had the lowest yield (6,751.11 kg/ha) (Table 11 ). This increase in biomass yield with combined vermicompost and NPS fertilizers suggests a synergistic effect on maize growth. Previous studies have also shown higher dry matter production in maize with combined organic and inorganic fertilizers compared to individual applications [ 6 ]. Table 11 Interaction effect of vermicompost and NPS on the above-ground biomass yield of maize. VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) NPS (kg ha − 1 ) 0 2.32 3.48 4.64 0 6751.11 e 7253.57 de 8639.57 cde 9200 cde 50 9280 cd 9542.22 bcd 9337.77 cd 9417.77 cd 75 9973.33 abc 9995.55 abc 10075.55 abc 10755.55 abc 100 10382.22 abc 10951.11 abc 11875.55 ab 12196.49 a LSD (5%) 2413 CV (%) 15.26 Means with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference. Harvest index (%). The maize harvest index was significantly influenced by the vermicompost and NPS rates as well as their interaction. The highest harvest index (49.67%) was observed with 100% vermicompost (4.64 t VC ha -1 ) and 100 kg NPS ha -1 , while the lowest (29.33%) was in the control treatment (Table 12 ). The combined application of vermicompost and NPS led to increased photosynthate generation, resulting in higher grain yield compared to vegetative biomass. This combination also increased dry matter accumulation in maize grains. Similar findings were reported by [ 2 ], who achieved a higher harvest index (24.4%) with 2.5 tons VC ha -1 and 40 kg NPS ha -1 with lime compared to sole applications of vermicompost and NPS fertilizer. Table 12 Interaction effects of vermicompost and NPS on the harvest index of maize. VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) NPS (kg ha − 1 ) 0 2.32 3.48 4.64 0 29.33 e 33.66 de 36.33 bcde 38.33 abcde 50 35.66 cde 41 abcde 41.67 abcd 45 abcd 75 38.33 abcde 43.33 abcd 44.33 abcd 46.6 abc 100 40.66 abcde 46.66 abc 48 ab 49.67 a LSD (5%) 0.12 CV (%) 17.44 Means with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference. Partial Budget Analysis Table 13 presents an analysis of net benefits, total variable costs, and marginal rate of returns. Understanding the costs and benefits of different treatments is crucial for farmers to adopt new technologies and innovations. The study evaluated the economic benefits of using vermicompost and NPS fertilizer together based on agronomic data to provide recommendations for farmers in the study area. This helps farmers choose the most effective combination of resources. The partial budget analysis focused on the costs of NPS, vermicompost, and fertilizer application. The results showed that applying 2.32 tons of vermicompost per hectare with 100 kg of NPS fertilizer resulted in the highest net return of 112,030 Birr per hectare and a high MRR value of 31,615.23%. In comparison, the control treatment had the lowest net benefit of 70,560 Birr per hectare. Farmers are likely to switch to a new practice if the marginal rate of return exceeds the minimum acceptable rate of return. Table 13 Partial budget analysis of vermicompost and NPS for maize production. VC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha − 1 ) NPS (kg ha − 1 ) GY (kg ha − 1 ) A GY (kg ha − 1 ) GB (ETB ha − 1 ) TVC (ETB ha − 1 ) NB (ETB ha − 1 ) MRR (%) 0 0 3136 2822.4 70560 0 70560 0 0 50 3532 3179 79470 4850 74620 83 0 75 4648 3823 95580 5375 90205 2968.5 0 100 4819 4517.1 108427.5 5900 102527.5 2347.14 50 0 4042 3638 90945 11600 79345 D 50 50 4647 4182 104557 12650 91907 D 50 75 4827 4344 108607 13175 95432 D 50 100 5588 5029 125730 13700 112030 31615.23 75 0 3854 3469 86715 17400 69315 D 75 50 5919 5327 133177 18975 114202 2849.9 75 75 6102 5492 137295 18450 118845 Not dominated 75 100 5792 5213 130320 19500 110820 D 100 0 4710 4239 105975 23200 82775 D 100 50 6159 5543 138577 24250 114327 D 100 75 6724 6052 151290 24775 126515 2321.5 100 100 6769 6092 152302 25300 127002 92.76 VC: Vermicompost, GY: Grain yield, AGY: Adjusted grain yield, GB: Gross benefit, TVC: Total variable cost, NB: Net benefit, MRR: marginal rate of return, D: Dominated, 21birr = cost of NPS/kg, 5 birrs = costs of vermicompost/kg, 100 kg of maize = 2500 Birr, 72 birr = cost of improved seed/kg. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Low soil fertility is a major constraint on maize productivity in western Oromia. Using vermicompost and NPS inorganic fertilizer can improve soil fertility, leading to increased production and revenue. Enhancing soil potential is crucial for boosting maize yield. By combining organic and inorganic fertilizers, soil fertility and crop production goals can be achieved, resulting in higher production per unit area. An experiment was conducted to assess the effects of vermicompost and NPS fertilizer rates on maize growth, yields, and yield components. The study used a randomized complete block design with varying levels of vermicompost (0, 2.32, 3.48, and 4.64 t ha − 1 ) and NPS fertilizer (0, 50, 75, and 100 kg ha-1). Results showed significant effects of vermicompost and NPS on above-ground biomass, plant height, harvest index, days of silking, days of tasseling, yield, thousand-grain weight, and physiological maturity of maize. The highest yields were obtained with 4.64 t VC ha-1 and 100 kg NPS ha − 1 . Optimal rates of vermicompost and NPS fertilizer can increase maize productivity, as demonstrated by a maximum marginal rate of return of 31615% with 100 kg NPS ha − 1 and 2.32 t VC ha-1 in Bako, Western Ethiopia. Applying 2.32 tons of VC and 100 kg of NPS per hectare together can lead to increased net profit and better grain production. Further research is needed to assess long-term effects on soil and crops, warranting replication of the experiment over time and at multiple sites. Declarations Ethics Approval: Approved by Haramaya University Consent to Participate: Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Consent for Publication: Not applicable. Clinical Trial: Not applicable. Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Funding: This study was funded by the Oromia Agricultural Research Institute. Authors Declaration 1. Lami Gebrekidan: Collected the data, wrote the manuscript, analyzed and interpreted the data, developed methodology, and Conceived and designed the study 2. Lemma Wogi supervised the project, revised the manuscript critically, and conceived and designed the study 3. Achalu Chimdi: Supervised the project, conceived and designed the study ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Oromia Agricultural Research Institute for its generous funding of my education, which has been instrumental in the success of my studies and research. I am also thankful to the Bako Agricultural Research Center, especially the Soil Fertility Improvement Team, for their invaluable assistance and guidance throughout the research process. Your expertise and dedication have greatly enhanced the quality of my work. Additionally, I want to thank Haramaya University for providing a conducive environment for my education and research, which has significantly contributed to my academic growth and achievements. Without the support of these organizations and individuals, this work would not have been possible. Thank you for your commitment to excellence in education and research. References Abera, T. et al. (2019) ‘Effects of Vermicompost and NPS Fertilizer Rate on Yield and Yield Components of Highland Maize in Vertisol Ambo’, Ethiopian Journal of Applied Science and Technology , 10(1), pp. 1–15. Abera, T. et al. (2020) ‘Evaluation of Vermicompost and NPS Fertilizer Rate on Yield and Yield Components of Highland Maize in Vertisols of Ambo’, Results of Natural Resources Management Research [Preprint]. Agegnehu, G. et al. (2011) ‘The state of science and technology in soil fertility and plant nutrient management research in Ethiopia’, The State of Agricultural Science and Technology in Ethiopia , p. 373. Aleminew, A. and Alemayehu, M. (2020) ‘Soil fertility depletion and its management options under crop production perspectives in Ethiopia: A review’, Agricultural Reviews , 41(2), pp. 91–105. Das, P.P. et al. (2022) ‘Plant-soil-microbes: A tripartite interaction for nutrient acquisition and better plant growth for sustainable agricultural practices’, Environmental Research , 214, p. 113821. Dordas, C.A. et al. (2008) ‘Application of liquid cattle manure and inorganic fertilizers affects dry matter, nitrogen accumulation, and partitioning in maize’, Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems , 80, pp. 283–296. Gomiero, T. (2016) ‘Soil degradation, land scarcity, and food security: Reviewing a complex challenge’, Sustainability , 8(3), p. 281. Lal, R. (2009) ‘Soils and food sufficiency: A review’, Sustainable agriculture , pp. 25–49. Nevoux, M., Weimerskirch, H. and Barbraud, C. (2010) ‘Long-and short-term influence of environment on recruitment in a species with highly delayed maturity’, Oecologia , 162, pp. 383–392. Pahalvi, H.N. et al. (2021) ‘Chemical fertilizers and their impact on soil health’, Microbiota and Biofertilizers, Vol 2: Ecofriendly tools for reclamation of degraded soil environs , pp. 1–20. Schulz, H. and Glaser, B. (2012) ‘Effects of biochar compared to organic and inorganic fertilizers on soil quality and plant growth in a greenhouse experiment’, Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science , 175(3), pp. 410–422. Vitousek, P.M. et al. (2009) ‘Nutrient imbalances in agricultural development’, Science , 324(5934), pp. 1519–1520. De Wispelaere, L. et al. (2015) ‘Revisiting nitic horizon properties of Nitisols in SW Ethiopia’, Geoderma , 243, pp. 69–79. Wu, W. and Ma, B. (2015) ‘Integrated nutrient management (INM) for sustaining crop productivity and reducing environmental impact: A review’, Science of the Total Environment , 512, pp. 415–427. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7759492","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":523375155,"identity":"76a8bc39-bae2-4bb5-b5c3-1345148aaa75","order_by":0,"name":"Lami Gebrekidan Injigu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACPiA+wMAjwcDAzHz4gUQFA4jRgFcLG1wLO1uagcUZkBZGwloggJ/HQKKyDcQipIX9dOLhAhkLuw2HGQwMbs6rjeZvB2r5UbENtxae3A2HZ/BIJAO1JDycue147ozDjA2MPWdu43EYUAsPUIvBYYYDxpLbjuU2ALUwM7bh0cL/FqaFsUH675xjufMJapGA2GJncJiZQUKyoQbIJagFYkuC5GE2NgOJYwdyNwK1HMTnF37+3M2feXvq7PnOn//8QKKmLnfe+cMHH/yowK0FDBh7GBIbIMzDYPIAfvUg8IPBHsqqI6x4FIyCUTAKRhwAAID0WlBWsNKBAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Oromia Agricultural Research Institute Bako Research Center","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lami","middleName":"Gebrekidan","lastName":"Injigu","suffix":""},{"id":523375156,"identity":"4ad4367c-7cb0-4006-b37b-c224589136b2","order_by":1,"name":"Lemma Wogi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Haramaya 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06:37:02","extension":"html","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":113479,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7759492/v1/5f45b173362aa771cc5d1f0f.html"},{"id":92694565,"identity":"60ef7039-164f-4afc-bdb4-f43e1777be82","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-03 06:37:02","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":231052,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation map of the study Area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7759492/v1/f9ea190995bce575131d97be.png"},{"id":92695233,"identity":"9b159d6b-9b5c-442e-b836-aecdac879d9b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-03 06:45:02","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":115328,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMonthly rainfall, minimum and maximum air temperatures of the study area during the 2022 cropping season\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Bako Agricultural Research Center metrological data\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7759492/v1/297d8b494aca3870596187c0.png"},{"id":92695575,"identity":"26218261-07c9-4459-9955-33ff05d4caef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-03 06:53:04","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2008964,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7759492/v1/e7c1a02d-e62e-4ac7-b666-ae3dbb461abc.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eThe effect of combined inorganic and organic fertilizer on maize yield at Bako Agricultural Research Center in Western Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn Ethiopia, the shift from natural vegetation to cultivated lands has led to rapid nutrient depletion due to poor soil fertility management practices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. This decline in soil quality affects crop yields and exacerbates food shortages in the country [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Factors contributing to soil fertility depletion include erosion, continuous cultivation, inadequate crop residue management, lack of crop rotation, and insufficient nutrient inputs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Addressing poor soil fertility management is crucial for sustaining agricultural productivity. Improving soil fertility through proper nutrient management is essential for ensuring food security for the growing global population. Soil fertility and plant nutrition are closely related, emphasizing nutrient forms, availability, uptake by plants, and utilization within plants. In Ethiopia, low soil fertility, particularly due to acidity and inadequate agricultural inputs, is are major constraint to crop production. Aluminum and manganese toxicity, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and molybdenum deficiencies limit productivity in acid soils. Organic fertilizers can help alleviate soil acidification, enhance microbial activity, improve soil structure, increase nutrient availability, and boost crop yields [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe integrated use of organic and mineral fertilizers is effective in maintaining soil productivity while minimizing environmental impact [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Organic fertilizers enhance the soil's physical, chemical, and biological properties, while inorganic fertilizers provide readily available nutrients to plants. Combining both types of fertilizers optimizes soil fertility and crop productivity without degrading soil health. Integrated soil fertility management strategies involve using soil amendments, organic materials, and mineral fertilizers to replenish soil nutrients and enhance external inputs. Maize is a vital crop in Ethiopia, crucial for food self-sufficiency. However, low soil fertility, improper fertilizer use, and inadequate crop management practices hinder maize productivity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Western Oromia is known for its maize production, but the area has been experiencing a decrease in yield over time due to soil fertility issues. Bako Tibe is one of the main maize belt areas, but the yield is limited due to soil acidity constraints and fertility problems. The integrated application of organic and inorganic fertilizers can address these challenges and improve crop yields. Research on the combined use of vermicompost and inorganic fertilizers for maize production is limited in the study area, highlighting the need for further investigation to enhance soil fertility and crop productivity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to evaluate the impact of vermicompost and NPS fertilizers on soil fertility and maize productivity in the Bako area. It will assess the effects of vermicompost and NPS fertilizer on maize growth, yield, and yield components, as well as determine economically viable rates for maize production. By understanding the benefits of integrated fertilization, farmers can enhance soil fertility, increase crop yields, and mitigate climate change impacts in the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003ch3\u003eDescription of the Study Area\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLocation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research Center (BARC) in Western Oromia during the 2022 cropping season. The research center is located in the Oromia Regional National State at coordinates 9°12'35\" − 9°7'30\"N latitude and 37°58'25\" − 37°13'40\"E longitude, with an altitude of 1650 meters above sea level (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). It is situated 258 km west of Addis Ababa, 8 km from the town of Bako, and 4 km from the highway to Nekemte town in western Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eClimate\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study area falls under the mid-altitude agroecology according to Ethiopian agro-climatic zoning. Meteorological data from the Bako Agricultural Research Center near the experimental sites show an unimodal rainfall pattern from April to November, with peak rainfall in June, July, and August. Over ten years (2013–2022), the mean annual rainfall was 1356.77mm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). During the main cropping season, the mean annual temperature was 21.02°C, with mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures of 13.9°C and 28.07°C, respectively. Long-term temperature data for the study area were consistent with the 2022 cropping season, with mean minimum, mean maximum, and average air temperatures over the ten years (2013–2022) recorded at 13.6°C, 28°C, and 20.80°C, respectively..\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil types\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe primary soil type in the study area is Nitisols, which are deep, well-drained, red tropical soils with clay-rich nitric subsurface horizons. These soils are derived from basic parent rocks through strong weathering and are more fertile than other red tropical soils. The soils in the area are generally well-drained, clay-textured, and moderately to strongly acidic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eFarming and cropping systems\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubsistence agriculture is the primary livelihood in the community, with a focus on crop-livestock mixed farming. The area's climate is conducive to both practices, aimed at meeting household needs. Livestock are used for transport, plowing, income, manure, and crop residues for construction and fuel, creating a mutually beneficial system. Rain-fed cultivation of maize, sorghum, teff, hot pepper, sweet potato, and haricot bean is common in the Bako district. Maize is a key crop due to favorable conditions. Farmers often sell surplus maize for agricultural inputs. An improved maize hybrid (BH-547) with a yield potential of 9.5–12 t ha-1 was used in the experiment (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNPS fertilizer (19% N, 38% P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e, 7% S) and vermicompost from soybean residue and cow dung were used. The vermicompost was prepared at Bako Agricultural Research Center and applied at a rate of 4.64 t ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, equivalent to the recommended amount for optimum maize production. The NPS fertilizer rate was 100–200 kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e based on ATA recommendations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription of the maize variety (BH-547) used in the experiment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear of release\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRemark\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAltitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1600–2200 (masl)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaturity group/date\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntermediate 145 days\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYield in the farmers' field\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 to 8.5-ton ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYield at the research center\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.5 to 12-ton ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeed rate kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25 kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eSource: BNMRC (2013)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ch3\u003eTreatments and Experimental Design\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experiment included four levels of NPS (0, 50, 75, 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) and four levels of vermicompost rates (0, 2.32, 3.48, 4.64 ton/ha).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe treatments were arranged in a 4 x 4 factorial combination in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Each plot consisted of five rows of width 3.75m and 2 m in length (7.5 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), with one border row on each side. The central three rows (4.5 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) were used for data collection. The spacing between plots and blocks was 1 m and 2 m, respectively. Standard agronomic practices were followed as recommended.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eExperimental Procedures and Field Management\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experimental field was plowed three times using ox-drawn implements according to the conventional farming system in the study area. Nitrogen from urea (200 kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) was applied in three splits, 35 days after sowing, during the knee height and flowering stages of the maize crop. NPS fertilizer was applied in a band at planting time, and Vermicompost was applied one month before planting. An improved maize hybrid (BH-547) was used for the experiment in the 2022 cropping season. Maize was planted in five rows, each 3.75 m wide, with inter-row spacing or distance between row to rows of 0.75 m and intra-row spacing or distance between plat to plants of 0.30 m. Two seeds per hill were planted, and thinning was done two weeks after planting to achieve a plant population of 44,444 plants per ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e. Weed control was carried out through hand weeding, hoeing at the recommended time after sowing, and slashing at the milk stage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCrop phonological data\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDays to 50% tasseling\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt was recorded when 50% of the plants in the net plot were shaded with pollen from the date of planting.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDays to 50% silking\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt was determined as the number of days from the date of planting to the stage when 50% of plants in the plot showed extrusion of silks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDays to 90% physiological maturity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt was recorded as the number of days from planting to the stage when a black layer formed at the point of attachment of the grain with cob on 90% of the plants on a plot.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eGrowth parameters\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlant height (cm\u003c/b\u003e): It was determined by measuring the height of five randomly selected plants from ground level or soil surface to the base of the tassel at physiological maturity. The total measured plant height was summed and divided by the number of plants to get the average.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEar height (cm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt was recorded from five randomly taken plants by measuring the height of the stem from ground level to the point of attachment of the uppermost ears at physiological maturity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eYield and yield components\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant stand count\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe number of plants per plot was counted at physiological maturity before harvesting. The plant population per hectare was obtained by converting the number of plants counted from 7.5 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e to 10,000 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe number of cobs per plot\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt was determined by counting the number of cobs from the net plot area and dividing by the stand count at harvest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThousand seed weight (g)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter shelling, random kernels from the bulk of each plot were counted using a photoelectric seed counter and weighed in grams after the moisture was adjusted to 12.5%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrain yield\u003c/b\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e): Grain yield per plot was measured using an electronic balance and then adjusted to 12.5% moisture and converted to a hectare basis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAboveground biomass yield\u003c/b\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e): At maturity, the whole above-ground parts of the plant, including leaves, stalks, and seeds from the net plot area, were harvested and sun-dried until constant weight, and then the above-ground biomass yield was weighed and converted into kg ha-\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHarvesting Index\u003c/b\u003e (HI): The harvest index was calculated as the ratio of grain yield to total above-ground biomass yield and calculated as the following formula:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{H}\\text{I}\\left(\\text{%}\\right)=\\frac{Grain\\:Yield}{Biological\\:Yield}x100$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll collected parameters underwent analysis of variance using the R statistical software package. If the treatment effects are significant, the means were compared using the LSD test at a 5% significance level.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEffect of NPS Fertilizer and Vermicompost on Maize Growth and Yields\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePhenological Parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDays to 50% tasseling\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifferent levels of vermicompost and NPS affected the number of days to tassel in maize plants. The interaction between vermicompost and NPS was found to be highly significant (P ≤ 0.01). The shortest time to tasseling (72 days) was observed in maize plants treated with 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 75 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1,\u003c/sup\u003e and 75% and 100% of vermicompost rates, respectively, while the longest time to tasseling (80 days) was seen in plants from control plots (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The shorter time to tasseling with higher vermicompost and NPS rates may be due to increased vegetative growth and improved light use efficiency resulting from the higher nitrogen content in both fertilizers. Nitrogen is essential for stimulating vegetative growth and development, as well as for chlorophyll production, which is crucial for photosynthesis. Similarly, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e] found that higher levels of NPS and vermicompost reduced the time to tasseling in maize plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction effects of NPS and vermicompost on the date of 50% tasseling of maize.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e− 1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNPS (kg ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.33\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.67\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74.67\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.67\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.33\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74.67\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.33\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.00\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.095\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.25\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDays of 50% Silking\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of variance indicated that the interaction effects of VC and NPS were significantly related to the days of silking in maize (p \u0026lt; 0.01).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe longest silking period (84.33 days) was observed in maize plants from the control plots, while the shortest silking period (76.33 days) was noted in plants treated with 75 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e,100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1,\u003c/sup\u003e and 100% vermicompost (4.64 t ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e), respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Previous research also reported a decrease in silking days with increasing fertilizer levels. Interaction effects of NPS and vermicompost on the date of 50% silking of maize.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction effects of NPS and vermicompost on the date of 50% Silking of maize\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e− 1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNPS (kg ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84.33\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.67\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81.33\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.33\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.67\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.67\u003csup\u003ebcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.67\u003csup\u003ebcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.67\u003csup\u003ebcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.00\u003csup\u003ebcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.00\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78\u003csup\u003ebcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.67\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.33\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.093\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.25\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDays to 90% physiological maturity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe number of days required to reach physiological maturity was influenced by varying levels of vermicompost and NPS. The analysis of variance showed that the interaction effects of VC and NPS were statistically significant on physiological maturity (P \u0026lt; 0.05) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Increasing rates of vermicompost and NPS application resulted in a significant increase in the time taken to reach physiological maturity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe shortest period to reach physiological maturity (140.67 days) was observed under the control treatment, while the longest period (161.34 days) was noted under the treatment with 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 100% of the recommended rate of vermicompost (4.64 t ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) application. This delay could be attributed to the application of 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 100% of the recommended rate of vermicompost (4.64 t ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e), causing the plants to stay green for a longer period, leading to delayed maturity. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] Also reported a similar result, indicating that the main effects of NPS and vermicompost were highly significant (P \u0026lt; 0.01) on the days required to reach 90% physiological maturity of bread wheat varieties.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction effects of NPS and vermicompost on the date of 90% physiological maturity of maize.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e− 1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNPS (kg ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e140.67\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e151\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e150.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e152.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e146.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e153\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e142.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e154.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e156.67\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e161.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e156.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e161.34\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e19.53\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7.21\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance. CV stands for Coefficient of Variation, and LSD represents the Least Significant Difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrowth parameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePlant height\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant height was significantly influenced by the interaction of vermicompost and NPS (P \u0026lt; 0.01). The tallest plant (262.5 cm) was observed with a combined application of 100% recommended vermicompost (4.64 t ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, while the shortest plant (186.58 cm) was in the control plots(Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This increase in plant height could be attributed to cell elongation and vegetative growth due to balanced nutrition. This result aligns with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], who found that organic and inorganic fertilizers increased plant height compared to the control. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] Also noted that an inadequate balance of nutrient elements could stunt plant growth and development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction effects of NPS and vermicompost on maize plant height(cm).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e− 1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNPS (kg ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e186.58\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e243.67\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e224.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e237.91\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e238.4\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e245.33\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e227.67\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e249.2\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e238.93\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e252.08\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e239.91\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e259.33\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e257.5\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e254.33\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e257.67\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e262.5\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7.89\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9.48\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEar height\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEar height was significantly affected by NPS fertilizer and vermicompost, with the highest ear height at 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (108.56 cm) and the lowest in control treatments (87.38 cm)(Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Increasing vermicompost levels led to higher ear height due to improved nutrient availability. The maximum ear height (108.31 cm) was at 4.64 t ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e vermicompost. Similar studies showed increased ear height with higher fertilizer levels. Nutrient availability likely influenced the ear height increase, while nutrient unavailability may have caused the decrease in control plots.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain effects of vermicompost and NPS on ear height of maize(cm).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNPS (Kg ha-1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEar height\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.38\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98.05\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.63\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.56\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13.8\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.68\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e94.1\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102.48\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.31\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14.24\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17.53\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eYield parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePlant population\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effects of NPS fertilizer and vermicompost application, as well as their interaction, did not significantly impact plant population in hybrid maize net plots after thinning and at harvest (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Counting plant populations is essential for data analysis because it provides the foundational data needed to assess and understand changes in plant communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain effects of vermicompost and NPS on the plant stand count of maize at harvesting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNPS (kg ha-1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStand count.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8.35\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eNumber of ears per plant\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe number of ears per plant was not significantly affected by vermicompost, NPS application rate, or their interaction (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies have shown that the number of ears per plant is mainly determined by genetic factors rather than plant nutrition. Additionally, research has found no significant changes in the number of ears per plant with the application of NPS and N fertilizer rates.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain effects of vermicompost and NPS on the number of ears per plant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNPS (kg ha-1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEar per plant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17.97\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGrain yield\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe interaction effects of vermicompost and NPS fertilizer were highly significant (p \u0026lt; 0.01) on maize crop grain yield. The highest yield (6769.3 kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) was from plots treated with 100% vermicompost (4.64 t ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) and 75 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e− 1,\u003c/sup\u003e 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e− 1,\u003c/sup\u003e followed by 6724.67 kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e from plots with 100% vermicompost (3.48 t ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) and 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e− 1,\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. The lowest yield (3236.6 kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) was from control plots (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Combining 4.64 t VC ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e and 100 NPS kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e increased maize yield by 16.33% over sole NPS application and by 43.69% over sole vermicompost application. This suggests that combining organic and inorganic fertilizers may be more beneficial for maize productivity. The combined use of 500% vermicompost and 50% NPS at half the recommended rate increased yield by 43.6% over the control. The improved yield with combined application is due to enhanced soil properties, nutrient status, and microbial activity, leading to sustainable plant growth and production [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction effect of vermicompost and NPS on grain yield of maize.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e− 1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNPS (kg ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3236.6\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4042.13\u003csup\u003efgh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3854.52\u003csup\u003egh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4710.83\u003csup\u003edefg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3532.43\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4647.82\u003csup\u003eefg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6102.5\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6159.49\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4648.56\u003csup\u003eefg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4827.81\u003csup\u003ecdefg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5919.11\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6724.67\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4819.04\u003csup\u003edefg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5588.62\u003csup\u003ebcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5792.97\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6769.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e993.8\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11.65\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThousand-seed weight\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe thousand-seed weight of maize was significantly affected by the interaction of NPS and VC application (P \u0026lt; 0.05). The highest thousand-seed weight (361.46 g) was observed with the integrated application of 75% vermicompost (3.48 t VC ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, while the lowest weight (283.1 g) was recorded in the control treatment (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). The increase in thousand-seed weight with higher vermicompost and NPS levels may be attributed to increased leaf area, leading to more light interception and carbohydrate production. These carbohydrates were likely translocated to the sink, resulting in increased grain weight compared to the control. Previous studies have also shown that increased plant nutrient application can enhance the thousand-seed weight of maize.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab10\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 10\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction effects of vermicompost and NPS on the thousand-grain weight of maize (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e− 1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNPS (kg ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e283.1\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e304.46\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e321.7\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e301.5\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e286.7\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e315\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e316.23\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e333.6\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e292.26\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e287\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e340.0\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e342.5\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e328.36\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e357.9\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e361.46\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e359.16\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e55.76\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.62\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAbove-ground biomass yield\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe maize biomass yield is the total aboveground biomass accumulated by the plant. The interaction between vermicompost and NPS fertilizer significantly affected biomass yield (p \u0026lt; 0.01). The plot treated with 4.64 t VC/ha and 100 kg NPS/ha had the highest above-ground biomass yield (12,196.49 kg/ha), while the control plot had the lowest yield (6,751.11 kg/ha) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). This increase in biomass yield with combined vermicompost and NPS fertilizers suggests a synergistic effect on maize growth. Previous studies have also shown higher dry matter production in maize with combined organic and inorganic fertilizers compared to individual applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab11\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 11\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction effect of vermicompost and NPS on the above-ground biomass yield of maize.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e− 1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNPS (kg ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6751.11\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7253.57\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8639.57\u003csup\u003ecde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9200\u003csup\u003ecde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9280\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9542.22\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9337.77\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9417.77\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9973.33\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9995.55\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10075.55\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10755.55\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10382.22\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10951.11\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11875.55\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12196.49\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2413\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15.26\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHarvest index (%).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe maize harvest index was significantly influenced by the vermicompost and NPS rates as well as their interaction. The highest harvest index (49.67%) was observed with 100% vermicompost (4.64 t VC ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, while the lowest (29.33%) was in the control treatment (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). The combined application of vermicompost and NPS led to increased photosynthate generation, resulting in higher grain yield compared to vegetative biomass. This combination also increased dry matter accumulation in maize grains. Similar findings were reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], who achieved a higher harvest index (24.4%) with 2.5 tons VC ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 40 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e with lime compared to sole applications of vermicompost and NPS fertilizer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab12\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 12\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction effects of vermicompost and NPS on the harvest index of maize.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e− 1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNPS (kg ha\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e− 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.33\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.66\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.33\u003csup\u003ebcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.33\u003csup\u003eabcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.66\u003csup\u003ecde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003csup\u003eabcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.67\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.33\u003csup\u003eabcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.33\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.33\u003csup\u003eabcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.6\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.66\u003csup\u003eabcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.66\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.67\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD (5%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.12\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17.44\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans with the same factor and column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance, CV: Coefficient of variation, LSD: A least significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePartial Budget Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e presents an analysis of net benefits, total variable costs, and marginal rate of returns. Understanding the costs and benefits of different treatments is crucial for farmers to adopt new technologies and innovations. The study evaluated the economic benefits of using vermicompost and NPS fertilizer together based on agronomic data to provide recommendations for farmers in the study area. This helps farmers choose the most effective combination of resources. The partial budget analysis focused on the costs of NPS, vermicompost, and fertilizer application. The results showed that applying 2.32 tons of vermicompost per hectare with 100 kg of NPS fertilizer resulted in the highest net return of 112,030 Birr per hectare and a high MRR value of 31,615.23%. In comparison, the control treatment had the lowest net benefit of 70,560 Birr per hectare. Farmers are likely to switch to a new practice if the marginal rate of return exceeds the minimum acceptable rate of return.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab13\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 13\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial budget analysis of vermicompost and NPS for maize production.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVC, % of the recommended rate (4.64 t ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNPS\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGY\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA GY (kg ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGB (ETB ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTVC (ETB ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNB (ETB ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMRR (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3136\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2822.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70560\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70560\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3532\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3179\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79470\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4850\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74620\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4648\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3823\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95580\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5375\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90205\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2968.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4819\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4517.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108427.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5900\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102527.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2347.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4042\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3638\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90945\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11600\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79345\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4647\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4182\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e104557\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12650\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91907\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4827\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4344\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108607\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13175\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95432\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5588\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5029\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125730\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13700\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112030\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31615.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110820\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4710\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4239\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105975\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82775\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6159\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5543\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e138577\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24250\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114327\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6724\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6052\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e151290\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24775\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e126515\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2321.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6769\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6092\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e152302\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e127002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVC: Vermicompost, GY: Grain yield, AGY: Adjusted grain yield, GB: Gross benefit, TVC: Total variable cost, NB: Net benefit, MRR: marginal rate of return, D: Dominated, 21birr = cost of NPS/kg, 5 birrs = costs of vermicompost/kg, 100 kg of maize = 2500 Birr, 72 birr = cost of improved seed/kg.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eLow soil fertility is a major constraint on maize productivity in western Oromia. Using vermicompost and NPS inorganic fertilizer can improve soil fertility, leading to increased production and revenue. Enhancing soil potential is crucial for boosting maize yield. By combining organic and inorganic fertilizers, soil fertility and crop production goals can be achieved, resulting in higher production per unit area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn experiment was conducted to assess the effects of vermicompost and NPS fertilizer rates on maize growth, yields, and yield components. The study used a randomized complete block design with varying levels of vermicompost (0, 2.32, 3.48, and 4.64 t ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) and NPS fertilizer (0, 50, 75, and 100 kg ha-1). Results showed significant effects of vermicompost and NPS on above-ground biomass, plant height, harvest index, days of silking, days of tasseling, yield, thousand-grain weight, and physiological maturity of maize. The highest yields were obtained with 4.64 t VC ha-1 and 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e. Optimal rates of vermicompost and NPS fertilizer can increase maize productivity, as demonstrated by a maximum marginal rate of return of 31615% with 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2.32 t VC ha-1 in Bako, Western Ethiopia. Applying 2.32 tons of VC and 100 kg of NPS per hectare together can lead to increased net profit and better grain production. Further research is needed to assess long-term effects on soil and crops, warranting replication of the experiment over time and at multiple sites.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval: Approved by Haramaya University\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate: Informed consent was obtained from all participants.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication: Not applicable.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial: Not applicable.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests: The authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding: This study was funded by the Oromia Agricultural Research Institute.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1. Lami Gebrekidan: Collected the data, wrote the manuscript, analyzed and interpreted the data, developed methodology, and Conceived and designed the study\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2. Lemma Wogi supervised the project, revised the manuscript critically, and conceived and designed the study\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3. Achalu Chimdi: Supervised the project, conceived and designed the study\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eACKNOWLEDGMENTS\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eI would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Oromia Agricultural Research Institute for its generous funding of my education, which has been instrumental in the success of my studies and research. I am also thankful to the Bako Agricultural Research Center, especially the Soil Fertility Improvement Team, for their invaluable assistance and guidance throughout the research process. Your expertise and dedication have greatly enhanced the quality of my work. Additionally, I want to thank Haramaya University for providing a conducive environment for my education and research, which has significantly contributed to my academic growth and achievements. Without the support of these organizations and individuals, this work would not have been possible. Thank you for your commitment to excellence in education and research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbera, T. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2019) \u0026lsquo;Effects of Vermicompost and NPS Fertilizer Rate on Yield and Yield Components of Highland Maize in Vertisol Ambo\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eEthiopian Journal of Applied Science and Technology\u003c/em\u003e, 10(1), pp. 1\u0026ndash;15.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbera, T. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2020) \u0026lsquo;Evaluation of Vermicompost and NPS Fertilizer Rate on Yield and Yield Components of Highland Maize in Vertisols of Ambo\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eResults of Natural Resources Management Research\u003c/em\u003e [Preprint].\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAgegnehu, G. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2011) \u0026lsquo;The state of science and technology in soil fertility and plant nutrient management research in Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eThe State of Agricultural Science and Technology in Ethiopia\u003c/em\u003e, p. 373.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAleminew, A. and Alemayehu, M. 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(2012) \u0026lsquo;Effects of biochar compared to organic and inorganic fertilizers on soil quality and plant growth in a greenhouse experiment\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science\u003c/em\u003e, 175(3), pp. 410\u0026ndash;422.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVitousek, P.M. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2009) \u0026lsquo;Nutrient imbalances in agricultural development\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eScience\u003c/em\u003e, 324(5934), pp. 1519\u0026ndash;1520.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDe Wispelaere, L. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2015) \u0026lsquo;Revisiting nitic horizon properties of Nitisols in SW Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eGeoderma\u003c/em\u003e, 243, pp. 69\u0026ndash;79.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWu, W. and Ma, B. (2015) \u0026lsquo;Integrated nutrient management (INM) for sustaining crop productivity and reducing environmental impact: A review\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eScience of the Total Environment\u003c/em\u003e, 512, pp. 415\u0026ndash;427.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"NPS, Vermicompost, Productivity","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7759492/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7759492/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eLow soil fertility and nutrient availability are key constraints that limit maize productivity in western Ethiopia. A study was conducted to evaluate the impact of combining vermicompost and NPS fertilizer rates on maize yield and yield components at Bako Agricultural Research Center (BARC). The experiment involved four levels of vermicompost (0, 2.32, 3.48, and 4.64 tons ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) and four levels of NPS fertilizer (0, 50, 75, and 100 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. The application of 4.64 tons ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of vermicompost resulted in significantly higher ear heights (108.3 cm), while the highest ear height (108.56 cm) was achieved with 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The combination of 4.64 tons ha-1 of vermicompost and 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e led to the best overall performance in terms of plant height, days to silking and tasseling, grain yield, harvest index, above-ground biomass yield, and thousand seed weight. The most profitable combination was found to be 2.32 tons VC ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 100 kg NPS ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, with a net profit of 112030 ETB and an MRR of 3161.5%. This combination showed superior grain yield and economic benefits and is recommended for maize production in the area.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The effect of combined inorganic and organic fertilizer on maize yield at Bako Agricultural Research Center in Western Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-03 06:36:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7759492/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ee82d64b-0821-4272-b7ff-b60b2ecb0ac4","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":55703812,"name":"Agronomy"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-03T06:36:58+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-03 06:36:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7759492","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7759492","identity":"rs-7759492","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}