A rapid evidence assessment on the impact of climate change on peatland carbon dynamics in South America

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Adam H. Kirkwood, Braulio Lahuatte, Carol Kagaba Kairumba This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8612747/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Peatlands are vitally important ecosystems characterized by a diversity of services spanning species, ecosystem, landscape, and global scales. Peatlands store globally significant amounts of carbon, making it critical to understand how peatland carbon stocks will respond to climate change and development pressures. South America is estimated to contain approximately 10–13% of the world’s peatlands, representing a globally significant carbon reservoir. Knowledge of peatlands and their carbon storage and cycling in South America remains poorly synthesized, despite their diversity across elevation and climatic gradients, and their disproportionate importance in the global peatland carbon pool. We conducted a rapid evidence assessment (REA) of carbon dynamics in South American peatlands, emphasizing differences between high- and low-elevation systems and the effects of climate change and disturbance. Using predefined inclusion criteria, we reviewed 272 peer-reviewed studies published between 2000 and 2024. The majority of the literature was paleoecological (n = 47), and short-duration carbon flux studies (n = 15), yet fewer than 1% of studies investigated long-term peat decomposition rates that could be used as inputs for future climate scenario modeling. High-elevation peatlands generally exhibit long-term carbon accumulation but show high sensitivity to warming and hydrological change, whereas low-elevation peatlands contain large carbon stocks that are vulnerable to drought, flooding, fire, and land-use disturbance. Across elevations, climate variability frequently amplifies disturbance-driven carbon losses. Major gaps remain in long-term monitoring, decomposition measurements, and climate scenario modeling. Our synthesis highlights the need for coordinated research, monitoring, and conservation strategies to protect South American peatlands and their critical role in the global carbon cycle under future climate change. Marine and Freshwater Ecology peatland elevation decomposition carbon flux climate vulnerability Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Peatland ecosystems are unique wetland ecosystems that, through the combination of a high-water table and organic matter inputs from decaying plants, build organic-rich peat soils. While estimates vary, peatlands occupy a small proportion of the global terrestrial land mass (~ 3%) but represent roughly one-third of global soil carbon (C) storage and constitute an important component of the global carbon cycle (Limpens et al. 2008 ; Yu et al. 2011 ; Strack et al. 2022 ; Määttä and Malhotra 2024 ). Peatlands face a multitude of threats, including direct anthropogenic impacts such as deforestation, hydrologic alteration for alternative land uses, peat mining for fuel, pollution, overgrazing, and fire. Meanwhile, peatlands must also contend with the growing challenges of climate change, including shifts in temperature and moisture regimes, as well as the increased occurrence and frequency of extreme events and disturbances (Page and Baird 2016 ; Gaffney et al. 2024 ). While some peatlands remain intact, the protection, restoration, and management of these unique ecosystems can help reduce and mitigate emerging threats (United Nations Environment Programme 2022 ). The carbon balance of peatlands, and therefore, the storage of carbon, is determined by the net result of inputs (i.e. peat accumulation) and outputs (i.e. peat decomposition). The unique attribute of peatlands is that they store more carbon than they emit, making them net carbon sinks. Input of carbon to peatlands, at its most basic, is driven by photosynthesis influenced by solar radiation, water, temperature, nutrients, and hydrology (Grover and Baldock 2013 ; Harenda et al. 2018 ). The physical structure of peatland organic matter is determined by its botanical origin relative to the extent to which it has been altered via decomposition (Baden and Eggelsmann 1963 ; Grover and Baldock 2013 ). Many of the same factors that control photosynthesis also control the output of carbon. Carbon output from peatlands occurs through decomposition, involving a stepwise conversion of complex organic molecules into simpler constituents via physical leaching, fragmentation, and both aerobic and anaerobic microbial processes (Reddy and DeLaune 2008 ). Through the decomposition process, carbon is lost as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) (Moore et al. 2018 , Roulet et al. 1992 ; Bell et al. 2018 ). Given the range of variables influencing the accumulation and decomposition of carbon in peatlands, peatlands are sensitive to climate change as precipitation and temperature regimes shift and anthropogenic disturbances impact local or regional hydrology (Grover and Baldock 2013 ; Harenda et al. 2018 ). There is a great diversity in peatland structure and function, which is determined by complex interactions between geomorphology, hydrology, chemistry, and vegetation structure and composition. Therefore, drivers of decomposition, carbon storage, emissions, and ecosystem services can vary widely amongst peatlands (Limpens et al. 2008 ; Xu et al. 2018 ). Peat decomposition is related to its physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. The degree of peat decomposition is a crucial parameter that is closely linked to hydrologic conditions, the balance of inputs versus outputs, and yield information related to peat-forming processes (Boelter 1969 ; Grover and Baldock 2013 ). Information on the degree of peat decomposition is a proxy for the lability or recalcitrance of organic matter and the rates at which peat soils may further decompose to produce CO 2 , CH 4 , and DOC (Ho and Chambers 2019 ; Girkin et al. 2020 ). Further, temporal trends in decomposition are used to estimate decay rates, which are used in peat accumulation models (Clymo et al. 1998 ) or peatland modules of Earth Systems Models (ESMs) to evaluate the relationship between peatland-climate feedbacks (Bona et al. 2020 ; Chaudhary et al. 2022 ; Zhao and Zhuang 2023 ). Given the heterogeneity of controls on accumulation and decomposition, geographically representative accumulation and decomposition rates are therefore essential for accurately modeling peatland carbon balances (Bona et al. 2018 , 2020 ). This functional diversity is expressed spatially through distinct peatland landforms and vegetation assemblages shaped by hydrology and water chemistry. In low-elevation peatlands ( ≲ 1000 m), fine-scale microtopography produces hummocks, lawns, and hollows that occur at meter scales and differ in vegetation composition and proximity to the water table (Couwenberg and Joosten 2005 ; Eppinga et al. 2008 ). Hummocks are elevated relative to the water table and typically support dense vascular vegetation, whereas lawns occupy flatter positions with water levels near the peat surface and lower plant cover (Couwenberg and Joosten 2005 ; Iseas et al. 2025 ). In contrast, high-elevation peatlands are commonly classified by dominant vegetation functional types, reflecting gradients in elevation, nutrient availability, and hydrology. These include cushion-plant-dominated, sedge-dominated, tussock-grass-dominated, and Sphagnum-dominated peatlands (Cooper et al. 2010 ; Benavides et al. 2023 ). Cushion peatlands dominated by Oxychloe andina and Zameioscirpus muticus occur at the highest elevations ( ≳ 3000 m), while sedge- and tussock-dominated systems are more common at intermediate elevations and in relatively nutrient-rich settings. Sphagnum-dominated peatlands typically occur at lower elevations, under acidic and nutrient-poor conditions, and are further constrained by climatic controls on moss growth (Loisel and Bunsen 2020 ; Benavides et al. 2023 ). Here, we present a rapid evidence assessment to review peatland carbon dynamics in South American peatlands. South American peatlands cover ~ 45–63 million hectares (ha) and are distributed across the continent, with large extends of peatlands in the Orinoco Plains (Columbia and Venezuela), the Northern and Western Amazon Basin (Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela), and Tierra de Fuego (Argentina and Chile)(Fig. 1 Xu et al. 2018 ; United Nations Environment Programme 2022 ). There are incomplete estimations of C storage in peat deposits for the whole of South America, though there are regional estimates of 5,400 Mt C in the Peruvian Amazon (Hastie et al. 2022 ) and 7,600 Mt C in Patagonian peatlands (Loisel and Yu 2013 ). Across South America there is a great diversity of peatlands based on climate zone and topography, ranging from coastal peatlands to high-altitude peatlands, with lowland peatlands dispersed across the continent (Cubizolle et al. 2013 ; Gumbricht et al. 2017 ; United Nations Environment Programme 2024 ). The goal of this rapid evidence assessment was to address a specific topic identified by the United Nations Environment Programme and Global Programmes Initiative to evaluate current knowledge on 1) carbon flux and peat decomposition in South American Peatlands with emphasis on how processes differ between high- and low-elevation peatlands; and 2) how disturbances and climate change can affect these processes. Methods Rapid Evidence Assessment Methodology A rapid evidence assessment (REA) was applied to cover relevant knowledge from the existing literature related to carbon dynamics between low and high elevation peatlands in South America. A REA is a type of literature review that aims to provide a timely summary of evidence on a specific topic using a set criteria to limit the review (Varker et al. 2015 ; Rendon et al. 2024 ). To ensure that the REA captured the most relevant literature, we developed specific inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table 1). These criteria were grouped into six categories, including geography, populations, outcomes, interventions, timescale and types of literature. The criteria was used to develop keyword query statements (supplemental material) to be applied in Scopus and Web of Science literature databases. All search queries were combined into a single table (spreadsheet), and duplicate records were removed. To evaluate the relevance of individual studies, all papers were examined based on title, abstract, and keywords against our pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Studies were only included in the final review if a majority consensus (2/3) was reached among the authors. The final list of references was then randomly selected for each coauthor with a 10% overlap. Once the final selection of papers was complete, papers were assigned to authors for review. Code for the selection process can be found in the supplemental material. Papers were categorized by themes based on keywords extracted from the manuscript's title and abstract. The papers were grouped into generalized categories, including paleoecological, carbon flux, carbon sequestration, decomposition, and climate change shift or variability. All remaining papers were identified as “other”. A total count and degree of overlapping categories were tabulated. Results Query statements returned 482 results, with 339 from Scopus and 143 from Web of Science. After the title and abstract screening, 272 papers were retained for review. Of the manuscripts reviewed, less than 1% contained peat decomposition rates or decay constants. Papers published during our review period window have significantly increased over time, with a notable rise in publications after 2015 related to climate change (Fig. 2 ). While there is significant overlap in terms/categories, individually, studies that included the effect of climate change on peatland processes accounted for 125 papers, paleoecology 83 papers, peat decomposition 43 papers, carbon flux 31 papers, and carbon sequestration 13 papers. The majority of the climate papers overlap with paleoecological (47) and carbon flux studies (15; Fig. 3 ). Spatially, the studies with reported location data were distributed throughout South America, with the majority located along the Andes Mountains (Fig. 4 ). Across all study locations reported, approximately 49% (n = 90) of locations at elevations greater than 3000 meters above sea level (ASL), with the majority (n = 54) occurring between 3600 and 4400 meters and several occurring > 4400 meters (n = 21), representing studies focusing on cushion dominated peatlands (Fig S1). Meanwhile, 26% (47) of the locations occurred at elevations less than 400 meters, and the remaining (n = 45) occurred between 400 and 3000 m (Fig S1). Discussion Paleoecology and Carbon Storage Numerous studies reviewed in this REA (Fig 3) used paleoecological methods to characterize historical conditions of peatlands to understand how peatlands responded to changing conditions and how they have functioned to the present day. These paleoecological studies have demonstrated that South American peatlands are highly sensitive to past climate shifts, resulting in changing vegetation, altered water balance, and carbon storage. These records reveal that rapid climate changes can trigger abrupt peatland transitions, reducing their ability to sequester carbon (Behling 2007; Senra et al. 2019; Loisel and Bunsen 2020). Protecting peatlands is therefore essential for sustaining their role as natural carbon sinks under future climate change. High-elevation peatlands, especially in South America, act as climate sentinels or early warning systems of climate variability. Carbon storage and hydrology in these systems can shift rapidly in response to even modest short-term changes in temperature and rainfall regimes (Behling 2007; Costa et al. 2022). However, across the Andes, elevation and temperature are strong predictors in long-term carbon storage, indicating that high-elevation peatlands are disproportionately important for carbon sequestration under a warming climate (Hribljan et al. 2023). Meanwhile, lowland peatlands in the short term are often more buffered but remain vulnerable to longer-term pressures such as drought, flooding, and sea-level rise (Wang et al. 2022; Costa et al. 2022). Together, these systems highlight the urgency of protecting peatlands across elevations to safeguard their carbon storage capacity under future climatic conditions. Peatlands in extreme, isolated, or marginal environments may cover less area, but their role in carbon storage, water regulation and early indicators of climate stress make them disproportionately valuable both relative to their areal extent and in comparison with more extensive peatland systems (Scaife et al. 2019). Due to their location, these peatlands provide numerous critical ecosystem services, but due to their position, they also exist close to their ecological thresholds. Slight perturbations in conditions can push them past their tipping points, and once destabilized, marginal peatlands risk rapid carbon release, vegetation loss, or soil changes with limited potential for recovery (Loisel and Bunsen 2020; Albert-Saiz et al. 2025). While they are important, they are potentially less resilient to disturbances. Carbon flux Carbon fluxes (i.e. CO 2 and CH 4 ) were another important group of studies (Figure 3). Peatlands across South America play distinct roles in the global carbon cycle, with several factors governing these dynamics across a steep elevation gradient. In low-elevation peatlands such as the Amazonian and Coastal systems, methane emissions, carbon accumulation and decomposition is highly linked to water table height, rainfall patterns, and vegetation (Griffis et al. 2020). Methane emissions are relatively high when compared to their high-elevation counterparts, while groundwater conditions and hydrologic regimes can buffer rapid CO 2 release and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions in the short term (Teh et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2022; Dargie et al. 2024). Additionally, these low-elevation peatlands are generally net-CO 2 sinks but can quickly transition to net emitters of CO 2 under anthropogenic disturbances or extreme hydrologic conditions. In contrast, high-elevation peatlands in the Andes and Arid Highlands have lower methane fluxes but often are net emitters of CO 2 due to unique soil microbial communities adapted to cold and arid conditions (Molina et al. 2018). Therefore, temperature is a critical controlling factor in this environment. At high elevations, generally, colder temperatures slow peat decomposition, reducing CO 2 emissions. However, warming conditions can accelerate decomposition and respiration, which threatens to destabilize the long-term accumulated carbon (Hribljan et al. 2023). Disturbances such as changes in drainage, land use changes, fire, or deforestation can result in rapid CO 2 emissions or amplify emissions and reduce carbon storage of peatland soils (Córdova et al. 2022). Given this sensitivity to disturbances, irrespective of elevation, peatlands should be a high-priority for conservation and restoration. Despite the limited peat soil decomposition/decay rates in the literature, numerous studies provide estimates of carbon flux (as CO 2 or CH 4 ) and/or peat accumulation rates. Carbon flux can be used as a proxy for peat decay, as it is the next mineralization of carbon. Meanwhile, peat accumulation rates are the net result of inputs and outputs, including decomposition. Therefore, these measures could be used as relative proxies of peat decomposition. Climate Change Risk Climate change projection modeling suggests spatially heterogeneous change across South America, with future precipitation exhibiting a decrease over the east of the northern Andes in tropical South America and the southern Andes in Chile and Amazonia, and an increase over southeastern South America and the northern Andes. Additionally, it is expected that the timing of precipitation to shift with an increase in the seasonality of the intra-annual precipitation distribution, where the wet season will contribute more to the annual total precipitation (Almazroui et al. 2021). Moreover, a shift in temperature is expected, providing strong indications of a more intense hydrological system as greenhouse gas emissions increase (Almazroui et al. 2021; Veiga et al. 2023). Furthermore, regional climate modeling also suggests increased precipitation and shorter dry spells, potentially affecting moisture transport from the Pacific Ocean into western South America (Veiga et al. 2023). Meanwhile, temperature increases are robust across all scenarios, exhibiting stronger warming toward the end of the century (Almazroui et al. 2021; Veiga et al. 2023). Peatlands across South America are highly sensitive to climate-driven changes and disturbances, including shifts in temperature and precipitation regimes and the frequency of extreme events, which threaten the long-term stability of stored carbon. Paleoecological studies consistently demonstrate that past climate shifts altered peatland vegetation, water balance, and carbon accumulation, often producing abrupt transitions (Behling 2007; Senra et al. 2019; Loisel and Bunsen 2020). Given this evidence, non-linear responses under future climate change will likely occur. High-elevation peatlands face an elevated risk due to their reliance on cold temperatures and stable hydrology. Therefore, warming can alter the long-term carbon accumulation processes, resulting in accelerated microbial activity and CO₂ emissions, increasing the likelihood of long-term carbon loss (Dieleman et al. 2016; Hribljan et al. 2023). Additionally, declining water tables and shifts to local hydrology driven by reduced precipitation or snowpack could further destabilize these peatlands (Page and Baird 2016)(Table 2). Low-elevation peatlands are more strongly influenced by hydrologic extremes and effects associated with sea-level rise (specifically coastal areas). Prolonged and frequent droughts lower groundwater levels, resulting in dry-down and dry-out conditions, stimulating soil oxidation and CO 2 release (Griffis et al. 2020). Meanwhile, high water and flood conditions have the potential to increase methane production, enhanced by anaerobic decomposition (Teh et al. 2017; Griffis et al. 2020; Määttä and Malhotra 2024). Other factors related to climate change, such as global climate instability, changes in fire regime (i.e. frequency of occurrence and intensity), and land-use changes and encroachment in areas such as the Amazon basin, heighten these risks to low-elevation peatland carbon dynamics (Table 2). Across the elevation gradient, climate change interacts and, at times, exacerbates local episodic and long-duration disturbances, including drainage, grazing, deforestation, and fire. These climate-driven disturbances amplify carbon losses and reduce ecosystem resilience (Page and Baird 2016). Persistent gaps in long-term monitoring data, including simple peatland measurements (i.e. peat depth, decomposition, etc.) also limit the ability to forecast future impacts with confidence. Knowledge Gaps As part of this assessment, the initial objective was to evaluate peat decomposition/decay rates. However, few studies showed direct measures of peat decomposition/decay. While some studies mentioned decomposition and attributed it to environmental factors, most were short on providing statistics on observed or estimated decomposition rates. Despite this lack of data specific to peat decomposition, the majority of the studies were paleoecological evaluations of past conditions and carbon flux studies. Due to methodological constraints of completing in-situ measurements of decomposition rates, coupled with logistical constraints of accessing remote sites, proxy measurements of decomposition must be considered as valuable knowledge products (Moore and Basiliko 2006). For example, in-vitro incubations and measurement of gaseous mineral products (i.e. CO 2 ) do not provide decomposition constants that can be used in peat accumulation models or peatland modules of ESMs, but they can be used to constrain decomposition parameters and patterns and develop temperature sensitivity indices (e.g. Q 10 ) in models that include peatland carbon storage and flux modules (Bona et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2024). Many of the carbon atmospheric flux studies evaluated were based on short-term measures ranging from one to approximately three years. While these studies typically have sub-daily measurements to capture inter- and intra-day variation due to the short duration of the study they may not capture factors related to long-term climate variability, climate cycles (i.e. El Niño/Southern Oscillation [ENSO]), extreme events (i.e. droughts, fires, etc.) or the combination thereof. Additionally, these studies demonstrate both individual and holistic high spatial and temporal variability. However, information on the future scenarios modelling based on the changing climate contexts and the resilience of peatlands was lacking and hence making it hard to make conclusive decisions on how peatland functioning and carbon dynamics will change with climate change. Across all studies included in this assessment, a clear spatial and temporal limitation emerges. Most research is concentrated in specific regions such as the Peruvian Amazon, southern Patagonia, and the high Andes. As a result, large portions of South America’s peatlands, particularly lowland Amazonia, remote Andean basins, and midland regions, remain poorly represented. Furthermore, no long-term in-situ measurement studies exist to track decadal trends in South American peatland carbon dynamics, including decomposition rates, greenhouse gas fluxes, and changes in carbon storage. Limitations Despite the number of carbon flux studies reviewed in this assessment, existing measurements and associated datasets remain spatially and temporally restricted and are often confined to a limited set of intensively studied sites. These constraints substantially increase uncertainty when scaling carbon flux estimates to broader spatial domains. Moreover, gaps in the distribution of studies mean that several major peatland types across South America remain underrepresented or insufficiently characterized. Evidence across studies indicates that the responses of peatland carbon fluxes to land-use change and disturbance are strongly context-dependent, varying with local soil properties, hydrological regimes, and site-specific environmental conditions. Consequently, broad generalizations across heterogeneous peatland systems—such as lowland palm swamps versus high-elevation cushion bogs—risk oversimplifying key biogeochemical processes governing carbon exchange, decomposition dynamics, and ecosystem function. Although paleoecological records provide critical long-term perspectives on carbon accumulation and landscape history, integrating these datasets with contemporary flux measurements remains challenging due to mismatches in temporal resolution and uncertainties associated with fine-scale reconstructions. Policy Recommendations Peatlands across South America remain substantially under-researched, underscoring the need to address key knowledge gaps in decomposition rates, carbon dating, enzyme responses to warming, human–ecosystem interactions, hydrological controls, and geochemical attributes across elevation gradients. Emerging tools such as high-resolution imagery and remote sensing present important opportunities to improve understanding of peatland distribution, carbon dynamics, and ecosystem change, particularly in data-scarce regions and hard-to-access landscapes. Establishing a coordinated South American peatland monitoring network would further enable long-term observations, strengthen conservation planning, and reduce ecosystem vulnerability to climate and land-use pressures (Table 2). Effective conservation and restoration strategies must reflect the ecological and geomorphological diversity of these ecosystems (Table 2). Conservation interventions appropriate for high-elevation peatlands differ markedly from those required in lowland systems, emphasizing the need for integrated planning that reflects local hydrological, geological, and ecological conditions. Given their sensitivity to climate change and their role as significant carbon sinks, proactive protection and restoration strategies are essential to prevent land-use conversions that could elevate greenhouse gas emissions and generate long-term environmental costs. Finally, improved awareness and accessibility of information will be critical for sustainable peatland management. Strengthening public, stakeholder, and policymaker understanding of peatland functions and enhancing the flow of clear, reliable, and decision-ready scientific information into policy processes. This will help address the human drivers of peatland degradation and support more effective governance of these globally important ecosystems. Declarations Acknowledgments Financial and in-kind support for this research was provided by the British Academy, the United Nations Environment Programme Global Peatlands Initiative, the Institute for Methods Innovation (IMI) and Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC). 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Sci Rep 10:7634. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64275-y Limpens J, Berendse F, Blodau C et al (2008) Peatlands and the carbon cycle: from local processes to global implications – a synthesis. Biogeosciences 5:1475–1491. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-5-1475-2008 Liu H, Rezanezhad F, Zhao Y et al (2024) The apparent temperature sensitivity (Q10) of peat soil respiration: A synthesis study. Geoderma 443:116844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2024.116844 Loisel J, Bunsen M (2020) Abrupt Fen-Bog Transition Across Southern Patagonia: Timing, Causes, and Impacts on Carbon Sequestration. Front Ecol Evol 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.00273 Loisel J, Yu Z (2013) Holocene peatland carbon dynamics in Patagonia. Q Sci Rev 69:125–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.02.023 Määttä T, Malhotra A (2024) The hidden roots of wetland methane emissions. Glob Change Biol 30:e17127. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17127 Molina V, Eissler Y, Cornejo M et al (2018) Distribution of greenhouse gases in hyper-arid and arid areas of northern Chile and the contribution of the high altitude wetland microbiome (Salar de Huasco, Chile). Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 111:1421–1432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10482-018-1078-9 Moore T, Basiliko N (2006) Decomposition in Boreal Peatlands. In: Wieder RK, Vitt DH (eds) Boreal Peatland Ecosystems. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, pp 125–143 Moore TR, Large D, Talbot J et al (2018) The Stoichiometry of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen in Peat. J Geophys Research: Biogeosciences 123:3101–3110. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JG004574 Page SE, Baird AJ (2016) Peatlands and Global Change: Response and Resilience. Annu Rev Environ Resour 41:35–57. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085520 Reddy KR, DeLaune RD (2008) Biogeochemistry of wetlands: science and applications. CRC, Boca Raton, FL Rendon OR, Arnull J, Beaumont NJ et al (2024) Societal impacts of marine nitrogen pollution: rapid evidence assessment and future research. Front Ocean Sustain. https://doi.org/10.3389/focsu.2024.1350159 . 2: Roulet N, Moore T, Bubier J, Lafleur P (1992) Northern fens: methane flux and climatic change. Tellus B 44:100–105. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0889.1992.t01-1-00002.x Scaife RG, Long AJ, Monteath AJ et al (2019) The Falkland Islands’ palaeoecological response to millennial-scale climate perturbations during the Pleistocene–Holocene transition: Implications for future vegetation stability in the southern ocean islands. J Quat Sci 34:609–620. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3150 Senra EO, Schaefer CE, Corrêa GR et al (2019) Holocene pedogenesis along a chronotoposequence of soils from the Altiplano to the Cordillera Real, Bolivian Andes. CATENA 178:141–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.03.012 Strack M, Davidson SJ, Hirano T, Dunn C (2022) The Potential of Peatlands as Nature-Based Climate Solutions. Curr Clim Change Rep 8:71–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-022-00183-9 Teh YA, Murphy WA, Berrio J-C et al (2017) Seasonal variability in methane and nitrous oxide fluxes from tropical peatlands in the western Amazon basin. Biogeosciences 14:3669–3683. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-3669-2017 United Nations Environment Programme (2022) Global Peatlands Assessment: The State of the World’s Peatlands - Evidence for Action toward the Conservation, Restoration, and Sustainable Management of Peatlands. United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Environment Programme (2024) Global Peatland Hotspot Atlas: The State of the World’s Peatlands in Maps - Visualizing Global Threats and Opportunities for Peatland Conservation, Restoration, and Sustainable Management. United Nations Environment Programme Varker T, Forbes D, Dell L et al (2015) Rapid evidence assessment: increasing the transparency of an emerging methodology. Evaluation Clin Pract 21:1199–1204. https://doi.org/10.1111/jep.12405 Veiga SF, Nobre P, Giarolla E et al (2023) Climate change over South America simulated by the Brazilian Earth system model under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios. J S Am Earth Sci 131:104598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2023.104598 Wang B, Hapsari KA, Horna V et al (2022) Late Holocene peatland palm swamp ( aguajal ) development, carbon deposition and environment changes in the Madre de Dios region, southeastern Peru. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 594:110955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.110955 Xu J, Morris PJ, Liu J, Holden J (2018) PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis. CATENA 160:134–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.09.010 Yu Z, Beilman DW, Frolking S et al (2011) Peatlands and Their Role in the Global Carbon Cycle. Eos Trans Am Geophys Union 92:97–98. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011EO120001 Zhao B, Zhuang Q (2023) Peatlands and their carbon dynamics in northern high latitudes from 1990 to 2300: a process-based biogeochemistry model analysis. Biogeosciences 20:251–270. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-251-2023 Tables Table 1. Inclusion and Exclusion criteria for literature evaluated as part of this rapid evidence assessment Criteria Inclusion Exclusion Geography South America Anywhere else Populations Peatland, High Elevation Peatland, Low Elevation Peatland non-peatland wetlands Outcomes Net/ecosystem productivity, carbon atmospheric emissions, peat depth, peat oxidation/subsidence, aqueous carbon losses from peatlands, decomposition rates paper does not present apparent/measured carbon accumulation or decomposition/decay rates Interventions Temperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration, field study or modeling study with field data Conceptual modelling study (i.e. no field data) Timescale 2000 - 2024 2024 Literature Type Peer-review thesis, dissertation, grey, technical or pre-print Table 2. Summary of key features evaluated comparing high and low elevation peatlands Features High-Elevation Peatlands Low-Elevation Peatlands Carbon storage High long-term carbon accumulation; sensitive to short-term temperature and hydrological fluctuations Very large carbon stocks; stable under short-term hydrological fluctuations (groundwater and surface water flooding) CO₂ emissions Low under intact conditions due to cold temperatures; increases sharply under warming, drainage, or grazing Moderate to high; increases with decomposition, land-use change, and fire CH₄ emissions Low due to cooler temperatures and arid soils. Strongly influenced by microtopography & hydrology High; closely linked to water table, flooding, and plant-mediated transport Hydrological sensitivity Very sensitive; small changes in precipitation or water balance can alter carbon fluxes Buffered in the short term; groundwater and flooding maintain stability. Vulnerable to long-term changes Vulnerability High to warming, drying, or drainage; small perturbations can trigger large carbon losses High under deforestation, drainage, or fire; short-term climate buffering Policy takeaway Prioritize conservation and monitoring; maintain hydrology; prevent drainage and overgrazing, and use these systems as climate-sensitivity indicators Protect intact peatlands; implement sustained restoration efforts; long-term management of hydrology and fire risk to prevent degradation and restore carbon sink function of restored peatlands. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files Supplemental.docx Supplemental Material Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8612747","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":575208484,"identity":"85f58778-896c-449e-89db-fe5893ad773d","order_by":0,"name":"Paul Julian","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7617-1354","institution":"Everglades Foundation","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paul","middleName":"","lastName":"Julian","suffix":""},{"id":575208487,"identity":"7e7ce646-360f-42d7-83f1-6f009e4e7798","order_by":1,"name":"J. Adam H. Kirkwood","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4411-3050","institution":"Wildlife Conservation Society Canada","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"J.","middleName":"Adam H.","lastName":"Kirkwood","suffix":""},{"id":575208490,"identity":"d930cb4d-78d3-44a7-ae53-2d20a225c22d","order_by":2,"name":"Braulio Lahuatte","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8053-5889","institution":"University of North Carolina","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Braulio","middleName":"","lastName":"Lahuatte","suffix":""},{"id":575208492,"identity":"6cccbdf6-d3cf-4c5d-a6cc-11bd1b9f2d58","order_by":3,"name":"Carol Kagaba Kairumba","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-3050-1944","institution":"Ministry of Water and Environment","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Carol","middleName":"Kagaba","lastName":"Kairumba","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-15 17:36:24","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8612747/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8612747/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":100447088,"identity":"7052f19a-8589-4a39-8642-d539cada193c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 18:44:50","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4108000,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"DRAFTJulianetalSAPeatlandREAdoctabs.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/f731d09b3dfd108b0830b022.docx"},{"id":100447086,"identity":"8c3bea65-5dfa-4143-80e3-70fe731e3ad3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 18:44:50","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":342,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs8612747.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/0102f404587b5d5bc42c0073.json"},{"id":100447093,"identity":"5c11a4d1-7831-4cb0-8302-a6964054a701","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 18:44:50","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":115003,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs86127470enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/f8f5089bc2b8b18381373850.xml"},{"id":100447092,"identity":"2837ddd1-ba13-4bad-9806-4e9b8acc4ceb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 18:44:50","extension":"xml","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":112937,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs86127470structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/d53e26a147a1b43685f90e96.xml"},{"id":100447094,"identity":"b1bf2319-c25d-44fb-b07f-507d19da3780","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 18:44:50","extension":"html","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":121448,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/61e9f44a7c55996de24a9017.html"},{"id":100547043,"identity":"3d5e832d-0df5-482c-b016-8f73fed56895","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-19 08:14:11","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":283264,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePossible peatland distribution within South America. Peatland distribution represented by the Global Peatland Map version 2.0 (Xu et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/36f4fb7c2e329bf4467af911.png"},{"id":100547665,"identity":"6b3c502e-e49c-49b4-b933-c342ec5de6da","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-19 08:16:11","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44749,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCount of publications by year and generalized categories.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/fda3aed61adae7d042550094.png"},{"id":100447087,"identity":"39b8a462-873b-4eaf-bd9f-b337e48b5c1b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 18:44:50","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43851,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTotal count of publications and overlap of generalized categories. All other publications (N = 81) were not included in this figure.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/b78d286f6422a2d9f50f1985.png"},{"id":100447091,"identity":"fd750496-b179-4723-ad2e-41127696917b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 18:44:50","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":206188,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation of study area/locations retrieved from studies relative to major rivers and basins/catchments.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/c53db52dc6c085e42af58bc4.png"},{"id":100554000,"identity":"6bbeba1c-7d14-4be3-8963-c6872ef9346e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-19 08:38:28","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":993699,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/2dcbcbe5-f335-4b4c-b6a0-cc1c7b2ebec4.pdf"},{"id":100547123,"identity":"5753ff38-8362-4a27-b73a-89c06dcefb3e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-19 08:14:32","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":43571,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSupplemental Material\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Supplemental.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8612747/v1/f1059451676ce6029cee5bdc.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eA rapid evidence assessment on the impact of climate change on peatland carbon dynamics in South America\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePeatland ecosystems are unique wetland ecosystems that, through the combination of a high-water table and organic matter inputs from decaying plants, build organic-rich peat soils. While estimates vary, peatlands occupy a small proportion of the global terrestrial land mass (~\u0026thinsp;3%) but represent roughly one-third of global soil carbon (C) storage and constitute an important component of the global carbon cycle (Limpens et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Yu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Strack et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; M\u0026auml;\u0026auml;tt\u0026auml; and Malhotra \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Peatlands face a multitude of threats, including direct anthropogenic impacts such as deforestation, hydrologic alteration for alternative land uses, peat mining for fuel, pollution, overgrazing, and fire. Meanwhile, peatlands must also contend with the growing challenges of climate change, including shifts in temperature and moisture regimes, as well as the increased occurrence and frequency of extreme events and disturbances (Page and Baird \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Gaffney et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). While some peatlands remain intact, the protection, restoration, and management of these unique ecosystems can help reduce and mitigate emerging threats (United Nations Environment Programme \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe carbon balance of peatlands, and therefore, the storage of carbon, is determined by the net result of inputs (i.e. peat accumulation) and outputs (i.e. peat decomposition). The unique attribute of peatlands is that they store more carbon than they emit, making them net carbon sinks. Input of carbon to peatlands, at its most basic, is driven by photosynthesis influenced by solar radiation, water, temperature, nutrients, and hydrology (Grover and Baldock \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Harenda et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The physical structure of peatland organic matter is determined by its botanical origin relative to the extent to which it has been altered via decomposition (Baden and Eggelsmann \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1963\u003c/span\u003e; Grover and Baldock \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Many of the same factors that control photosynthesis also control the output of carbon. Carbon output from peatlands occurs through decomposition, involving a stepwise conversion of complex organic molecules into simpler constituents via physical leaching, fragmentation, and both aerobic and anaerobic microbial processes (Reddy and DeLaune \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Through the decomposition process, carbon is lost as carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), methane (CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) (Moore et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, Roulet et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Bell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Given the range of variables influencing the accumulation and decomposition of carbon in peatlands, peatlands are sensitive to climate change as precipitation and temperature regimes shift and anthropogenic disturbances impact local or regional hydrology (Grover and Baldock \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Harenda et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is a great diversity in peatland structure and function, which is determined by complex interactions between geomorphology, hydrology, chemistry, and vegetation structure and composition. Therefore, drivers of decomposition, carbon storage, emissions, and ecosystem services can vary widely amongst peatlands (Limpens et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Peat decomposition is related to its physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. The degree of peat decomposition is a crucial parameter that is closely linked to hydrologic conditions, the balance of inputs versus outputs, and yield information related to peat-forming processes (Boelter \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1969\u003c/span\u003e; Grover and Baldock \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Information on the degree of peat decomposition is a proxy for the lability or recalcitrance of organic matter and the rates at which peat soils may further decompose to produce CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, and DOC (Ho and Chambers \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Girkin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Further, temporal trends in decomposition are used to estimate decay rates, which are used in peat accumulation models (Clymo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e) or peatland modules of Earth Systems Models (ESMs) to evaluate the relationship between peatland-climate feedbacks (Bona et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Chaudhary et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zhao and Zhuang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Given the heterogeneity of controls on accumulation and decomposition, geographically representative accumulation and decomposition rates are therefore essential for accurately modeling peatland carbon balances (Bona et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis functional diversity is expressed spatially through distinct peatland landforms and vegetation assemblages shaped by hydrology and water chemistry. In low-elevation peatlands (\u0026thinsp;≲\u0026thinsp;1000 m), fine-scale microtopography produces hummocks, lawns, and hollows that occur at meter scales and differ in vegetation composition and proximity to the water table (Couwenberg and Joosten \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Eppinga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Hummocks are elevated relative to the water table and typically support dense vascular vegetation, whereas lawns occupy flatter positions with water levels near the peat surface and lower plant cover (Couwenberg and Joosten \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Iseas et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, high-elevation peatlands are commonly classified by dominant vegetation functional types, reflecting gradients in elevation, nutrient availability, and hydrology. These include cushion-plant-dominated, sedge-dominated, tussock-grass-dominated, and Sphagnum-dominated peatlands (Cooper et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Benavides et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Cushion peatlands dominated by \u003cem\u003eOxychloe andina\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eZameioscirpus muticus\u003c/em\u003e occur at the highest elevations (\u0026thinsp;≳\u0026thinsp;3000 m), while sedge- and tussock-dominated systems are more common at intermediate elevations and in relatively nutrient-rich settings. Sphagnum-dominated peatlands typically occur at lower elevations, under acidic and nutrient-poor conditions, and are further constrained by climatic controls on moss growth (Loisel and Bunsen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Benavides et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHere, we present a rapid evidence assessment to review peatland carbon dynamics in South American peatlands. South American peatlands cover\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;45\u0026ndash;63\u0026nbsp;million hectares (ha) and are distributed across the continent, with large extends of peatlands in the Orinoco Plains (Columbia and Venezuela), the Northern and Western Amazon Basin (Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela), and Tierra de Fuego (Argentina and Chile)(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e Xu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; United Nations Environment Programme \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). There are incomplete estimations of C storage in peat deposits for the whole of South America, though there are regional estimates of 5,400 Mt C in the Peruvian Amazon (Hastie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and 7,600 Mt C in Patagonian peatlands (Loisel and Yu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Across South America there is a great diversity of peatlands based on climate zone and topography, ranging from coastal peatlands to high-altitude peatlands, with lowland peatlands dispersed across the continent (Cubizolle et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Gumbricht et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; United Nations Environment Programme \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The goal of this rapid evidence assessment was to address a specific topic identified by the United Nations Environment Programme and Global Programmes Initiative to evaluate current knowledge on 1) carbon flux and peat decomposition in South American Peatlands with emphasis on how processes differ between high- and low-elevation peatlands; and 2) how disturbances and climate change can affect these processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRapid Evidence Assessment Methodology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA rapid evidence assessment (REA) was applied to cover relevant knowledge from the existing literature related to carbon dynamics between low and high elevation peatlands in South America. A REA is a type of literature review that aims to provide a timely summary of evidence on a specific topic using a set criteria to limit the review (Varker et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Rendon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ensure that the REA captured the most relevant literature, we developed specific inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table\u0026nbsp;1). These criteria were grouped into six categories, including geography, populations, outcomes, interventions, timescale and types of literature. The criteria was used to develop keyword query statements (supplemental material) to be applied in Scopus and Web of Science literature databases. All search queries were combined into a single table (spreadsheet), and duplicate records were removed. To evaluate the relevance of individual studies, all papers were examined based on title, abstract, and keywords against our pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Studies were only included in the final review if a majority consensus (2/3) was reached among the authors. The final list of references was then randomly selected for each coauthor with a 10% overlap. Once the final selection of papers was complete, papers were assigned to authors for review. Code for the selection process can be found in the supplemental material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePapers were categorized by themes based on keywords extracted from the manuscript's title and abstract. The papers were grouped into generalized categories, including paleoecological, carbon flux, carbon sequestration, decomposition, and climate change shift or variability. All remaining papers were identified as \u0026ldquo;other\u0026rdquo;. A total count and degree of overlapping categories were tabulated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eQuery statements returned 482 results, with 339 from Scopus and 143 from Web of Science. After the title and abstract screening, 272 papers were retained for review. Of the manuscripts reviewed, less than 1% contained peat decomposition rates or decay constants. Papers published during our review period window have significantly increased over time, with a notable rise in publications after 2015 related to climate change (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). While there is significant overlap in terms/categories, individually, studies that included the effect of climate change on peatland processes accounted for 125 papers, paleoecology 83 papers, peat decomposition 43 papers, carbon flux 31 papers, and carbon sequestration 13 papers. The majority of the climate papers overlap with paleoecological (47) and carbon flux studies (15; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpatially, the studies with reported location data were distributed throughout South America, with the majority located along the Andes Mountains (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Across all study locations reported, approximately 49% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90) of locations at elevations greater than 3000 meters above sea level (ASL), with the majority (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;54) occurring between 3600 and 4400 meters and several occurring\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4400 meters (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21), representing studies focusing on cushion dominated peatlands (Fig S1). Meanwhile, 26% (47) of the locations occurred at elevations less than 400 meters, and the remaining (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;45) occurred between 400 and 3000 m (Fig S1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePaleoecology and Carbon Storage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNumerous studies reviewed in this REA (Fig 3) used paleoecological methods to characterize historical conditions of peatlands to understand how peatlands responded to changing conditions and how they have functioned to the present day. These paleoecological studies have demonstrated that South American peatlands are highly sensitive to past climate shifts, resulting in changing vegetation, altered water balance, and carbon storage. These records reveal that rapid climate changes can trigger abrupt peatland transitions, reducing their ability to sequester carbon (Behling 2007; Senra et al. 2019; Loisel and Bunsen 2020). Protecting peatlands is therefore essential for sustaining their role as natural carbon sinks under future climate change.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigh-elevation peatlands, especially in South America, act as climate sentinels or early warning systems of climate variability. Carbon storage and hydrology in these systems can shift rapidly in response to even modest short-term changes in temperature and rainfall regimes (Behling 2007; Costa et al. 2022). However, across the Andes, elevation and temperature are strong predictors in long-term carbon storage, indicating that high-elevation peatlands are disproportionately important for carbon sequestration under a warming climate (Hribljan et al. 2023). Meanwhile, lowland peatlands in the short term are often more buffered but remain vulnerable to longer-term pressures such as drought, flooding, and sea-level rise (Wang et al. 2022; Costa et al. 2022). Together, these systems highlight the urgency of protecting peatlands across elevations to safeguard their carbon storage capacity under future climatic conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeatlands in extreme, isolated, or marginal environments may cover less area, but their role in carbon storage, water regulation and early indicators of climate stress make them disproportionately valuable both relative to their areal extent and in comparison with more extensive peatland systems (Scaife et al. 2019). Due to their location, these peatlands provide numerous critical ecosystem services, but due to their position, they also exist close to their ecological thresholds. Slight perturbations in conditions can push them past their tipping points, and once destabilized, marginal peatlands risk rapid carbon release, vegetation loss, or soil changes with limited potential for recovery (Loisel and Bunsen 2020; Albert-Saiz et al. 2025). While they are important, they are potentially less resilient to disturbances. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarbon flux\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCarbon fluxes (i.e. CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) were another important group of studies (Figure 3). \u0026nbsp;Peatlands across South America play distinct roles in the global carbon cycle, with several factors governing these dynamics across a steep elevation gradient.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn low-elevation peatlands such as the Amazonian and Coastal systems, methane emissions, carbon accumulation and decomposition is highly linked to water table height, rainfall patterns, and vegetation (Griffis et al. 2020). Methane emissions are relatively high when compared to their high-elevation counterparts, while groundwater conditions and hydrologic regimes can buffer rapid CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e release and nitrous oxide (N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) emissions in the short term (Teh et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2022; Dargie et al. 2024). Additionally, these low-elevation peatlands are generally net-CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e sinks but can quickly transition to net emitters of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e under anthropogenic disturbances or extreme hydrologic conditions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, high-elevation peatlands in the Andes and Arid Highlands have lower methane fluxes but often are net emitters of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e due to unique soil microbial communities adapted to cold and arid conditions (Molina et al. 2018). Therefore, temperature is a critical controlling factor in this environment. At high elevations, generally, colder temperatures slow peat decomposition, reducing CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions. However, warming conditions can accelerate decomposition and respiration, which threatens to destabilize the long-term accumulated carbon (Hribljan et al. 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDisturbances such as changes in drainage, land use changes, fire, or deforestation can result in rapid CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions or amplify emissions and reduce carbon storage of peatland soils (C\u0026oacute;rdova et al. 2022). Given this sensitivity to disturbances, irrespective of elevation, peatlands should be a high-priority for conservation and restoration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the limited peat soil decomposition/decay rates in the literature, numerous studies provide estimates of carbon flux (as CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e or CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) and/or peat accumulation rates. Carbon flux can be used as a proxy for peat decay, as it is the next mineralization of carbon. Meanwhile, peat accumulation rates are the net result of inputs and outputs, including decomposition. Therefore, these measures could be used as relative proxies of peat decomposition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eClimate Change Risk\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClimate change projection modeling suggests spatially heterogeneous change across South America, with future precipitation exhibiting a decrease over the east of the northern Andes in tropical South America and the southern Andes in Chile and Amazonia, and an increase over southeastern South America and the northern Andes. Additionally, it is expected that the timing of precipitation to shift with an increase in the seasonality of the intra-annual precipitation distribution, where the wet season will contribute more to the annual total precipitation (Almazroui et al. 2021). Moreover, a shift in temperature is expected, providing strong indications of a more intense hydrological system as greenhouse gas emissions increase (Almazroui et al. 2021; Veiga et al. 2023). Furthermore, regional climate modeling also suggests increased precipitation and shorter dry spells, potentially affecting moisture transport from the Pacific Ocean into western South America (Veiga et al. 2023). Meanwhile, temperature increases are robust across all scenarios, exhibiting stronger warming toward the end of the century (Almazroui et al. 2021; Veiga et al. 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeatlands across South America are highly sensitive to climate-driven changes and disturbances, including shifts in temperature and precipitation regimes and the frequency of extreme events, which threaten the long-term stability of stored carbon. Paleoecological studies consistently demonstrate that past climate shifts altered peatland vegetation, water balance, and carbon accumulation, often producing abrupt transitions (Behling 2007; Senra et al. 2019; Loisel and Bunsen 2020). Given this evidence, non-linear responses under future climate change will likely occur.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigh-elevation peatlands face an elevated risk due to their reliance on cold temperatures and stable hydrology. Therefore, warming can alter the long-term carbon accumulation processes, resulting in accelerated microbial activity and CO₂ emissions, increasing the likelihood of long-term carbon loss (Dieleman et al. 2016; Hribljan et al. 2023). Additionally, declining water tables and shifts to local hydrology driven by reduced precipitation or snowpack could further destabilize these peatlands (Page and Baird 2016)(Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLow-elevation peatlands are more strongly influenced by hydrologic extremes and effects associated with sea-level rise (specifically coastal areas). Prolonged and frequent droughts lower groundwater levels, resulting in dry-down and dry-out conditions, stimulating soil oxidation and CO\u003csub\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003erelease (Griffis et al. 2020). Meanwhile, high water and flood conditions have the potential to increase methane production, enhanced by anaerobic decomposition (Teh et al. 2017; Griffis et al. 2020; M\u0026auml;\u0026auml;tt\u0026auml; and Malhotra 2024). Other factors related to climate change, such as global climate instability, changes in fire regime (i.e. frequency of occurrence and intensity), and land-use changes and encroachment in areas such as the Amazon basin, heighten these risks to low-elevation peatland carbon dynamics (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcross the elevation gradient, climate change interacts and, at times, exacerbates local episodic and long-duration disturbances, including drainage, grazing, deforestation, and fire. These climate-driven disturbances amplify carbon losses and reduce ecosystem resilience (Page and Baird 2016). Persistent gaps in long-term monitoring data, including simple peatland measurements (i.e. peat depth, decomposition, etc.) also limit the ability to forecast future impacts with confidence.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eKnowledge Gaps\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs part of this assessment, the initial objective was to evaluate peat decomposition/decay rates. However, few studies showed direct measures of peat decomposition/decay. While some studies mentioned decomposition and attributed it to environmental factors, most were short on providing statistics on observed or estimated decomposition rates. Despite this lack of data specific to peat decomposition, the majority of the studies were paleoecological evaluations of past conditions and carbon flux studies. Due to methodological constraints of completing in-situ measurements of decomposition rates, coupled with logistical constraints of accessing remote sites, proxy measurements of decomposition must be considered as valuable knowledge products (Moore and Basiliko 2006). For example, \u003cem\u003ein-vitro\u003c/em\u003e incubations and measurement of gaseous mineral products (i.e. CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) do not provide decomposition constants that can be used in peat accumulation models or peatland modules of ESMs, but they can be used to constrain decomposition parameters and patterns and develop temperature sensitivity indices (e.g. Q\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e) in models that include peatland carbon storage and flux modules (Bona et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2024).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMany of the carbon atmospheric flux studies evaluated were based on short-term measures ranging from one to approximately three years. While these studies typically have sub-daily measurements to capture inter- and intra-day variation due to the short duration of the study they may not capture factors related to long-term climate variability, climate cycles (i.e. El Ni\u0026ntilde;o/Southern Oscillation [ENSO]), extreme events (i.e. droughts, fires, etc.) or the combination thereof. Additionally, these studies demonstrate both individual and holistic high spatial and temporal variability. However, information on the future scenarios modelling based on the changing climate contexts and the resilience of peatlands was lacking and hence making it hard to make conclusive decisions on how peatland functioning and carbon dynamics will change with climate change.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcross all studies included in this assessment, a clear spatial and temporal limitation emerges. Most research is concentrated in specific regions such as the Peruvian Amazon, southern Patagonia, and the high Andes. As a result, large portions of South America\u0026rsquo;s peatlands, particularly lowland Amazonia, remote Andean basins, and midland regions, remain poorly represented. Furthermore, no long-term in-situ measurement studies exist to track decadal trends in South American peatland carbon dynamics, including decomposition rates, greenhouse gas fluxes, and changes in carbon storage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eLimitations\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the number of carbon flux studies reviewed in this assessment, existing measurements and associated datasets remain spatially and temporally restricted and are often confined to a limited set of intensively studied sites. These constraints substantially increase uncertainty when scaling carbon flux estimates to broader spatial domains. Moreover, gaps in the distribution of studies mean that several major peatland types across South America remain underrepresented or insufficiently characterized. Evidence across studies indicates that the responses of peatland carbon fluxes to land-use change and disturbance are strongly context-dependent, varying with local soil properties, hydrological regimes, and site-specific environmental conditions. Consequently, broad generalizations across heterogeneous peatland systems\u0026mdash;such as lowland palm swamps versus high-elevation cushion bogs\u0026mdash;risk oversimplifying key biogeochemical processes governing carbon exchange, decomposition dynamics, and ecosystem function. Although paleoecological records provide critical long-term perspectives on carbon accumulation and landscape history, integrating these datasets with contemporary flux measurements remains challenging due to mismatches in temporal resolution and uncertainties associated with fine-scale reconstructions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePolicy Recommendations\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeatlands across South America remain substantially under-researched, underscoring the need to address key knowledge gaps in decomposition rates, carbon dating, enzyme responses to warming, human\u0026ndash;ecosystem interactions, hydrological controls, and geochemical attributes across elevation gradients. Emerging tools such as high-resolution imagery and remote sensing present important opportunities to improve understanding of peatland distribution, carbon dynamics, and ecosystem change, particularly in data-scarce regions and hard-to-access landscapes. Establishing a coordinated South American peatland monitoring network would further enable long-term observations, strengthen conservation planning, and reduce ecosystem vulnerability to climate and land-use pressures (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffective conservation and restoration strategies must reflect the ecological and geomorphological diversity of these ecosystems (Table 2). Conservation interventions appropriate for high-elevation peatlands differ markedly from those required in lowland systems, emphasizing the need for integrated planning that reflects local hydrological, geological, and ecological conditions. Given their sensitivity to climate change and their role as significant carbon sinks, proactive protection and restoration strategies are essential to prevent land-use conversions that could elevate greenhouse gas emissions and generate long-term environmental costs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, improved awareness and accessibility of information will be critical for sustainable peatland management. Strengthening public, stakeholder, and policymaker understanding of peatland functions and enhancing the flow of clear, reliable, and decision-ready scientific information into policy processes. This will help address the human drivers of peatland degradation and support more effective governance of these globally important ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinancial and in-kind support for this research was provided by the British Academy, the United Nations Environment Programme Global Peatlands Initiative, the Institute for Methods Innovation (IMI) and Scotland\u0026rsquo;s Rural College (SRUC). In particular, the authors thank Dr Rosie Gearey (SRUC/IMI), Prof. Mark Reed (SRUC), Prof. Eric Jensen (IMI) and Dr Lydia Cole (St Andrews University) for their input into this research as part of the Evidence Synthesis and Policy Engagement Training Programme delivered by IMI.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlbert-Saiz M, Lamentowicz M, Rastogi A, Juszczak R (2025) Unveiling water table tipping points in peatland ecosystems: Implications for ecological restoration. 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United Nations Environment Programme\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVarker T, Forbes D, Dell L et al (2015) Rapid evidence assessment: increasing the transparency of an emerging methodology. Evaluation Clin Pract 21:1199\u0026ndash;1204. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/jep.12405\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/jep.12405\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVeiga SF, Nobre P, Giarolla E et al (2023) Climate change over South America simulated by the Brazilian Earth system model under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios. J S Am Earth Sci 131:104598. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2023.104598\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jsames.2023.104598\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang B, Hapsari KA, Horna V et al (2022) Late Holocene peatland palm swamp (\u003cem\u003eaguajal\u003c/em\u003e) development, carbon deposition and environment changes in the Madre de Dios region, southeastern Peru. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 594:110955. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.110955\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.110955\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXu J, Morris PJ, Liu J, Holden J (2018) PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis. CATENA 160:134\u0026ndash;140. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.09.010\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.catena.2017.09.010\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYu Z, Beilman DW, Frolking S et al (2011) Peatlands and Their Role in the Global Carbon Cycle. Eos Trans Am Geophys Union 92:97\u0026ndash;98. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1029/2011EO120001\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1029/2011EO120001\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhao B, Zhuang Q (2023) Peatlands and their carbon dynamics in northern high latitudes from 1990 to 2300: a process-based biogeochemistry model analysis. Biogeosciences 20:251\u0026ndash;270. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-251-2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5194/bg-20-251-2023\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1. Inclusion and Exclusion criteria for literature evaluated as part of this rapid evidence assessment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"625\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCriteria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 232px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInclusion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExclusion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeography\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 232px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth America\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnywhere else\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePopulations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 232px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeatland, High Elevation Peatland, Low Elevation Peatland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enon-peatland wetlands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOutcomes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 232px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNet/ecosystem productivity, carbon atmospheric emissions, peat depth, peat oxidation/subsidence, aqueous carbon losses from peatlands, decomposition rates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epaper does not present apparent/measured carbon accumulation or decomposition/decay rates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInterventions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 232px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTemperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration, field study or modeling study with field data\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConceptual modelling study (i.e. no field data)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTimescale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 232px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2000 - 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;2000 or \u0026gt;2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLiterature Type\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 232px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeer-review\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ethesis, dissertation, grey, technical or pre-print\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2. Summary of key features evaluated comparing high and low elevation peatlands\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"593\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFeatures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 240px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh-Elevation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePeatlands\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLow-Elevation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePeatlands\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbon storage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 240px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh long-term carbon accumulation; sensitive to short-term temperature and hydrological fluctuations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVery large carbon stocks; stable under short-term hydrological fluctuations (groundwater and surface water flooding)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCO₂ emissions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 240px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow under intact conditions due to cold temperatures; increases sharply under warming, drainage, or grazing\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate to high; increases with decomposition, land-use change, and fire\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCH₄ emissions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 240px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow due to cooler temperatures and arid soils. Strongly influenced by microtopography \u0026amp; hydrology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh; closely linked to water table, flooding, and plant-mediated transport\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHydrological sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 240px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVery sensitive; small changes in precipitation or water balance can alter carbon fluxes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBuffered in the short term; groundwater and flooding maintain stability. Vulnerable to long-term changes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVulnerability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 240px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh to warming, drying, or drainage; small perturbations can trigger large carbon losses\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh under deforestation, drainage, or fire; short-term climate buffering\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolicy takeaway\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 240px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrioritize conservation and monitoring; maintain hydrology; prevent drainage and overgrazing, and use these systems as climate-sensitivity indicators\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtect intact peatlands; implement sustained restoration efforts; long-term management of hydrology and fire risk to prevent degradation and restore carbon sink function of restored peatlands.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Institute for Methods Innovation","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"peatland, elevation, decomposition, carbon flux, climate vulnerability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8612747/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8612747/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePeatlands are vitally important ecosystems characterized by a diversity of services spanning species, ecosystem, landscape, and global scales. Peatlands store globally significant amounts of carbon, making it critical to understand how peatland carbon stocks will respond to climate change and development pressures. South America is estimated to contain approximately 10\u0026ndash;13% of the world\u0026rsquo;s peatlands, representing a globally significant carbon reservoir. Knowledge of peatlands and their carbon storage and cycling in South America remains poorly synthesized, despite their diversity across elevation and climatic gradients, and their disproportionate importance in the global peatland carbon pool. We conducted a rapid evidence assessment (REA) of carbon dynamics in South American peatlands, emphasizing differences between high- and low-elevation systems and the effects of climate change and disturbance. Using predefined inclusion criteria, we reviewed 272 peer-reviewed studies published between 2000 and 2024. The majority of the literature was paleoecological (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;47), and short-duration carbon flux studies (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15), yet fewer than 1% of studies investigated long-term peat decomposition rates that could be used as inputs for future climate scenario modeling. High-elevation peatlands generally exhibit long-term carbon accumulation but show high sensitivity to warming and hydrological change, whereas low-elevation peatlands contain large carbon stocks that are vulnerable to drought, flooding, fire, and land-use disturbance. Across elevations, climate variability frequently amplifies disturbance-driven carbon losses. Major gaps remain in long-term monitoring, decomposition measurements, and climate scenario modeling. Our synthesis highlights the need for coordinated research, monitoring, and conservation strategies to protect South American peatlands and their critical role in the global carbon cycle under future climate change.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A rapid evidence assessment on the impact of climate change on peatland carbon dynamics in South America","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-16 18:44:46","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8612747/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"18a8afc4-fa94-4f79-bb10-03722b2f4df0","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 16th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":61205232,"name":"Marine and Freshwater Ecology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-24T17:08:56+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-16 18:44:46","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8612747","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8612747","identity":"rs-8612747","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}