Study of Characterization and Mechanism of Sugarcane Bagasse made Activated Carbon

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Harvesting and processing of agricultural crops produces significant quantities of residues. It is the most abundant residue producing approximately 100 million tons per annum in Indian context. Proper disposal of agricultural wastes can reduce a serious problem of water pollution. Sugarcane bagasse composed of cellulose (45%), hemicellulose (28%), lignin (20%), sugar (5%), minerals (1%) and ash (2%). Hence, pyrolysis under controlled conditions can transform carbonaceous raw material into carbon rich compounds like AC. Due to high lignocellulosic content, its usefulness in the form of activated carbon is gaining importance. Microporous structure of any AC is due to its high cellulose and low lignin content. Utilization of sugarcane bagasse as a precursor for making activated carbon and its mechanism of activation has been studied in this paper. In this research activated carbon synthesized by using H 3 PO 4 and optimum condition of preparation was found to be the ratio 1:1 at 900°C for 1 hr. The prepared activated carbon was named as SB-OPA 1 -900 representing the raw material, activating agent, ratio and temperature. Based on this condition, mechanism of H 3 PO 4 activation is also discussed in this paper. During activation, the lignoellulosic polymeric structures will decomposes, with liberation of non-carbon elements like H, O and N in the form of bitumen (tars) and gases. This will results in development of rigid carbon structure in the form of aromatic sheets and strips. When lignocellulosic components mixed with acid, the H 3 PO 4 first attacks the hemicellulose and lignin rather than cellulose as cellulose is more resistant to acid hydrolysis. Due to aggressive action of H 3 PO 4, lignicellulosic materials started to degrade and occupies a substantial volume. During washing, acid washed out and empty pores will appears in the product. It has been observed during experimentation that when phosphoric acid mixed with the precursor, the temperature of the container increases slowly. This process leads to an extensive liberation of CO /CO 2 and CH 4 . activation agro-waste cellulose precursor Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction India is the second largest agricultural contributor worldwide. Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (IMNRE) documented that, India generates about 500 Million Tons (MT) of agricultural waste each year. Out of which, about 92 MT of crop residues were burnt each year which causes disproportionate particulate matter emission and air pollution [ 1 – 2 ]. According to Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare report 2020, one tons of rice paddy straw burning releases particulate matter-3 Kg, CO-60 Kg, CO 2 -1460 Kg, ash-199 Kg and SO 2 -2 Kg. Regarding nutrients, one tons of paddy straw contains 5.5 Kg nitrogen, 2.3 Kg P 4 O 10 , 25 Kg K 2 O, 1.2 Kg sulfur, 50–70% micronutrients and 400 Kg carbon, are lost due to crop burning which in turn changes the soil properties [ 3 – 7 ]. However, effective management of agro-waste is significant to minimize the burden of solid waste as well as it will solves the problem of its disposal. Some of the agricultural by-products are used as feedstock for animals, fillers, paper making additives, for direct combustion, fertilizer applications and anaerobic digestion [ 1 ]. Agriculture is the biggest biological sectors with the production of bio-mass [ 8 ], which becomes a vital input for the bio-economy, [ 9 ]. This gives a great opportunity, to minimize the use of fossil fuel and GHG emission [ 10 ]. Conversion of bio-waste into worth products and bioenergy also contributes to the improvement of new green market sectors [ 11 – 13 ]. Cognizant of increasing demand profile and relative carbon footprint of different raw materials, activated carbon manufacturers are actively seeking to extend the applications of “renewable” raw materials. Coals and lignocellulosic materials are the preliminary materials for synthesis of AC. Recently numerous efforts have been made to synthesize AC from agricultural solid waste and hence, agricultural biomass has gained much consideration over the last decades for the synthesis of activated carbon from thermo-chemical process. Due to versatile properties and wide potential applications of lignocellulosic biomass-derived materials, biomass is not a waste nowadays. Biomass, a biodegradable fraction originates from agriculture, forestry and related industry. Agricultural waste is considered as lignocellulosic biomass which primarily contains three essential elements cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose is the main constituent, which is a linear polysaccharide and is comprised of long chain of glucose residues. Hemicelluloses are polymers with a lower degree of polymerization. Lignin is polyphenolic material with three aromatic alcohols and forms a protective shield around cellulose and hemicellulose [ 13 – 15 ]. A lignocellulosic biomass contains 40–50% cellulose, 20–30% hemicellulose and 10–25% lignin [ 16 – 18 ]. Hence, one can use such carbonaceous precursors for making activated carbon from agricultural wastes. The % elemental composition [ 19 – 20 ] of these carbon rich lignocellulosic biomass is given in Table 1 . Table 1 Elemental composition of cellulose, hemicellulose & lignin [ 21 ] Constituent % C (by wt.) %O (by wt.) %H (by wt.) Cellulose 44.4 49.4 6.2 Hemicellulose 44.4 49.4 6.2 Lignin 62 32 6 Utilization of such lignocellulosic biomass for synthesis of Activated carbon (AC) is an important approach towards waste and cost minimization. Converting biomass into green product like AC could minimize environmental degradation due to contamination of air, water and accumulation of agricultural waste. In addition, preparation of AC from agricultural waste instead of fossil fuels could reduce global warming [ 22 – 24 ]. This paper discussed the characterization and investigated the H 3 PO 4 activation mechanism in detail. 2. Experimental Synthesis of sugarcane bagasse (SB) based activated carbon (AC) The oven-dried sugarcane bagasse in presence of phosphoric acid catalyst was impregnated first with ratio such as 1:1, 1:2 & 1:3 on weight basis in a beaker. The impregnnated material is then activated in furnace in absence of N 2 atmosphere for 1 hr in the temperature range of 600 ° C-900 ° C @ of 10 ° C/min. The prepared carbon was washed, dried and seived through ASTM 70 for further use. The optimum ratio of impregnation was found to be 1:1 (H 3 PO 4 :SB) and optimum temperature obtained was 900 ° C. The nomenclature given to the optimized carbon as SB-OPA 1 -900 indicates precursor, activating agent, impregnation ratio and temperature [ 25 – 28 ]. 3. Result and discussion The prepared carbon SB-OPA 1 -900 was characterized for Proximate & CHN analysis, TGA-DTA, N2-BET surface area, SEM, FTIR, and XRD. The mechanism of working of an activating agent was examined and discussed in this section. 3.1 Characterization 3.1.1 Proximate analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 Proximate analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 was carried out by ASTM D 5142-02a [ 29 ] which involves moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon determination. The proximate analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 is shown in Table 2 . Table 2 Proximate analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 Sample % Moisture % Volatile Matter % Ash % Fixed Carbon SB-OPA 1 -900 9.36 16.80 21.88 51.96 3.1.2 CHN analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 Elemental analysis works on the basic principle of oxidation of C, H, N, S into gases like CO 2 , H 2 O, and SO 2 that are then separated by chromatographic method. Elemental analysis was carried out on ThermoFinnigan analyzer available at Department of CIL, Punjab University, Chandigarh. The CHN analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 is shown in Table 3 . Table 3 CHN analysis of selected char and activated carbons Samples % Carbon % Hydrogen % Nitrogen SB-OPA 1 -900 77.37 4.82 0.26 3.1.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 FTIR technique is exploring physical properties of any material. It identifies whether compound to be tested is organic or inorganic. It measures absorption and emission property of a compound. It is used to identify chemical bonds present in an unknown mixture. The FTIR spectra of raw materials was recorded by IRAffinity-1 instrument available at RTMNU, Nagpur. The frequency range on which FTIR spectra was recorded is 4000 − 400 cm-1. The FTIR spectra of SB-OPA 1 -900 shown in Fig. 1 illustrates that, the transmission peak at 3717.86 cm -1 was due to -OH. The peak at 3065.67 cm -1 shows C-H stretching of aliphatic group. The peak at 1002.69 cm -1 corresponds to C-O stretching. The band at 1525.14 cm -1 is due to stretching vibration of aromatic C = C bond. The peaks at 1136.64 cm -1 shows C-O stretching vibrations. The band between 900 − 600 cm -1 corresponds to C-H stretching [ 30 – 31 ]. 3.1.4 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 X-ray scattering is an analytical method which gives information about the crystallographic structure of materials. The basic principle involved is the measurement of interference of monochromatic X-rays and sample.For XRD studies, the diffractometer used was “Rigaku” available at RUSA, RTMNU, Nagpur. The diffraction peaks were recorded at 0.02°/s in the angle range (2θ) between 0°–70°. The XRD spectra of SB-OPA 1 -900 exhibit diffractogram with broad peaks at 2θ = 22.7°, 44.8° & 58.6°. XRD results corresponds to amorphous and graphitic nature of activated carbon. The similar type of XRD result was observed by Beyan et al. [ 32 ]. The XRD spectra of SB-OPA 1 -900 is shown in Fig. 2 . 3.1.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 SEM is a technique in which electron microscope is used to scan a sample surface with a high-energy beam of electron. These have very short wavelengths which permits better resolution power. SEM uses emitted electrons. The basic principle is the signal is produced due to interaction of electrons on application of kinetic energy.The SEM was studied by scanning electron microscope (JEOL-6380A) available at VNIT, Nagpur. The SEM image of SB-OPA 1 -900 showed porous structure with full of cavities. The SEM images showed varied pore sizes for different activated carbon. This may be due to volatile matter removal during activation which attributed to production of active and fixed carbon mass with larger pore volume and good adsorption property. Efeovbokhan et al. [ 33 ] also reports such type of observation. The SEM image of selected ACs are shown in Fig. 3 . 3.1.6 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 The surface property of raw materials was evaluated by BET surface area analyzer. Based on the nitrogen adsorption/desorption data, surface area can be measured at -194°C by QUANTACHROME (Nova-Touch) surface area analyzer. This process determines quantitative physisorption data of quantity of gas adsorbed or desorbed as a function of pressure. The textural property of AC was analyzed by surface area analyzer. The obtained surface area, total pore volume and average pore size of SB-OPA 1 -900 was presented in the Table 4 . Table 4 Surface characteristics of SB-OPA 1 -900 Sr No. Sample Iodine No. (mg/g) BET Surface area (m 2 /g) Pore volume V tot (cm 3 /g) Avg. pore size (A°) 4 SB-OPA 1 -900 987.31 987.97 0.955 19.34 3.2 Activation mechanism of H 3 PO 4 as an activating agent Phosphoric acid demonstrates essential activity in the cleavage of bonds and the elimination of bio-polymers/water at low temperatures, serving as an activating acid agent in the synthesis of activated carbon [ 34 – 35 ]. According to previous research, the process of H 3 PO 4 biomass treatment begins with the depolymerization of cellulose, followed by the dehydration of biopolymers, the formation of aromatic rings, and finally, the elimination of phosphate clusters [ 36 ]. A weak acid can be useful for hydrolyzing cellulose to cellulase enzymes and can coexist with salts that may result from agricultural biomass. In contrast, strong acids readily cause cation conversion, such as proton leaching [ 37 ]. The supplementary addition of water to concentrated phosphoric acid leads to the hydrolysis of cellulose via an esterification reaction [ 38 – 39 ]. It has been observed during experimentation that when phosphoric acid mixed with the precursor, the temperature of the container increases slowly [ 40 ]. This process leads to an extensive liberation of CO /CO 2 and CH 4 . This process also leads to a decrease in the volume of the particles [ 41 ]. The cleavage of aryl ether bonds accompanied by different reactions leads to formation of ketones by hydrolysis of ether linkages at low temperature. As temperature increases, weight loss decreases and the structure begins to dilate which develops porosity [ 42 ]. In case of SB, above 900°C, pore walls starts collapsing and forming wider pores. This leads to lower surface areas and more pore volume. It is concluded from the mechanism of working of H 3 PO 4 that, during thermal degradation H 3 PO 4 enters the interior of precursor by restricting tar formation and other liquids such as CH 3 COOH and CH 3 OH. The formation of cross-links restricts the shrinkage of the precursor particles and occupying certain substantial volumes [ 43 ]. The acid forms a linkage layer of phosphate and polyphosphate esters by protecting the internal pore structure and prevent the pores from excessive burn-off. The activation mechanism for chemical activation is explained in below equations (1), (2), (3), (4), (5), and (6). At a temperature range of 100–400℃, phosphoric acid is converted first to diphosphoric acid then to triphosphoric acid with release of adsorbed water. 2HPO → HPO + HO (1) 3HPO → HPO + 2HO (2) nH 3 PO 4 →H n+2 P n O 3n+1 + (n – 1) H 2 O (3) At a temperature range of 400–700°C, this polyphosphoric acid first converted to phosphorus pentoxide with release of water and then to phosphorus trioxide. This transformation leads to formation of new pores and widening of existing pores. This decomposition releases CO 2 and CO gases. H n+2 P n O 3n+1 → P 4 O 10 + H 2 O (4) P 4 O 10 + 2C → P 4 O 6 + 2CO 2 (5) At a temperature range of 700–800°C, phosphorus pentoxide or phosphorus trioxide reacts with hydrocarbon to form phosphine gas with release of CO 2 and CO [ 44 ]. P 4 O 10 /P 4 O 6 + CH x → PH 3 + CO 2 /CO (6) At a temperature higher than 800°C, phosphorus compounds can evaporate from the carbon surface with the creation of pores [ 45 – 46 ]. 4. Conclusion In the present study, characterization and mechanism of activated carbon (AC) SB-OPA 1 -900 was discussed in detail. The proximate analysis of SB-OPA 1 -900 showed Moisture-9.36%, % Volatile matter-16.8%, %Ash-21.88% and Fixed carbon-51.96%. CHN analysis revealed the prepared material is rich carbon containing product with 77.37% Carbon, 4.82% Hydrogen and 0.26% Nitrogen. Higher carbon content specifies that after thermal degradation, aromatic structure is dominant in catalyst presence. Activation, results in the degradation of organic substances into volatile gases & liquids, whereas solid residues were left with high carbon content. However, molecular chain breaking is responsible for low hydrogen (H) and low oxygen (O) content of ACs. The FTIR spectra of SB-OPA 1 -900 illustrated the presence of -OH stretching, C-H stretching of aliphatic group, C-O stretching, stretching vibration of aromatic C = C bond. The XRD spectra of SB-OPA 1 -900 exhibit diffractogram with broad peaks at 2θ = 22.7°, 44.8° & 58.6°. XRD results corresponds to amorphous and graphitic nature of activated carbon. The SEM image of SB-OPA 1 -900 showed porous structure of AC with full of cavities. This may be due to volatile matter removal during activation which attributed to production of active and fixed carbon mass with larger pore volume and good adsorption property. The surface area of SB-OPA 1 -900 was found to be 987.97 m 2 /g. The detail mechanism of phosphoric acid activation was explained with the help of reactions in result section. Declarations ETHIC APPROVAL AND CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE Not applicable. HUMAN AND ANIMAL RIGHTS Not Applicable. CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION Not applicable. FUNDING This research is funded by Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University (RTMNU) R & D cell for project RTMNU/RDC/2024/237 . ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to express my sincere thanks to RTMNU-R & D cell for their generous financial support of the research project under RTMNU reseach project scheme-RTMNU/RDC/2024/237. Author Contribution The authors confirm their contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design: AR; conceptualization: MAB; draft manuscript: ER. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. Acknowledgement I would like to express my sincere thanks to RTMNU-R & D cell for their generous financial support of the research project under RTMNU reseach project scheme-RTMNU/RDC/2024/237. Data Availability All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. References Bhuvaneshwari S, Hettiarachchi H, Meegoda JN. (2019). Crop residue burning in India. Policy challenges and potential solutions. 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Preparation and characterization of activated carbons obtained from the waste materials impregnated with phosphoric acid (V). Appl Nanosci. 2020;10(12):4703–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-020-01371-3 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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RAUT","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACHhiDvYGBIQFIsxHWwgyleQ4gaTlAlBaJBCRRfFr4ec4f/MC4xy5xv+Tbhx8e/LHJ42PgPfj4Ax4tkr3NzBIMz5ITe6TTjSUS29KK2Rj4kg3w2WJwnplBguEAM1BLGoNEYsPhxDYGHjMJfFrszzMz/2A4UJ/YI3mM+UfCH7AW8x94beFtZgPacjixR4KNTSKBDWILXu9LnDlsZpFw4Lhxz5k0NgugXxLbmHmMJc7g0cLfk/j4xocD1bLt7ceYb/74Y5M4v73H8EMFHi1gkIDCYyakfBSMglEwCkYBQQAA6YhItA2LGZsAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"G H Raisoni College of Engineering, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj, Nagpur University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"EKTA","middleName":"R","lastName":"RAUT","suffix":""},{"id":535223389,"identity":"acb4ec99-7309-488f-9679-6015384eb3cb","order_by":1,"name":"Monita A Bedmohata (Thakur)","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"G H Raisoni University, Amravati","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Monita","middleName":"A Bedmohata","lastName":"(Thakur)","suffix":""},{"id":535223390,"identity":"1b2b3f95-41f4-47bd-80ee-a5fbee7df2c3","order_by":2,"name":"Archana R Chaudhari","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"G H Raisoni University, Amravati","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Archana","middleName":"R","lastName":"Chaudhari","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-25 07:08:28","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7709726/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7709726/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":94599757,"identity":"fa2266f8-8215-49cf-b7c7-768c0e76443d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 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19:09:38","extension":"xml","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":95230,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"0b3d45fb92614e328df5eba00d36422b1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7709726/v1/274718b90564d9a8bae38fa4.xml"},{"id":94599758,"identity":"782277b8-4851-486a-bcec-db36d80937f3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 19:07:42","extension":"html","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":103338,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7709726/v1/6781a7196e429a7b0eb67833.html"},{"id":94599982,"identity":"4fc44c81-b4a5-4a1f-9c44-321dbf1b5ba2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 19:09:55","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":99905,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFTIR of SB-OPA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-900\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7709726/v1/f44e55984fbf786167e5a973.png"},{"id":94599869,"identity":"f323a879-73df-48b1-bd3a-573e6d48defc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 19:08:06","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":33132,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eXRD of SB-OPA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-900\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7709726/v1/daab737cebebe45bfbdcb819.png"},{"id":94599296,"identity":"1ed3aef8-cc1d-4110-b2b5-aed49b3eaf00","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 19:04:59","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":142069,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM of SB-OPA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-900\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7709726/v1/79d636641cffee8e20e89c30.jpeg"},{"id":100787760,"identity":"5a6292b0-4be3-4bf5-9a93-a236ba85100a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 12:03:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1070945,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7709726/v1/8aacedfb-eac1-43ec-9a53-eb09097d5185.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Study of Characterization and Mechanism of Sugarcane Bagasse made Activated Carbon","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIndia is the second largest agricultural contributor worldwide. Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (IMNRE) documented that, India generates about 500\u0026nbsp;Million Tons (MT) of agricultural waste each year. Out of which, about 92 MT of crop residues were burnt each year which causes disproportionate particulate matter emission and air pollution [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Ministry of Agriculture \u0026amp; Farmers Welfare report 2020, one tons of rice paddy straw burning releases particulate matter-3 Kg, CO-60 Kg, CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e -1460 Kg, ash-199 Kg and SO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e -2 Kg. Regarding nutrients, one tons of paddy straw contains 5.5 Kg nitrogen, 2.3 Kg P\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e, 25 Kg K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO, 1.2 Kg sulfur, 50\u0026ndash;70% micronutrients and 400 Kg carbon, are lost due to crop burning which in turn changes the soil properties [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4 CR5 CR6\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. However, effective management of agro-waste is significant to minimize the burden of solid waste as well as it will solves the problem of its disposal. Some of the agricultural by-products are used as feedstock for animals, fillers, paper making additives, for direct combustion, fertilizer applications and anaerobic digestion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgriculture is the biggest biological sectors with the production of bio-mass [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], which becomes a vital input for the bio-economy, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. This gives a great opportunity, to minimize the use of fossil fuel and GHG emission [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Conversion of bio-waste into worth products and bioenergy also contributes to the improvement of new green market sectors [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCognizant of increasing demand profile and relative carbon footprint of different raw materials, activated carbon manufacturers are actively seeking to extend the applications of \u0026ldquo;renewable\u0026rdquo; raw materials.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoals and lignocellulosic materials are the preliminary materials for synthesis of AC. Recently numerous efforts have been made to synthesize AC from agricultural solid waste and hence, agricultural biomass has gained much consideration over the last decades for the synthesis of activated carbon from thermo-chemical process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to versatile properties and wide potential applications of lignocellulosic biomass-derived materials, biomass is not a waste nowadays. Biomass, a biodegradable fraction originates from agriculture, forestry and related industry. Agricultural waste is considered as lignocellulosic biomass which primarily contains three essential elements cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose is the main constituent, which is a linear polysaccharide and is comprised of long chain of glucose residues. Hemicelluloses are polymers with a lower degree of polymerization. Lignin is polyphenolic material with three aromatic alcohols and forms a protective shield around cellulose and hemicellulose [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. A lignocellulosic biomass contains 40\u0026ndash;50% cellulose, 20\u0026ndash;30% hemicellulose and 10\u0026ndash;25% lignin [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Hence, one can use such carbonaceous precursors for making activated carbon from agricultural wastes. The % elemental composition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] of these carbon rich lignocellulosic biomass is given in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElemental composition of cellulose, hemicellulose \u0026amp; lignin [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstituent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e% C (by wt.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e%O (by wt.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e%H (by wt.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCellulose\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemicellulose\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLignin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUtilization of such lignocellulosic biomass for synthesis of Activated carbon (AC) is an important approach towards waste and cost minimization. Converting biomass into green product like AC could minimize environmental degradation due to contamination of air, water and accumulation of agricultural waste. In addition, preparation of AC from agricultural waste instead of fossil fuels could reduce global warming [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR23\" citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. This paper discussed the characterization and investigated the H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e activation mechanism in detail.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Experimental","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSynthesis of sugarcane bagasse (SB) based activated carbon (AC)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe oven-dried sugarcane bagasse in presence of phosphoric acid catalyst was impregnated first with ratio such as 1:1, 1:2 \u0026amp; 1:3 on weight basis in a beaker. The impregnnated material is then activated in furnace in absence of N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e atmosphere for 1 hr in the temperature range of 600\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC-900\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC @ of 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC/min. The prepared carbon was washed, dried and seived through ASTM 70 for further use. The optimum ratio of impregnation was found to be 1:1 (H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e:SB) and optimum temperature obtained was 900\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC. The nomenclature given to the optimized carbon as SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 indicates precursor, activating agent, impregnation ratio and temperature [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26 CR27\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Result and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe prepared carbon SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 was characterized for Proximate \u0026amp; CHN analysis, TGA-DTA, N2-BET surface area, SEM, FTIR, and XRD. The mechanism of working of an activating agent was examined and discussed in this section.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Characterization\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Proximate analysis of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eProximate analysis of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 was carried out by ASTM D 5142-02a [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] which involves moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon determination. The proximate analysis of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 is shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProximate analysis of \u003cb\u003eSB-OPA\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e-900\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e% Moisture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e% Volatile Matter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e% Ash\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e% Fixed Carbon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.2 CHN analysis of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eElemental analysis works on the basic principle of oxidation of C, H, N, S into gases like CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO, and SO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e that are then separated by chromatographic method. Elemental analysis was carried out on ThermoFinnigan analyzer available at Department of CIL, Punjab University, Chandigarh. The CHN analysis of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 is shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCHN analysis of selected char and activated carbons\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e% Carbon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e% Hydrogen\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e% Nitrogen\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFTIR technique is exploring physical properties of any material. It identifies whether compound to be tested is organic or inorganic. It measures absorption and emission property of a compound. It is used to identify chemical bonds present in an unknown mixture. The FTIR spectra of raw materials was recorded by IRAffinity-1 instrument available at RTMNU, Nagpur. The frequency range on which FTIR spectra was recorded is 4000\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;400 cm-1. The FTIR spectra of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e illustrates that, the transmission peak at 3717.86 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e was due to -OH. The peak at 3065.67 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e shows C-H stretching of aliphatic group. The peak at 1002.69 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e corresponds to C-O stretching. The band at 1525.14 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e is due to stretching vibration of aromatic C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C bond. The peaks at 1136.64 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e shows C-O stretching vibrations. The band between 900\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;600 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e corresponds to C-H stretching [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.1.4 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis of SB-OPA\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e-900\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eX-ray scattering is an analytical method which gives information about the crystallographic structure of materials. The basic principle involved is the measurement of interference of monochromatic X-rays and sample.For XRD studies, the diffractometer used was \u0026ldquo;Rigaku\u0026rdquo; available at RUSA, RTMNU, Nagpur. The diffraction peaks were recorded at 0.02\u0026deg;/s in the angle range (2θ) between 0\u0026deg;\u0026ndash;70\u0026deg;. The XRD spectra of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 exhibit diffractogram with broad peaks at 2θ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22.7\u0026deg;, 44.8\u0026deg; \u0026amp; 58.6\u0026deg;. XRD results corresponds to amorphous and graphitic nature of activated carbon. The similar type of XRD result was observed by Beyan et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The XRD spectra of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSEM is a technique in which electron microscope is used to scan a sample surface with a high-energy beam of electron. These have very short wavelengths which permits better resolution power. SEM uses emitted electrons. The basic principle is the signal is produced due to interaction of electrons on application of kinetic energy.The SEM was studied by scanning electron microscope (JEOL-6380A) available at VNIT, Nagpur. The SEM image of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 showed porous structure with full of cavities. The SEM images showed varied pore sizes for different activated carbon. This may be due to volatile matter removal during activation which attributed to production of active and fixed carbon mass with larger pore volume and good adsorption property. Efeovbokhan et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] also reports such type of observation. The SEM image of selected ACs are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.1.6 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis of SB-OPA\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e-900\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe surface property of raw materials was evaluated by BET surface area analyzer. Based on the nitrogen adsorption/desorption data, surface area can be measured at -194\u0026deg;C by QUANTACHROME (Nova-Touch) surface area analyzer. This process determines quantitative physisorption data of quantity of gas adsorbed or desorbed as a function of pressure. The textural property of AC was analyzed by surface area analyzer. The obtained surface area, total pore volume and average pore size of \u003cb\u003eSB-OPA\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e-900\u003c/b\u003e was presented in the Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSurface characteristics of \u003cb\u003eSB-OPA\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e-900\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSr No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIodine No. (mg/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBET Surface area (m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePore volume V\u003csub\u003etot\u003c/sub\u003e (cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg. pore size (A\u0026deg;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e987.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e987.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.955\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Activation mechanism of H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e as an activating agent\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhosphoric acid demonstrates essential activity in the cleavage of bonds and the elimination of bio-polymers/water at low temperatures, serving as an activating acid agent in the synthesis of activated carbon [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. According to previous research, the process of H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e biomass treatment begins with the depolymerization of cellulose, followed by the dehydration of biopolymers, the formation of aromatic rings, and finally, the elimination of phosphate clusters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. A weak acid can be useful for hydrolyzing cellulose to cellulase enzymes and can coexist with salts that may result from agricultural biomass. In contrast, strong acids readily cause cation conversion, such as proton leaching [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. The supplementary addition of water to concentrated phosphoric acid leads to the hydrolysis of cellulose via an esterification reaction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt has been observed during experimentation that when phosphoric acid mixed with the precursor, the temperature of the container increases slowly [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. This process leads to an extensive liberation of CO /CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e. This process also leads to a decrease in the volume of the particles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. The cleavage of aryl ether bonds accompanied by different reactions leads to formation of ketones by hydrolysis of ether linkages at low temperature. As temperature increases, weight loss decreases and the structure begins to dilate which develops porosity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. In case of SB, above 900\u0026deg;C, pore walls starts collapsing and forming wider pores. This leads to lower surface areas and more pore volume. It is concluded from the mechanism of working of H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e that, during thermal degradation H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e enters the interior of precursor by restricting tar formation and other liquids such as CH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eCOOH and CH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eOH. The formation of cross-links restricts the shrinkage of the precursor particles and occupying certain substantial volumes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. The acid forms a linkage layer of phosphate and polyphosphate esters by protecting the internal pore structure and prevent the pores from excessive burn-off.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe activation mechanism for chemical activation is explained in below equations (1), (2), (3), (4), (5), and (6).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt a temperature range of 100\u0026ndash;400℃, phosphoric acid is converted first to diphosphoric acid then to triphosphoric acid with release of adsorbed water.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2HPO → HPO + HO (1)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\n\u003ch3\u003e3HPO → HPO + 2HO (2)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003enH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026rarr;H\u003csub\u003en+2\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003en\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3n+1\u003c/sub\u003e + (n \u0026ndash; 1) H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO (3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt a temperature range of 400\u0026ndash;700\u0026deg;C, this polyphosphoric acid first converted to phosphorus pentoxide with release of water and then to phosphorus trioxide. This transformation leads to formation of new pores and widening of existing pores. This decomposition releases CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and CO gases.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH\u003csub\u003en+2\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003en\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3n+1\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026rarr; P\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO (4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;2C \u0026rarr; P\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;2CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt a temperature range of 700\u0026ndash;800\u0026deg;C, phosphorus pentoxide or phosphorus trioxide reacts with hydrocarbon to form phosphine gas with release of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and CO [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e /P\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CH\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026rarr; PH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/CO (6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt a temperature higher than 800\u0026deg;C, phosphorus compounds can evaporate from the carbon surface with the creation of pores [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, characterization and mechanism of activated carbon (AC) SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 was discussed in detail. The proximate analysis of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 showed Moisture-9.36%, % Volatile matter-16.8%, %Ash-21.88% and Fixed carbon-51.96%. CHN analysis revealed the prepared material is rich carbon containing product with 77.37% Carbon, 4.82% Hydrogen and 0.26% Nitrogen. Higher carbon content specifies that after thermal degradation, aromatic structure is dominant in catalyst presence. Activation, results in the degradation of organic substances into volatile gases \u0026amp; liquids, whereas solid residues were left with high carbon content. However, molecular chain breaking is responsible for low hydrogen (H) and low oxygen (O) content of ACs. The FTIR spectra of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 illustrated the presence of -OH stretching, C-H stretching of aliphatic group, C-O stretching, stretching vibration of aromatic C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C bond. The XRD spectra of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 exhibit diffractogram with broad peaks at 2θ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22.7\u0026deg;, 44.8\u0026deg; \u0026amp; 58.6\u0026deg;. XRD results corresponds to amorphous and graphitic nature of activated carbon. The SEM image of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 showed porous structure of AC with full of cavities. This may be due to volatile matter removal during activation which attributed to production of active and fixed carbon mass with larger pore volume and good adsorption property. The surface area of SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 was found to be 987.97 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/g. The detail mechanism of phosphoric acid activation was explained with the help of reactions in result section.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eETHIC APPROVAL AND CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHUMAN AND ANIMAL RIGHTS\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCONSENT FOR PUBLICATION\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFUNDING\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research is funded by Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University (RTMNU) R \u0026amp; D cell for project RTMNU/RDC/2024/237 .\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eACKNOWLEDGMENT\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eI would like to express my sincere thanks to RTMNU-R \u0026amp; D cell for their generous financial support of the research project under RTMNU reseach project scheme-RTMNU/RDC/2024/237.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors confirm their contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design: AR; conceptualization: MAB; draft manuscript: ER. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eI would like to express my sincere thanks to RTMNU-R \u0026amp; D cell for their generous financial support of the research project under RTMNU reseach project scheme-RTMNU/RDC/2024/237.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBhuvaneshwari S, Hettiarachchi H, Meegoda JN. (2019). Crop residue burning in India.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePolicy challenges and potential solutions. 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Appl Nanosci. 2020;10(12):4703\u0026ndash;16. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-020-01371-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s13204-020-01371-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"activation, agro-waste, cellulose, precursor","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7709726/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7709726/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSynthesis of activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse is a challenging attitude to produce ecofriendly and efficient bio-adsorbent for pollutant removal. Harvesting and processing of agricultural crops produces significant quantities of residues. It is the most abundant residue producing approximately 100\u0026nbsp;million tons per annum in Indian context. Proper disposal of agricultural wastes can reduce a serious problem of water pollution. Sugarcane bagasse composed of cellulose (45%), hemicellulose (28%), lignin (20%), sugar (5%), minerals (1%) and ash (2%). Hence, pyrolysis under controlled conditions can transform carbonaceous raw material into carbon rich compounds like AC. Due to high lignocellulosic content, its usefulness in the form of activated carbon is gaining importance. Microporous structure of any AC is due to its high cellulose and low lignin content. Utilization of sugarcane bagasse as a precursor for making activated carbon and its mechanism of activation has been studied in this paper. In this research activated carbon synthesized by using H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e and optimum condition of preparation was found to be the ratio 1:1 at 900\u0026deg;C for 1 hr. The prepared activated carbon was named as SB-OPA\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-900 representing the raw material, activating agent, ratio and temperature. Based on this condition, mechanism of H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e activation is also discussed in this paper. During activation, the lignoellulosic polymeric structures will decomposes, with liberation of non-carbon elements like H, O and N in the form of bitumen (tars) and gases. This will results in development of rigid carbon structure in the form of aromatic sheets and strips. When lignocellulosic components mixed with acid, the H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e first attacks the hemicellulose and lignin rather than cellulose as cellulose is more resistant to acid hydrolysis. Due to aggressive action of H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4,\u003c/sub\u003e lignicellulosic materials started to degrade and occupies a substantial volume. During washing, acid washed out and empty pores will appears in the product. It has been observed during experimentation that when phosphoric acid mixed with the precursor, the temperature of the container increases slowly. This process leads to an extensive liberation of CO /CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Study of Characterization and Mechanism of Sugarcane Bagasse made Activated Carbon","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-28 18:46:56","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7709726/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b7a1877f-dbc5-4a05-8b3c-9d18db6717fa","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 28th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-21T11:52:25+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-28 18:46:56","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7709726","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7709726","identity":"rs-7709726","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}