Design, Development and Testing of an Ultra-Compact Antenna with Enhanced Gain for Wireless Sensor Nodes

Design, Development and Testing of an Ultra-Compact Antenna with Enhanced Gain for Wireless Sensor Nodes | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Design, Development and Testing of an Ultra-Compact Antenna with Enhanced Gain for Wireless Sensor Nodes mohan c, esther florence s This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3921847/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In this paper, a highly miniaturized monopole-like patch antenna for wireless sensor nodes with an enhanced gain is proposed. To mitigate the issue of low gain while designing a low-profile antenna for sensor nodes, the designed square shape planar antenna is employed with the symmetric modified Swastika-shaped Electromagnetic Bandgap (EBG) structure. The overall size of the proposed antenna is 0.116 𝜆 0 × 0.116 𝜆 0 . Miniaturization of the antenna is obtained by introducing the partial ground and the slots in the radiating patch. The simulation result indicates the proposed antenna has a gain of -3.62 dB at 2.4 GHz. Further, on employing the proposed EBG reflector beneath the antenna, the peak gain is increased by 4.7 dB. The combinational structure of the EBG reflector is a 6 × 4 array and the antenna operates with a peak gain of 1.54 dB. The measurements show that the fabricated antenna has good radiation performance, high gain, and good matching with simulated results. To validate the proposed antenna, a fabricated prototype is tested and analyzed using the sensor node in a real-time environment. Based on this analysis, the proposed antenna is found to be a good candidate for sensor node applications. low-profile antenna modified swastika shaped EBG structure gain enhancement Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 1 Introduction Recent years, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are becoming increasingly important in information and communication technology. Currently, WSN contributes significantly to the growth of the Internet of Things (IoT). WSN confirms to be a helpful net- work for vast applications connected with the Internet. Various WSN applications such as environment monitoring, tracking, surveillance, health-care systems, smart home control and military applications. Many design issues can easily affect the sensor nodes used in WSN systems, including power consumption, node failure, scalability, topology, implementation cost and maintenance [ 1 ]. The integrated antenna in the WSN node must be operated efficiently against these problems. Therefore, the communication section is a significant part of the sensor node. Based on existing literature, two main issues are to be considered while designing an antenna for sensor nodes. First, WSN requires that the size of the node should be compact. Therefore, designing an antenna for a WSN node is the most challenging aspect, because WSN node size is inter-reliant with antenna size [ 2 ]. Common miniaturized antennas for wireless sensor nodes are bow-tie antennas, solar antennas, Dielectric Resonator Antenna (DRA), and patch antennas [ 3 ]. Microstrip Patch Antennas (MPAs) are very attractive as they possess essential advantages such as low volume, design simplicity, conformability, and low cost. Several miniaturization techniques have been reported in the literature for patch antennas [ 4 ]. As such, one of the conventional size reduction techniques is comprised of slots and slits in the antenna patch. This method downshifts the resonant frequency of the antenna without any varying antenna performance. Also, it increases the antenna gain while adding the gain enhancement structure with the antenna [ 5 ]. Second, energy consumption has been an important factor in WSNs which has a limited amount of energy and a limited lifetime. Therefore, the antenna for WSN should utilize less power to operate efficiently. Antennas with higher gain will consume less power in a particular direction [ 6 ]. However, it is difficult to achieve high gain while retaining the minimum antenna size. Antenna parameters such as gain, and impedance bandwidth decrease as antenna size increases [ 7 ]. Therefore, achieving high gain and higher bandwidth are the main challenges in antenna miniaturization [ 8 ]. Various techniques are reported in the literature for antenna gain enhancement [ 9 – 20 ]. Therein, metamaterials have been widely used to improve the performance of microstrip antennas in recent years. A type of metamaterial is known as Electromagnetic Bandgap (EBG) structures can be used to improve the microstrip patch antenna characteristics [ 10 ]. It is one of the popular methodologies based on artificially engineered electromagnetic metamaterials. Numerous EBGs have been suggested and investigated because they exhibit a variety of unique properties, including forbidden bandgaps, in-phase reflection, and so on. Surface waves in microstrip antennas lower the bandwidth, efficiency, and gain. The EBG is a High-Impedance Surface (HIS) that is formed by periodical arrangement to prevents surface waves propagating from the ground plane [ 11 ]. A properly designed EBG structure provides several significant advantages for an antenna. It has been claimed that EBG structures are primarily used to increase bandwidth, gain, compactness, tunability, and to reduce side and back lobe levels. Because of their physical size, EBGs are often challenging to accommodate in practical applications. To overcome these limitations, numerous compact EBG configurations have been studied and extensively reported to increase antenna gain [ 12 – 14 , 19 , 20 ]. This paper aims to design a miniaturized and gain enhanced planar antenna for a compact size WSN node. The proposed microstrip antenna comprises the slotted patch with the partial ground. The total area of the antenna (210 mm) is much smaller than the other antenna presented in the literature [ 15 – 23 ]. The proposed EBG structures includes the modified swastika shaped slots on square patch. The proposed EBG significantly increases the antenna gain at 2.4 GHz without altering the impedance bandwidth. Both antenna and EBG structures are designed and simulated using Computer Simulation Technology (CST) microwave studio. The results exhibit that proposed EBG-integrated antenna provides 87% size reduction than conventional antenna for 2.4 GHz and 69% gain enhancement compared to antenna without EBG structure. Moreover, the performance of the proposed antenna is tested and analyzed with designed sensor nodes. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II provides the planar antenna's layout. The simulation and measurement results are presented in Section III, and the WSN node analysis is presented in Section IV. Section V presents the conclusion of the paper. 2 Design and Analysis of EBG Loaded Antenna 2.1 Antenna structure Figure 1 shows the proposed antenna's design evolution together with the corresponding simulated reflection coefficients. Overall dimensions of all these stages kept same. Initially, the design started with conventional patch antenna for 11 GHz with size of 0.12λ 0 × 0.12λ 0 in stage 1. The conventional design of the antenna comprises a rectangular shaped patch placed on a dielectric substrate. The antenna’s resonant frequency is calculated using the below Eq. 1 [ 24 ]. $${f}_{r}=\frac{c}{2{L}_{eff}\sqrt{{\epsilon }_{r,eff}}}$$ 1 Where f r is the resonant frequency, c is the velocity of light in free space, \({L}_{eff}\) is the effective length, \({\epsilon }_{r,eff}\) is the effective permittivity of the substrate. To achieve antenna miniaturization, a combination of multiple slots on the rectangular patch and a half of the partial ground plane is introduced. In stage 2, a pair of W and M shaped slots are inserted on both side of rectangular patch. The two sides of the slots on the radiating patch are of the same size while the right-side slots are divided by a gap 0.004λ 0 (D) into the left side slots. Both slots consist of 0.0048λ 0 (S 1 ) outer arm thickness and 0.006λ 0 (S 1 ) center arm thickness. The dimensions of the structure are unaltered, and the resonant frequency is shifted to 4.43 GHz. This combination of slots is introduced to increase the current density at the resonant frequency, and an optimized feedline has achieved better impedance matching. Moreover, the full ground plane in stage 2 is reduced partially in antenna 3, which is responsible for obtaining the resonance at 3.72 GHz. The size of the reduced ground plane is 0.116λ 0 × 0.036 λ 0 (W grnd × L grnd ). Further increasing the electrical length of the patch, another pair of W and M shaped slots etched on center of the patch. Hence, owing to the effect of these slots in stage 4, the operating frequency is shifted to 2.4 GHz without a change in their overall dimension. It is observed that more size reduction has been obtained by using a combination of multiple slots on the patch and partial ground. The optimized size of the radiating patch is 0.06λ 0 × 0.096λ 0 (W p × L p ). The proposed antenna is connected with a microstrip feedline to feeds the patch. Using parametric analysis, the width ( W f ) of the microstrip feedline is chosen at 0.02λ 0 for achieving 50Ω impedance characteristics while its length ( L f ) is fixed at 0.06λ 0 . Additionally, it uses a cheap FR4 substrate with a height of 1.6 mm, a relative dielectric constant (ε r ) of 4.4. The proposed antenna is designed on a square-shaped substrate with a sidelength a . The layout of the square-shaped planar antenna is depicted in Fig. 2 . Table I lists the optimal dimensions of the proposed antenna. TABLE I Parameter of the Proposed Antenna Para Meter Size (mm) Para Meter Size (mm) Para meter Size (mm) A 14.5 W f 2.875 PL 1 0.5 W p 12 D 0.5 PL 2 0.75 L p 7.5 S 1 0.75 W grnd 14.5 L f 7 S 2 0.6 L grnd 4.5 The proposed antenna resonated at 2.4 GHz and total size also optimized to 0.116λ 0 × 0.116λ 0 . Moreover, this antenna covers frequencies between 2.36 and 2.47 GHz (90 MHz bandwidth). Antenna miniaturization and impedance bandwidth are maximized but the gain at the operating frequency is minimum. The gain of the square-shaped planar antenna is -3.62 dB at 2.4 GHz. To increase the gain of the proposed antenna, gain enhancement techniques are implemented. 2.2 EBG structure The proposed antenna is designed for WSN applications at a frequency of 2.4 GHz. Therefore, the EBG structure should be designed at the same frequency range to enhance antenna performance. As depicted in Fig. 4 a, the novel EBG unit cell is made up of a modified swastika-shaped slot on a square-shaped conducting sheet. These slots are etched in square shaped EBG to decrease the resonance frequency by increasing the electrical length of the radiating element. The total electrical length of the single element in the modified swastika-shaped slot is 0.168λ 0 and the width is 0.002λ 0 . The EBG plane also designed on a FR4 substrate with 0.08λ 0 side length. The EBG unit cell dimensions are tabulated in Table II. TABLE II Parameter of the Proposed EBG Structure Parameter Size (mm) Parameter Size (mm) S 1 10 L 1 7 S 2 9.8 L 2 2.6 W S 0.25 L 3 0.7 The dispersion diagram shows the relationship between wavenumber and resonant frequency of the EBG structure. Moreover, it can describe the propagation properties of an infinitely periodic structure, such as the propagating modes and bandgaps that may exist between such modes. The dispersion properties of the EBG are obtained using an Eigen mode solver and used to determine the lower and higher bandgap frequencies. Based on the rectangular Brillouin zone, it determines the resonant frequencies for a specific wave number. The proposed EBG's dispersion diagram is shown in Fig. 3 . The obtained band gap proposed EBG plane covers the frequency range of 1.6 to 3.2 GHz. Based on the concept of an EBG, multiple unit cells are assembled periodically to design an EBG structure. To achieve a small size, a minimal number of EBG unit cells are used. So, the array of 4×6 EBG unit cells achieve better gain for the proposed antenna. The separation between unit cells is 0.004λ 0 . The proposed EBG structure has a profile about 0.34λ 0 × 0.5λ 0 . Figure 4 shows a fabricated prototype of the suggested antenna, an EBG reflector, and a perspective view of the EBG integrated antenna. 2.3 EBG loaded antenna The addition of an EBG reflector improves the antenna performance at 2.4 GHz. The positioning of the EBG element is very critical because it mainly affects the antenna performance. This is due to the desired direction of the radiation pattern which perpendicular to the antenna plane. Also, the back-lobe of the antenna is relatively strong. The proposed EBG structure is placed beneath the antenna plane to reduce the back-lobe and improve the antenna performance. The separation between the proposed antenna and EBG structure is λ 0 /4, which provides sufficient impedance matching at 2.4 GHz. The spacing between the antenna and the EBG reflector is maintained by a foam spacer. While placing the EBG reflector below the antenna, 0◦ phase shift that occurs as incident wave propagates and then reflects back from the EBG plane. Then the reflected waves are in-phase with the wave directed by the antenna and constructive interference will take place accordingly. Due to this constructive interference between reflected and desired waves, the antenna's performance improves dramatically. 3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Simulation and measurement results The simulated and measured reflection coefficient of the proposed EBG integrated antenna is plotted in Fig. 5 . The graph clearly explains that the reflection coefficient (S 11 ) of the antenna remains unchanged while loading the EBG. The proposed EBG reflector can produce the null reflection phase at the resonant frequency of the proposed antenna. Therefore, the gain increases significantly when the proposed antenna is placed above the EBG reflector. As mentioned earlier observed peak gain of the antenna is about – 3.62 dB without an EBG reflector. After loading the EBG reflector with the proposed antenna, the peak gain at the operating frequency is 1.54 dB during the measurement. As a result of EBG loading, the antenna gain is enhanced by 4.7 dB. The comparative analysis plot of the obtained peak gain is illustrated in Fig. 6 . To further analyze the resonant properties of the proposed antenna, the current density is simulated at 2.45 GHz and shown in Fig. 7 . The higher current mainly flowing on the slots of the rectangular patch, resulting in a lower resonance. The effectiveness of EBG is demonstrated by experimental investigations of comparison between Perfect Electric Conductor (PEC) and the proposed EBG plane. The experimental results are analyzed by placing the antenna over the proposed EBG and PEC with the same dimensions. While placing the antenna above the PEC plane, the reflection coefficient of the antenna − 14 dB and the obtained peak gain is -1.06 dB. This is due to the ordinary metal surface has provides 180 0 phase for λ 0 /4 spacing between them. Destructive interferences are analyzed between opposing directions of the antenna's current and the PEC's image current and provides degraded radiation performance. When placing the antenna above EBG plane, a good reflection coefficient is observed and peak gain also 1.4 dB achieved at 2.4 GHz. This is because the EBG's phase behavior confirms that the original current and the image current flow in the same direction, causing a constructive interference. Overall, the proposed EBG-integrated antenna exhibits better impedance matching than the PEC plane at 2.4 GHz. Figure 8 shows the comparison of peak gain and simulated S 11 of the proposed antenna with EBG and PEC plane. It is obvious that EBG structure shows a good candidate for a miniaturized antenna. Measured radiation characteristics of the proposed antenna with and without EBG plane analyzed at 2.4 GHz. The results includes both E plane (yz) and H planes (xz) of antenna with and without EBG plane. Figure 9 a) and b) shows the xz-plane (phi = 0) and yz-plane (phi = 90) radiation pattern of the proposed antenna, respectively. As it can be observed, the antenna provides a bi-directional E-plane pattern and an omnidirectional H-plane radiation at the frequency of 2.4 GHz. 3.2 Comparative analysis A comparative analysis between the proposed antenna to other gain-improved compact antennas reported in the literature in terms of size reduction, peak gain, and gain increment is presented in Table III. It is observed from the table that the comparison to the other work, the proposed antenna provides good miniaturization and gain increment at 2.4 GHz. References Resonant Frequency (GHz)/ Substrate Antenna Size Size reduction (%) Gain Enhancement Technique Peak Gain (dB) Gain Increment in % Without Enhancement Technique With Enhancement Technique 15 2.45 / FR4 0.76λ 0 × 0.51λ 0 - FSS 4.5 5 4.2 16 1.68–2.76/ F4B 0.48 λ 0 × 0.75λ 0 - Shorting Pins 10 10.8 7 17 2–4 / FR4 0.36λ 0 × 0.22λ 0 30 Split-Ring AMC 5.7 7.8 17.5 18 2.93 / Rogers 5880 1.36λ 0 × 1.36λ 0 - Shorting Pins 7.8 10.6 27 19 2.6 / Taconic 1.44λ 0 × 1.44λ 0 - Cylindrical EBG 6.4 9.3 34 20 2.4 / FR4 0.46 λ 0 × 0.46λ 0 - Circularly Symmetric EBG 2 2.8 34 21 2.4/ FR4 0.43λ 0 × 0.5λ 0 - Substrate Integrated Waveguide (SIW) FSS 3.1 4.6 36 22 2.4 / Roger 6006 1.05λ 0 × 1.05λ 0 - Partial Substrate Removal 4.3 7 38 23 2.02 / FR4 0.15λ 0 × 0.16λ 0 70 Complementary Closed Ring Resonator 1.5 5 46.6 Proposed work 2.4 / FR4 0.116λ 0 × 0.116λ 0 87 Modified Swastika shaped EBG -3.4 1.1 69 TABLE III Comparison Between Previous Work 4 WSN Node Analysis Studies are geared towards the planar antenna that can be integrated with the WSN node [ 25 – 27 ]. WSN in-built antennas allow longtime monitoring but also provide extensive coverage in the sensor node. Most compact antennas in WSN nodes consume more power which reduces the lifetime of the node. For lower energy consumption, the antenna integrated with a node needs to operate for a longer time while consuming minimum power. Due to space constraints, the antenna also needs to be compact with acceptable gain. This indicates that the sensor nodes need highly miniaturized antennas for minimizing node complexity. The high gain antenna will consume less power in the desired direction. Therefore, the proposed antenna meets the above challenges. To validate the proposed antenna, it has been deployed in the sensor node and its performance is analyzed. An Arduino based WSN is employed to validate the performance of the proposed antenna. Microcontroller ATmega328P and the CC2530 transceiver are chosen because of their high transmission power, size, low cost, and compatibility. Figure 10 shows the block diagram of transmitting and receiving sensor nodes with the proposed antenna. The wireless data communication is performed by using the proposed antenna as either receiving or transmitting side. The proposed antenna is attached to the sensor node instead of the default antenna on the transmission side. In destination, the in-built (internal) antenna acts as a receiver. Besides, the destination node is connected to the laptop through the UART cable. Figure 11 shows an experimental setup of the sensor node and the proposed antenna. Data exchange between the nodes occurs after configuration is complete. To validate the proposed antenna, the RSSI value is measured as a function of time. The RSSI value of the receiver provides the signal strength of the proposed antenna (in dBm). Figure 12 compares the RSSI values of the antenna with and without EBG for each received data at a distance of 1m. It can be clearly shown that the antenna with an EBG provides more power levels than without EBG structure. Inaccurate, the EBG loaded antenna provides up to -65dBm power when compared to -70dBm for the antenna without EBG. Also, due to multipath fading and NLOS between the nodes, the RSSI value may change at any given time. Moreover, the calculation of RSSI has been studied in both indoor and outdoor environments. The distance between nodes has an impact on RSSI value while keeping the destination node's position fixed. Figure 13 shows the relationship between RSSI and the distance of the nodes in an indoor environment. The proposed antenna gives greater power around − 70dBm at short distances. Figure 14 shows the variation on RSSI about the distance between the node in an outdoor environment. It is shown that in comparison to long distances, the proposed antenna offers more power − 65dBm at a distance of 3m. The results show that the proposed antennas can provide satisfactory precision in both indoor and outdoor environments. The designed sensor node's position can be adjusted to the building's layout to improve the results of indoor positioning. Because buildings do not have a blocking effect in an outdoor environment, the outdoor method is even more accurate. Sensors are mainly characterized depending on the value of their important parameters such as accuracy, response time, accuracy, sensitivity, Precision, Sensitivity, Linearity, Repeatability, etc.., Among them, some of the important parameters are analyzed. The same configuration is used to calculate the sensing parameter such as failure rate and accuracy of the sensor node. By varying the distance between the transmitting and receiving nodes, the failure rate is calculated. Figure 15 depicts the failure rate calculated by varying the distance between the transmitter and receiving nodes. In both indoor and outdoor environments, the distance between the nodes increases, and the failure rate gets increases. The most significant parameter in sensor node analysis is accuracy, which ensures that the sensor's readings are as near as possible to the known value. Figure 16 depicts the accuracy calculation of the designed sensor node. A better accuracy value is observed in both the indoor and outdoor environments, for example, at a distance of 4 m between the sensor nodes, the accuracy value is 94% for the outdoor environment and 90% for the indoor environment is observed. In summary, the results confirm that the proposed antenna can provide good reliability and is suitable for short-range WSN applications. The power usage depends strongly on the node's mode of operation. The average energy consumption in sleep mode is less than 10µW. In active mode, the estimated power consumption of the sensor node is 78mW while the proposed antenna loaded without an EBG structure on the transmission side. For the experiments, a proposed EBG reflector is loaded with the antenna, causing an additional power consumption of about 12mW. Table IV explains the average power consumption of the sensor node. It confirms that the proposed EBG loaded antenna provides more power consumption in both modes. In summary, the proposed antenna can provide good power consumption and is suitable for short-range communications. TABLE IV Average Power Consumption of the Designed Node Mode of operation Without EBG With EBG SLEEP 10.2µW 10µW ACTIVE 90mW 78mW 5 Conclusion Here, the design and analysis of highly miniaturized and performance enhanced antenna for WSN applications is addressed. The miniaturization of the antenna is achieved by a combination of slots and a partial ground. When compared to the traditional antenna for 2.4 GHz, the proposed antenna provides about 87% miniaturization. On other hand, the peak gain of the antenna gets reduced while minimizing the antenna size. Here, the gain enhancement technique is discussed using the symmetric EBG structure. The EBG structure enhances the antenna gain by 4.7 dB. To demonstrate this structure, the prototype is fabricated, tested, and experimentally verified with sensor nodes in a real-time environment. Both simulated and measured results have shown good concurrence with each other, and its real-time analysis ensures the proposed antenna is an appropriate design for WSN based applications. Declarations Acknowledgement The antenna was tested by the facility created with the support of DST SERB, AICTE, DST FIST and SSN Trust. Ethical Approval Not Applicable Funding Not Applicable Availability of data and materials Not Applicable References Kuo, Y., Li, C., Jhang, J., & Lin, S., Design of a Wireless Sensor Network-Based IoT Platform for Wide Area and Heterogeneous Applications. in IEEE Sensors Journal , 18, 12, pp. 5187–5197, 15 June 15, 2018. Chong, M. C. Y., & Kumar, S. P. (2003). Sensor networks: evolution, opportunities, and challenges. Proceedings Of The Ieee , 91 (8), 1247–1256. Mason, A., Al-Shamma'a, A. I., & Shaw, A. (2009). An antenna for wireless sensor applications. IEEE Loughborough Antennas Propagation Conference. IEEE. Skrivervik, A. K., Zurcher, J. F., Staub, O., & Mosig, J. R. (2001). PCS antenna design: The challenge of miniaturization. Ieee Antennas And Propagation Magazine , 43 (4), 12–27. Haque, S. M., & Parvez, K. M. (2017). Slot Antenna Miniaturization Using Slit, Strip, and Loop Loading Techniques. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation , 65 (5), 2215–2221. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3921847","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":275111212,"identity":"02c68bfa-582f-487d-b8e9-a7a2fb8d23ff","order_by":0,"name":"mohan c","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA1UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACHjApx8bffABIS8gQrcWYX+JYAkgLD9FaEmc25BgguPiAbnvvwc+Fe+yMDQ6c+fzqRo0FDwP74aMb8GkxO3MuWXrGs2Q5g8O926xzjgEdxpOWdgOvlhs5BtI8Bw4AbTm7zTiHDahFgseMkBbj30AtiRsO5DwzzvlHnBYzkC0g7zM/zm0jRsuZM2bWPAeSQYFsxpzbJ8HDRtAvx3uMb/McsANF5ePPOd/q5PjZDx/DqwUZsEmASWKVgwDzB1JUj4JRMApGwcgBAIbbSVnaerKgAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"St. Joseph's Institute of Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"mohan","middleName":"","lastName":"c","suffix":""},{"id":275111213,"identity":"f8dc1549-fda1-4991-8bc3-6efdd1f8dd95","order_by":1,"name":"esther florence s","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"esther","middleName":"florence","lastName":"s","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-02-02 17:59:51","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3921847/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3921847/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":51833547,"identity":"9468eaf1-4757-4656-beda-9a084a6c8ab8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51663,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe evolution stages of simulated reflection coefficient (S\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/ce7c79da7c27c3c8c21eb77f.jpg"},{"id":51833542,"identity":"1278b209-88cd-4846-b685-47bb6a05380d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:48","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41090,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProposed square-shaped monopole antenna.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/17d09aae28a935b04d7b8d6b.jpg"},{"id":51833696,"identity":"021108a5-790c-4fa1-845f-c41c09d436da","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:40:48","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":45291,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe obtained dispersion diagram of the proposed EBG structure.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/508ae0156cb5986d101e297e.jpg"},{"id":51833543,"identity":"ec5a0d7c-29fa-4ef8-aabe-8b56667ce1bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:48","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41658,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProposed Modified Swastika shaped EBG structure. a) unit-cell, b) fabricated prototype and perspective view.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/365f6ab31b36ce68a3fa8547.jpg"},{"id":51833548,"identity":"526babce-6fd6-4abc-87a5-78edc4fd02bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":45714,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe combined reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna with and without EBG.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/ea0b6cbfea10d87c28ba4b30.jpg"},{"id":51833551,"identity":"1da1eb8f-f0cc-4ee3-97dd-5e0396831a92","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53534,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMeasured and simulated peak gains for the resonant frequency of the proposed antenna.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/13c4ed2cce658870b049d75e.jpg"},{"id":51833545,"identity":"6478eb3c-16f2-4562-9422-a12c9f43fe3f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:48","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":66237,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSimulated surface current density of proposed antenna at 2.4GHz.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/72394fede79765f3109dca69.jpg"},{"id":51833555,"identity":"360ff414-de8f-4fbd-8494-75e39f7adade","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47139,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePeak gain and reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna on the proposed EBG and PEC, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/ea4cf85823d7263e720ab86c.jpg"},{"id":51833699,"identity":"a06afb4b-9a07-4348-93d4-df33ac62ca12","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:40:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":30199,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSimulated and measured normalized radiation pattern of the antenna. a) yz-plane (phi = 90) and b) xz-plane (phi = 0).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/14e00bdbe8a9368a25869204.jpg"},{"id":51833698,"identity":"1a0ea311-b527-4e2e-a58c-2e164b21f216","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:40:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":42358,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBlock diagram of the designed sensor node with the proposed antenna.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/0831729347d8dbef86623937.jpg"},{"id":51833697,"identity":"7b4bbe81-846d-4c00-9ec5-8961756aabd2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:40:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":91362,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTransmission between the sensor node in the outdoor environment by using the proposed antenna.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/9ad24c93bad28e4960926605.jpg"},{"id":51833550,"identity":"6371aa81-135e-4dea-94c6-9197ea347b39","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23033,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMeasured RSSI value of the proposed antenna with and without an EBG structure as a function of time.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/54ecc6b3abd6aa0ea257f44e.jpg"},{"id":51833546,"identity":"702c1924-d211-4ae4-aa94-ccbdfea3327d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:48","extension":"jpg","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23992,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompared RSSI value of the proposed antenna with and without EBG structure in indoor environments.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/a46e5db4a6e80c8757a645a4.jpg"},{"id":51833553,"identity":"7f20e41c-b880-4663-95e8-f97a95aea613","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21331,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompared RSSI value of the proposed antenna with and without EBG structure in outdoor environments.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture12.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/543ec35f4e8a96bfe3bfb93a.jpg"},{"id":51833557,"identity":"2c929061-cc45-4349-89dc-9cca6f972930","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29299,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSensing failure rate in indoor and outdoor environments.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture13.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/c0106e4c8918d66127763ce1.jpg"},{"id":51833552,"identity":"81f9a474-c325-4d01-bdd6-28c6bcf662d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-29 19:32:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":15077,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSensing accuracy in indoor and outdoor environments.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture14.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/8a45ebb80b8a9c3fd2e024be.jpg"},{"id":51904756,"identity":"ee65fa16-fd50-4227-a031-73a3f8866783","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-02 21:28:20","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":807736,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3921847/v1/70b5f6ed-07d9-459e-87d6-af7dcfeff8da.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Design, Development and Testing of an Ultra-Compact Antenna with Enhanced Gain for Wireless Sensor Nodes","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eRecent years, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are becoming increasingly important in information and communication technology. Currently, WSN contributes significantly to the growth of the Internet of Things (IoT). WSN confirms to be a helpful net- work for vast applications connected with the Internet. Various WSN applications such as environment monitoring, tracking, surveillance, health-care systems, smart home control and military applications. Many design issues can easily affect the sensor nodes used in WSN systems, including power consumption, node failure, scalability, topology, implementation cost and maintenance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The integrated antenna in the WSN node must be operated efficiently against these problems. Therefore, the communication section is a significant part of the sensor node.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on existing literature, two main issues are to be considered while designing an antenna for sensor nodes. First, WSN requires that the size of the node should be compact. Therefore, designing an antenna for a WSN node is the most challenging aspect, because WSN node size is inter-reliant with antenna size [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Common miniaturized antennas for wireless sensor nodes are bow-tie antennas, solar antennas, Dielectric Resonator Antenna (DRA), and patch antennas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Microstrip Patch Antennas (MPAs) are very attractive as they possess essential advantages such as low volume, design simplicity, conformability, and low cost. Several miniaturization techniques have been reported in the literature for patch antennas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. As such, one of the conventional size reduction techniques is comprised of slots and slits in the antenna patch. This method downshifts the resonant frequency of the antenna without any varying antenna performance. Also, it increases the antenna gain while adding the gain enhancement structure with the antenna [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, energy consumption has been an important factor in WSNs which has a limited amount of energy and a limited lifetime. Therefore, the antenna for WSN should utilize less power to operate efficiently. Antennas with higher gain will consume less power in a particular direction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. However, it is difficult to achieve high gain while retaining the minimum antenna size. Antenna parameters such as gain, and impedance bandwidth decrease as antenna size increases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, achieving high gain and higher bandwidth are the main challenges in antenna miniaturization [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Various techniques are reported in the literature for antenna gain enhancement [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10 CR11 CR12 CR13 CR14 CR15 CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Therein, metamaterials have been widely used to improve the performance of microstrip antennas in recent years. A type of metamaterial is known as Electromagnetic Bandgap (EBG) structures can be used to improve the microstrip patch antenna characteristics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. It is one of the popular methodologies based on artificially engineered electromagnetic metamaterials. Numerous EBGs have been suggested and investigated because they exhibit a variety of unique properties, including forbidden bandgaps, in-phase reflection, and so on. Surface waves in microstrip antennas lower the bandwidth, efficiency, and gain. The EBG is a High-Impedance Surface (HIS) that is formed by periodical arrangement to prevents surface waves propagating from the ground plane [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. A properly designed EBG structure provides several significant advantages for an antenna. It has been claimed that EBG structures are primarily used to increase bandwidth, gain, compactness, tunability, and to reduce side and back lobe levels. Because of their physical size, EBGs are often challenging to accommodate in practical applications. To overcome these limitations, numerous compact EBG configurations have been studied and extensively reported to increase antenna gain [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis paper aims to design a miniaturized and gain enhanced planar antenna for a compact size WSN node. The proposed microstrip antenna comprises the slotted patch with the partial ground. The total area of the antenna (210 mm) is much smaller than the other antenna presented in the literature [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19 CR20 CR21 CR22\" citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. The proposed EBG structures includes the modified swastika shaped slots on square patch. The proposed EBG significantly increases the antenna gain at 2.4 GHz without altering the impedance bandwidth. Both antenna and EBG structures are designed and simulated using Computer Simulation Technology (CST) microwave studio. The results exhibit that proposed EBG-integrated antenna provides 87% size reduction than conventional antenna for 2.4 GHz and 69% gain enhancement compared to antenna without EBG structure. Moreover, the performance of the proposed antenna is tested and analyzed with designed sensor nodes. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II provides the planar antenna's layout. The simulation and measurement results are presented in Section III, and the WSN node analysis is presented in Section IV. Section V presents the conclusion of the paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Design and Analysis of EBG Loaded Antenna","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Antenna structure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the proposed antenna's design evolution together with the corresponding simulated reflection coefficients. Overall dimensions of all these stages kept same. Initially, the design started with conventional patch antenna for 11 GHz with size of 0.12λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.12λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e in stage 1. The conventional design of the antenna comprises a rectangular shaped patch placed on a dielectric substrate. The antenna\u0026rsquo;s resonant frequency is calculated using the below Eq.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${f}_{r}=\\frac{c}{2{L}_{eff}\\sqrt{{\\epsilon }_{r,eff}}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere f\u003csub\u003er\u003c/sub\u003e is the resonant frequency, c is the velocity of light in free space, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({L}_{eff}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eis the effective length, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\epsilon }_{r,eff}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is the effective permittivity of the substrate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo achieve antenna miniaturization, a combination of multiple slots on the rectangular patch and a half of the partial ground plane is introduced. In stage 2, a pair of \u003cem\u003eW\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e shaped slots are inserted on both side of rectangular patch. The two sides of the slots on the radiating patch are of the same size while the right-side slots are divided by a gap 0.004λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e (D) into the left side slots. Both slots consist of 0.0048λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e (S\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) outer arm thickness and 0.006λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e (S\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) center arm thickness. The dimensions of the structure are unaltered, and the resonant frequency is shifted to 4.43 GHz. This combination of slots is introduced to increase the current density at the resonant frequency, and an optimized feedline has achieved better impedance matching. Moreover, the full ground plane in stage 2 is reduced partially in antenna 3, which is responsible for obtaining the resonance at 3.72 GHz. The size of the reduced ground plane is 0.116λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.036 λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e (W\u003csub\u003egrnd\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026times; L \u003csub\u003egrnd\u003c/sub\u003e). Further increasing the electrical length of the patch, another pair of \u003cem\u003eW\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e shaped slots etched on center of the patch. Hence, owing to the effect of these slots in stage 4, the operating frequency is shifted to 2.4 GHz without a change in their overall dimension.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is observed that more size reduction has been obtained by using a combination of multiple slots on the patch and partial ground. The optimized size of the radiating patch is 0.06λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.096λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e (W\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026times; L\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e). The proposed antenna is connected with a microstrip feedline to feeds the patch. Using parametric analysis, the width (\u003cem\u003eW\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) of the microstrip feedline is chosen at 0.02λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e for achieving 50Ω impedance characteristics while its length (\u003cem\u003eL\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) is fixed at 0.06λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e. Additionally, it uses a cheap FR4 substrate with a height of 1.6 mm, a relative dielectric constant (ε\u003csub\u003er\u003c/sub\u003e) of 4.4. The proposed antenna is designed on a square-shaped substrate with a sidelength \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e. The layout of the square-shaped planar antenna is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Table I lists the optimal dimensions of the proposed antenna.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"SmallCaps\" class=\"SmallCaps\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTABLE I\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"SmallCaps\" class=\"SmallCaps\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eParameter of the Proposed Antenna\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePara\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePara\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePara\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emeter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003ef\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.875\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePL\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePL\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003egrnd\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003csub\u003ef\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003csub\u003egrnd\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe proposed antenna resonated at 2.4 GHz and total size also optimized to 0.116λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.116λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e. Moreover, this antenna covers frequencies between 2.36 and 2.47 GHz (90 MHz bandwidth). Antenna miniaturization and impedance bandwidth are maximized but the gain at the operating frequency is minimum. The gain of the square-shaped planar antenna is -3.62 dB at 2.4 GHz. To increase the gain of the proposed antenna, gain enhancement techniques are implemented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 EBG structure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe proposed antenna is designed for WSN applications at a frequency of 2.4 GHz. Therefore, the EBG structure should be designed at the same frequency range to enhance antenna performance. As depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea, the novel EBG unit cell is made up of a modified swastika-shaped slot on a square-shaped conducting sheet. These slots are etched in square shaped EBG to decrease the resonance frequency by increasing the electrical length of the radiating element. The total electrical length of the single element in the modified swastika-shaped slot is 0.168λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e and the width is 0.002λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e. The EBG plane also designed on a FR4 substrate with 0.08λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e side length. The EBG unit cell dimensions are tabulated in Table II.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"SmallCaps\" class=\"SmallCaps\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTABLE II\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"SmallCaps\" class=\"SmallCaps\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eParameter of the Proposed EBG Structure\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003eS\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dispersion diagram shows the relationship between wavenumber and resonant frequency of the EBG structure. Moreover, it can describe the propagation properties of an infinitely periodic structure, such as the propagating modes and bandgaps that may exist between such modes. The dispersion properties of the EBG are obtained using an Eigen mode solver and used to determine the lower and higher bandgap frequencies. Based on the rectangular Brillouin zone, it determines the resonant frequencies for a specific wave number. The proposed EBG's dispersion diagram is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The obtained band gap proposed EBG plane covers the frequency range of 1.6 to 3.2 GHz.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the concept of an EBG, multiple unit cells are assembled periodically to design an EBG structure. To achieve a small size, a minimal number of EBG unit cells are used. So, the array of 4\u0026times;6 EBG unit cells achieve better gain for the proposed antenna. The separation between unit cells is 0.004λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e. The proposed EBG structure has a profile about 0.34λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.5λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows a fabricated prototype of the suggested antenna, an EBG reflector, and a perspective view of the EBG integrated antenna.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 EBG loaded antenna\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe addition of an EBG reflector improves the antenna performance at 2.4 GHz. The positioning of the EBG element is very critical because it mainly affects the antenna performance. This is due to the desired direction of the radiation pattern which perpendicular to the antenna plane. Also, the back-lobe of the antenna is relatively strong. The proposed EBG structure is placed beneath the antenna plane to reduce the back-lobe and improve the antenna performance. The separation between the proposed antenna and EBG structure is λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e/4, which provides sufficient impedance matching at 2.4 GHz. The spacing between the antenna and the EBG reflector is maintained by a foam spacer. While placing the EBG reflector below the antenna, 0◦ phase shift that occurs as incident wave propagates and then reflects back from the EBG plane. Then the reflected waves are in-phase with the wave directed by the antenna and constructive interference will take place accordingly. Due to this constructive interference between reflected and desired waves, the antenna's performance improves dramatically.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Simulation and measurement results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe simulated and measured reflection coefficient of the proposed EBG integrated antenna is plotted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The graph clearly explains that the reflection coefficient (S\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003e) of the antenna remains unchanged while loading the EBG. The proposed EBG reflector can produce the null reflection phase at the resonant frequency of the proposed antenna. Therefore, the gain increases significantly when the proposed antenna is placed above the EBG reflector. As mentioned earlier observed peak gain of the antenna is about \u0026ndash; 3.62 dB without an EBG reflector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter loading the EBG reflector with the proposed antenna, the peak gain at the operating frequency is 1.54 dB during the measurement. As a result of EBG loading, the antenna gain is enhanced by 4.7 dB. The comparative analysis plot of the obtained peak gain is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. To further analyze the resonant properties of the proposed antenna, the current density is simulated at 2.45 GHz and shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. The higher current mainly flowing on the slots of the rectangular patch, resulting in a lower resonance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness of EBG is demonstrated by experimental investigations of comparison between Perfect Electric Conductor (PEC) and the proposed EBG plane. The experimental results are analyzed by placing the antenna over the proposed EBG and PEC with the same dimensions. While placing the antenna above the PEC plane, the reflection coefficient of the antenna \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;14 dB and the obtained peak gain is -1.06 dB. This is due to the ordinary metal surface has provides 180\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e phase for λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e/4 spacing between them. Destructive interferences are analyzed between opposing directions of the antenna's current and the PEC's image current and provides degraded radiation performance. When placing the antenna above EBG plane, a good reflection coefficient is observed and peak gain also 1.4 dB achieved at 2.4 GHz. This is because the EBG's phase behavior confirms that the original current and the image current flow in the same direction, causing a constructive interference. Overall, the proposed EBG-integrated antenna exhibits better impedance matching than the PEC plane at 2.4 GHz. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e shows the comparison of peak gain and simulated S\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003e of the proposed antenna with EBG and PEC plane. It is obvious that EBG structure shows a good candidate for a miniaturized antenna.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasured radiation characteristics of the proposed antenna with and without EBG plane analyzed at 2.4 GHz. The results includes both E plane (yz) and H planes (xz) of antenna with and without EBG plane. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ea) and b) shows the xz-plane (phi\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0) and yz-plane (phi\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90) radiation pattern of the proposed antenna, respectively. As it can be observed, the antenna provides a bi-directional E-plane pattern and an omnidirectional H-plane radiation at the frequency of 2.4 GHz.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Comparative analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA comparative analysis between the proposed antenna to other gain-improved compact antennas reported in the literature in terms of size reduction, peak gain, and gain increment is presented in Table III. It is observed from the table that the comparison to the other work, the proposed antenna provides good miniaturization and gain increment at 2.4 GHz.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabc\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResonant Frequency (GHz)/ Substrate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntenna Size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize reduction (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGain Enhancement Technique\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeak Gain (dB)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGain Increment in %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithout Enhancement Technique\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith Enhancement Technique\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.45 / FR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.51λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.68\u0026ndash;2.76/ F4B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48 λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.75λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShorting Pins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;4 / FR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.22λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSplit-Ring AMC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.93 / Rogers 5880\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.36λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;1.36λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShorting Pins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6 / Taconic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;1.44λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCylindrical EBG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4 / FR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46 λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.46λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCircularly Symmetric EBG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4/ FR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.5λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubstrate Integrated Waveguide (SIW) FSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4 / Roger 6006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;1.05λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartial Substrate Removal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02 / FR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.16λ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComplementary Closed Ring Resonator\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProposed work\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.4 / FR4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.116λ\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cb\u003e\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;0.116λ\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e87\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eModified Swastika shaped EBG\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-3.4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e69\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"SmallCaps\" class=\"SmallCaps\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTABLE III\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"SmallCaps\" class=\"SmallCaps\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eComparison Between Previous Work\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 WSN Node Analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003eStudies are geared towards the planar antenna that can be integrated with the WSN node [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. WSN in-built antennas allow longtime monitoring but also provide extensive coverage in the sensor node. Most compact antennas in WSN nodes consume more power which reduces the lifetime of the node. For lower energy consumption, the antenna integrated with a node needs to operate for a longer time while consuming minimum power. Due to space constraints, the antenna also needs to be compact with acceptable gain. This indicates that the sensor nodes need highly miniaturized antennas for minimizing node complexity. The high gain antenna will consume less power in the desired direction. Therefore, the proposed antenna meets the above challenges. To validate the proposed antenna, it has been deployed in the sensor node and its performance is analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn Arduino based WSN is employed to validate the performance of the proposed antenna. Microcontroller ATmega328P and the CC2530 transceiver are chosen because of their high transmission power, size, low cost, and compatibility. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e shows the block diagram of transmitting and receiving sensor nodes with the proposed antenna. The wireless data communication is performed by using the proposed antenna as either receiving or transmitting side. The proposed antenna is attached to the sensor node instead of the default antenna on the transmission side. In destination, the in-built (internal) antenna acts as a receiver. Besides, the destination node is connected to the laptop through the UART cable. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e shows an experimental setup of the sensor node and the proposed antenna. Data exchange between the nodes occurs after configuration is complete.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo validate the proposed antenna, the RSSI value is measured as a function of time. The RSSI value of the receiver provides the signal strength of the proposed antenna (in dBm). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e compares the RSSI values of the antenna with and without EBG for each received data at a distance of 1m. It can be clearly shown that the antenna with an EBG provides more power levels than without EBG structure. Inaccurate, the EBG loaded antenna provides up to -65dBm power when compared to -70dBm for the antenna without EBG. Also, due to multipath fading and NLOS between the nodes, the RSSI value may change at any given time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the calculation of RSSI has been studied in both indoor and outdoor environments. The distance between nodes has an impact on RSSI value while keeping the destination node's position fixed. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e shows the relationship between RSSI and the distance of the nodes in an indoor environment. The proposed antenna gives greater power around \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;70dBm at short distances.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e shows the variation on RSSI about the distance between the node in an outdoor environment. It is shown that in comparison to long distances, the proposed antenna offers more power \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;65dBm at a distance of 3m. The results show that the proposed antennas can provide satisfactory precision in both indoor and outdoor environments. The designed sensor node's position can be adjusted to the building's layout to improve the results of indoor positioning. Because buildings do not have a blocking effect in an outdoor environment, the outdoor method is even more accurate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSensors are mainly characterized depending on the value of their important parameters such as accuracy, response time, accuracy, sensitivity, Precision, Sensitivity, Linearity, Repeatability, etc.., Among them, some of the important parameters are analyzed. The same configuration is used to calculate the sensing parameter such as failure rate and accuracy of the sensor node. By varying the distance between the transmitting and receiving nodes, the failure rate is calculated. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e depicts the failure rate calculated by varying the distance between the transmitter and receiving nodes. In both indoor and outdoor environments, the distance between the nodes increases, and the failure rate gets increases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most significant parameter in sensor node analysis is accuracy, which ensures that the sensor's readings are as near as possible to the known value. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig16\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e depicts the accuracy calculation of the designed sensor node. A better accuracy value is observed in both the indoor and outdoor environments, for example, at a distance of 4 m between the sensor nodes, the accuracy value is 94% for the outdoor environment and 90% for the indoor environment is observed. In summary, the results confirm that the proposed antenna can provide good reliability and is suitable for short-range WSN applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe power usage depends strongly on the node's mode of operation. The average energy consumption in sleep mode is less than 10\u0026micro;W. In active mode, the estimated power consumption of the sensor node is 78mW while the proposed antenna loaded without an EBG structure on the transmission side. For the experiments, a proposed EBG reflector is loaded with the antenna, causing an additional power consumption of about 12mW. Table IV explains the average power consumption of the sensor node. It confirms that the proposed EBG loaded antenna provides more power consumption in both modes. In summary, the proposed antenna can provide good power consumption and is suitable for short-range communications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"SmallCaps\" class=\"SmallCaps\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTABLE IV\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"SmallCaps\" class=\"SmallCaps\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eAverage Power Consumption of the Designed Node\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabd\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMode of operation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithout EBG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith EBG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSLEEP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2\u0026micro;W\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026micro;W\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eACTIVE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90mW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78mW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eHere, the design and analysis of highly miniaturized and performance enhanced antenna for WSN applications is addressed. The miniaturization of the antenna is achieved by a combination of slots and a partial ground. When compared to the traditional antenna for 2.4 GHz, the proposed antenna provides about 87% miniaturization. On other hand, the peak gain of the antenna gets reduced while minimizing the antenna size. Here, the gain enhancement technique is discussed using the symmetric EBG structure. The EBG structure enhances the antenna gain by 4.7 dB. To demonstrate this structure, the prototype is fabricated, tested, and experimentally verified with sensor nodes in a real-time environment. Both simulated and measured results have shown good concurrence with each other, and its real-time analysis ensures the proposed antenna is an appropriate design for WSN based applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe antenna was tested by the facility created with the support of DST SERB, AICTE, DST FIST and SSN Trust.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Not Applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKuo, Y., Li, C., Jhang, J., \u0026amp; Lin, S., Design of a Wireless Sensor Network-Based IoT Platform for Wide Area and Heterogeneous Applications. in \u003cem\u003eIEEE Sensors Journal\u003c/em\u003e, 18, 12, pp. 5187\u0026ndash;5197, 15 June 15, 2018.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChong, M. 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Flexible dual-diversity wearable wireless node integrated on a dual‐polarised textile patch antenna. \u003cem\u003eIet Science, Measurement And Technology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e, 452\u0026ndash;458.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"low-profile antenna, modified swastika shaped EBG structure, gain enhancement","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3921847/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3921847/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn this paper, a highly miniaturized monopole-like patch antenna for wireless sensor nodes with an enhanced gain is proposed. To mitigate the issue of low gain while designing a low-profile antenna for sensor nodes, the designed square shape planar antenna is employed with the symmetric modified Swastika-shaped Electromagnetic Bandgap (EBG) structure. The overall size of the proposed antenna is 0.116 \u003cem\u003e𝜆\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e×\u003c/em\u003e 0.116\u003cem\u003e𝜆\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e. Miniaturization of the antenna is obtained by introducing the partial ground and the slots in the radiating patch. The simulation result indicates the proposed antenna has a gain of -3.62 dB at 2.4 GHz. Further, on employing the proposed EBG reflector beneath the antenna, the peak gain is increased by 4.7 dB. The combinational structure of the EBG reflector is a 6 \u003cem\u003e×\u003c/em\u003e 4 array and the antenna operates with a peak gain of 1.54 dB. The measurements show that the fabricated antenna has good radiation performance, high gain, and good matching with simulated results. To validate the proposed antenna, a fabricated prototype is tested and analyzed using the sensor node in a real-time environment. Based on this analysis, the proposed antenna is found to be a good candidate for sensor node applications.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Design, Development and Testing of an Ultra-Compact Antenna with Enhanced Gain for Wireless Sensor Nodes","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-02-29 19:32:44","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3921847/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3cf6ba9b-8503-4d83-98f3-23cdb9e14bb7","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 29th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-03-02T21:20:11+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-02-29 19:32:44","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3921847","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3921847","identity":"rs-3921847","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}