Medicinal Tree Species used in Management of different Diseases in Uganda: A Systematic Review

Medicinal Tree Species used in Management of different Diseases in Uganda: A Systematic Review | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Medicinal Tree Species used in Management of different Diseases in Uganda: A Systematic Review Thomas James Wanyama, Edith Nalubwama This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6127332/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Medicinal plants are a source of many potent drugs due to their phytochemical properties. Studies on different plant life forms are voluminous, with exception of trees. No single study has been done on tree species used to manage ailments in different regions of Uganda from 1995 up to 2024. This study thus aimed to compile tree species used in Uganda to manage different ailments. The review examined 50 studies with ethnobotanical surveys done in Uganda. Data extraction focused on plant families and species, plant parts used, preparation methods and routes of administration, and the region in Uganda where the ethnobotanical field surveys were conducted. 156 tree species from 52 families were identified, including Fabaceae (21), Euphorbiaceae (10), Rubiaceae (9), Myrtaceae (9), Meliaceae (9), and Moraceae (9). Leaves (34.7%) were highly depended on followed by bark (32.0%) and roots (19.7%) were also commonly used. The majority of the herbal remedies were prepared by decoction and taken orally. Many tree species in Uganda are used to manage several ailments. However, other tree species with medicinal importance remain undocumented and yet some of them are being destroyed by anthropogenic activities. Efforts to ensure sustainable harvesting of these medicinal tree species are thus required. Botany ethnobotanical knowledge herbal medicine medicinal plants medicinal tree species traditional medicine Uganda Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction It is pertinent to mention that medicinal plants have been used over the years as they possess phytochemical compounds that are of immense benefit ( 1 ). The use of these medicinal plants is skyrocketing across the globe ( 2 ) with the situation not being different in Africa ( 3 ). In regions such as East Africa, countries such as Burundi ( 4 ) and Tanzania ( 5 ) have relied on traditional medicine. Reports have put forth that at least 80% of the population in rural areas hinge on traditional medicine ( 5 , 6 ). This same situation is also in Uganda, where traditional medicine forms a paramount part of primary health care ( 7 ). It is accentuate to note that Uganda is among the countries in Africa with the richest biodiversity, and its standing among all African countries is extremely high ( 8 ). In East Africa, Uganda is outstandingly rich in biodiversity with surveys indicating an occurrence of over 18,783 species of flora and fauna ( 9 ). Uganda, as a land-locked country, is situated in eastern Africa with fresh water and wetlands that cover one-third of its size ( 10 ). To the north, Uganda is bordered by Sudan, Tanzania to the south, Kenya to the east, and the Democratic Republic of Congo to the west. Within Uganda, the eastern, central, and western regions experience two rainfall peaks while the northern region experiences a reduced amount of rainfall and has only one rainy season ( 10 ). Uganda has an assortment of habitations assisting a rich and varied flora and these habitats may be divided into three broad categories: forests, wetlands, and drylands ( 11 ). Uganda contains 22 vegetation types some of which include; savanna, steppe, bushland, swamps, thicket, forest-savanna mosaic, heath, moorland, forest, and woodland ( 11 ). Among all these vegetation types, forests are dominant in the western part of Uganda, drylands in the northern part, and wetlands along the shores of massive lakes ( 12 ). Uganda also has approximately 4,800 species of higher plants with 70 being endemic and mainly concentrated in tropical forests in the western region ( 13 ). Among the 4800 species, tree species have been reported to have diverse uses ( 14 ). These natural resources have been heavily depended on by local people for products such as fuel wood, construction materials, medicine, and food ( 15 ). For example, estimates show that 20–25% of rural people in developing countries depend on environmental resources for income generation ( 16 ). Despite the immense contribution of these resources, Uganda’s vegetation has faced dramatic changes in coverage, and species composition due to anthropogenic activities ( 17 ). Moreover, the unsustainable harvesting of these resources is so alarming as it has been and continues to be done ( 18 ). Due to this, the Ugandan Government has made momentous progress in putting in place policies, laws, and institutional frameworks on the conservation of biodiversity ( 13 ). Interventions by the government thus offer hope for the existence of biodiversity. Additionally, the documentation of flora together with their medicinal benefits is also mandatory for the conservation of biodiversity ( 19 ). The current body of literature on medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases in Uganda is extensive ( 2 ). Nevertheless, single studies on the medicinal uses of tree species in Uganda are still lacking. Yet these trees are vulnerable as they are greatly dependent on for timber and charcoal thus posing a major threat to their existence ( 20 ). Besides, some of these tree species take long to grow ( 21 ). This study thus found it indispensable to compile a single study of medicinal tree species utilized in Uganda to manage different diseases and conditions. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Literature Search and Evaluation Inclusion criterion ; studies that provide information on tree species used to manage diseases and disorders were the only ones included. Ethnobotanical surveys done in Uganda were included. Studies written in English were also included. Literature identification ; Literature search was done by using the keywords “medicinal plants of Uganda”, “tree species of Uganda”, “flora diversity of Uganda”, “ethnobotanical survey”, “traditional medicine”, and “medicinal plants.” Preliminary relevance was done for each paper using the title. If the title of any paper showed information discussing medicinal plants of Uganda, its full reference, author, year, title, and abstract, it was considered for further evaluation. Google Scholar, ResearchGate, AJOL, and PubMed were searched for articles on medicinal plants used in Uganda. The publication date was limited to 1995 and 2024, based on the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) ( 22 ). 2.2 Study selection and data extraction For any article to be considered in this review, it had to include details of a specific ethnobotany use, such as a tree used to manage bacterial infections. The method of preparation & administration should preferably have been recorded. From each paper, the following information was obtained: scientific names of trees used, parts used, disease/ disorder managed, mode of preparation and administration, and area of study. The selection of the articles was done in four steps. The first step involved checking the relevance of the studies based on their title. The second step involved evaluating the abstracts to make sure that they match to the inclusion criteria. If the primary inspection of an abstract of a paper did not give adequate information to make an informed judgment, the full paper was looked for in the third step and reviewed by the authors prior to making a decision concerning inclusion in the review. Lastly, those that appeared to meet the inclusion criteria were retrieved for extra appraisal (Fig. 1 ). From each article, medicinal plants particularly those belonging to trees as a life form/ habit were scrutinized and then extracted into spreadsheets for easy data management. All scientific names of the plants were checked with The Plant List ( www.theplantlist.org ). 2.3 Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were done to evaluate the data gathered for the current study. This was made possible with the use of Statistical Packages for Social Scientists (SPSS) (Version 20; IBM Inc.). Data visualization was performed on GraphPad Prism 8.0.2 program (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA) while Quantum Geographic Information System (Version 3.34.15) was used to generate maps. 3. Results 3.1 Study characteristics A total of 50 publication records were considered for data extraction (Fig. 1 ). 3.2 Medicinal tree species 156 tree species from 52 families (Table 1 ) were documented. Some of the tree species documented were used to boost the immunity of patients while others were used to treat and manage different diseases. The families with most species were Fabaceae ( 21 ), Euphorbiaceae ( 10 ), Rubiaceae ( 9 ), Myrtaceae ( 9 ), Meliaceae ( 9 ), and Moraceae ( 9 ). It is paramount to emphasize that much as this review captured only 156 medicinal tree species, there are still many tree species that have not yet been documented. 3.3 Ethnobotanical studies in Uganda focusing on trees In the present systematic review, it is indicative that Ethnobotanical studies have been conducted in all the regions of Uganda. i.e. central, western, eastern, southern, west Nile, and Northern regions of Uganda. The districts in these regions in which the studies were done were 39 in number and they included; Tororo, Mukono, Buikwe, Kamuli, Ssembabule, Kabale, Gulu, Mbarara, Isingiro, Kasese, Bushenyi, Arua, Dokolo, Mbale, Iganga, Rakai, Luwero, Kaabong, Kitgum, Pader, Ibanda, Kiruhura, Kampala, Wakiso, Masaka, Mpigi, Butebo, Kole, Soroti, Serere, Kabermaido, Oyam, Rukingiri, Sironko, Bulambuli, Bundibugyo, Kabarole, Bunyangabu, and Apac. It is however important to emphasize that in this review, the majority of studies on medicinal tree species in Uganda have been conducted in the western region compared to other regions (Fig. 2 ). 3.4 Parts used on medicinal plants and mode of administration Parts used ; according to Fig. 3 , diverse parts on medicinal plants were being used. Specifically, leaves (34.7%) were highly depended on. The bark (32.0%) (Including stem and root bark) and roots (19.7%) were also commonly used. Additionally, other parts that were infrequently used included; stems, sap, twigs, flowers, shoots, fruits, seeds, and tubers. Mode of preparation and administration ; according to Fig. 4 , the herbal medicines were mainly prepared as decoctions (60.8%) and as teas (8.8%). This was followed by herbal bathe (5.1%), applying powder of herbal medicine on the affected part (4.6%), and chewing (4.6%). The other methods of preparation and administration such as steam bathe, sniffing, crushing and tying on the affected part, steaming on fire, and chewing, and boiling then sitting in the water were not frequently used. During preparation of the herbal medicine, some adjuncts such as milk and honey were added for different reasons. 4. Discussion 4.1 Most common medicinal plant families The families with most species were Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, Myrtaceae, Meliaceae, and Moraceae. The plant family, Fabaceae had the most species and this finding has been reported in another study which highlighted that this plant family was one of those widely used by local indigenous communities of Mpanga and Mabira core forest reserves to treat diseases such as anemia, diarrhea, and cancer ( 23 ). Additionally, Fabaceae has been proven to be effective in treating a number of infectious disorders ( 24 ). 4.2 Parts of plant used, mode of preparation and administration Diverse parts of medicinal plants used to treat and manage different ailments were revealed in the present review. Leaves were highly depended on followed by bark and roots. Stems, sap, twigs, flowers, shoots, fruits, seeds, and tubers were however infrequently used. This finding aligns with that of another study ( 25 ) which highlighted leaves as being the frequently used plant parts, whilst seeds and fruits were not commonly used. Studies highlighting the choice for leaves consider that their frequent use is due to their plentiful together with high content of phytochemicals ( 26 ). Additionally, the wide usage of leaves, flowers, roots, and bark is an extensive habit in Uganda as recorded in central parts of Uganda ( 7 ), southern parts of Uganda ( 19 ), western parts of Uganda ( 27 ), areas near Kibale National Park ( 28 ), and Mpigi in central Uganda ( 29 ). The frequent use of leaves can also be attributed to their high regeneration rate and, in most situations, does not result in the plant dying, allowing the same plant to be constantly employed for a considerable amount of time ( 30 ). Findings of the present review revealed decoctions as the most common method of preparing herbal medicine. This finding is consistent with another study ( 31 , 32 ) carried in some East African countries and the African regions at large, where decoction was the most rampant method used to prepare herbal medicine. Decoctions may be reckoned when the plant part used is easily accessible ( 25 ). Additionally, the extreme usage of water as a solvent is also linked to its availability ( 25 ). Therefore, water serving as a natural solvent fuels the immediate retrieval of bioactive compounds during herbal medicine preparation ( 31 ). 4.3 Conservation status of medicinal plant species used Some of the tree species included in this review have been listed as threatened. For example, Milicia excelsa as near threatened, Afrocarpus usambarensis is listed as endangered. Prunus africana and Vitellaria paradoxa have also been listed as vulnerable in the wild. There is thus an urgent desire to ensure that much as these tree species are still relied on as sources of treatment and management of different ailments, their existence through cultivation and sustainable harvesting should be highly encouraged. 5. Conclusion and recommendation Diverse tree species in Uganda have been used to treat and manage a number of diseases. The Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, Myrtaceae, Meliaceae, and Moraceae plant families accounted for the majority of these tree species. This research puts forth that although a number of tree species are greatly relied on for medicinal purposes, many other tree species with medicinal importance still remain undocumented, and with this immeasurable ethnobotanical knowledge remaining in the hands of the ancestors. Some of these tree species are also being destroyed by anthropogenic activities. The study thus recommends thorough sustainable harvesting of these medicinal tree species. Abbreviations AJOL African Journals Online PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Declarations Data Availability All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this manuscript. Competing interests The authors declare that no competing interests exist. Funding statement This review did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Authors’ contributions Review concept and design: Thomas James Wanyama Literature search: Thomas James Wanyama and Edith Nalubwama Data analysis, visualization, and interpretation: Thomas James Wanyama Drafting of the manuscript: Thomas James Wanyama Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Thomas James Wanyama All the authors read and approved the publication of the manuscript. Acknowledgments We would like to acknowledge the authors of the academic resources referenced in our work. Your contributions to this work were an immense foundation. 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Ethnobot Res Appl 25:1–16 Okello J, Ssegawa P (2007) Medicinal plants used by communities of Ngai Subcounty, Apac District, northern Uganda. Afr J Ecol 45:76–83 Hamill FA, Apio S, Mubiru NK, Mosango M, Bukenya-Ziraba R, Maganyi OW et al (2000) Traditional herbal drugs of southern Uganda, I. J Ethnopharmacol 70(3):281–300 Mpeirwe M, Komakech K, Ssesazi D, Ogwang PE, Bazira J (2024) Combination Activity of Standard Antituberculosis Drugs and Extracts of Medicinal Plants Commonly Used in Traditional Treatment of Tuberculosis in Uganda. Adv Infect Dis 14(3):511–522 Tables Table 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files Table1.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6127332","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Systematic Review","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":422215244,"identity":"9c79ff4a-a659-402f-94d8-fa4a56f3baf0","order_by":0,"name":"Thomas James Wanyama","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-2235-1573","institution":"MAKERERE UNIVERSITY","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Thomas","middleName":"James","lastName":"Wanyama","suffix":""},{"id":422215245,"identity":"54bcef76-bfb6-4191-b4df-f27486dd56f1","order_by":1,"name":"Edith Nalubwama","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6333-1466","institution":"MAKERERE UNIVERSITY","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Edith","middleName":"","lastName":"Nalubwama","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-02-28 09:45:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6127332/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6127332/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":77588349,"identity":"64701a9a-20b6-49b9-bfec-11b9b25dd670","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-03 10:58:14","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65693,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePRISMA flowchart summarizing the workflow adopted in this systematic review\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"PRISMADiagram.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6127332/v1/1ce4eb3ea3f6c7fca639b289.png"},{"id":77588748,"identity":"5ab75140-b8cf-4eac-a146-ba380db1317c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-03 11:06:14","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":450782,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Uganda showing regions where studies on medicinal plants (with focus on trees)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"MapofUgandashowingregionswherestudiesonmedicinalplantswithfocusontrees.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6127332/v1/3b7c8b10fa08b16a199ea88a.png"},{"id":77588350,"identity":"9a16ec1e-360c-4c86-95ae-d52de3698a98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-03 10:58:14","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":61129,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParts used on medicinal plants against their frequency of mention\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Partsusedonmedicinalplantsagainsttheirfrequencyofmention.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6127332/v1/87efb31a65025e844b97c7ec.png"},{"id":77590153,"identity":"a8237750-d2b5-43c9-b6eb-628fce58526b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-03 11:14:14","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":121491,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMethod of preparation and administration of herbal medicine against their frequency of mention\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Methodofpreparationandadministrationofherbalmedicineagainsttheirfrequencyofmention.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6127332/v1/751e565ed544a8ce8804b79d.png"},{"id":77590391,"identity":"3db25aa5-b144-45e2-9282-515d29b8879e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-03 11:22:14","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1199704,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6127332/v1/bb3d4878-0c1e-4f25-877c-e0bcb9d5ef06.pdf"},{"id":77588347,"identity":"253d61a6-d010-4332-a6fa-f72349fed1fb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-03 10:58:13","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":218326,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6127332/v1/a7d6ded224c55c43ce3e1405.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eMedicinal Tree Species used in Management of different Diseases in Uganda: A Systematic Review\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIt is pertinent to mention that medicinal plants have been used over the years as they possess phytochemical compounds that are of immense benefit (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The use of these medicinal plants is skyrocketing across the globe (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) with the situation not being different in Africa (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). In regions such as East Africa, countries such as Burundi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) and Tanzania (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) have relied on traditional medicine. Reports have put forth that at least 80% of the population in rural areas hinge on traditional medicine (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). This same situation is also in Uganda, where traditional medicine forms a paramount part of primary health care (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). It is accentuate to note that Uganda is among the countries in Africa with the richest biodiversity, and its standing among all African countries is extremely high (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). In East Africa, Uganda is outstandingly rich in biodiversity with surveys indicating an occurrence of over 18,783 species of flora and fauna (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Uganda, as a land-locked country, is situated in eastern Africa with fresh water and wetlands that cover one-third of its size (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). To the north, Uganda is bordered by Sudan, Tanzania to the south, Kenya to the east, and the Democratic Republic of Congo to the west. Within Uganda, the eastern, central, and western regions experience two rainfall peaks while the northern region experiences a reduced amount of rainfall and has only one rainy season (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUganda has an assortment of habitations assisting a rich and varied flora and these habitats may be divided into three broad categories: forests, wetlands, and drylands (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Uganda contains 22 vegetation types some of which include; savanna, steppe, bushland, swamps, thicket, forest-savanna mosaic, heath, moorland, forest, and woodland (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Among all these vegetation types, forests are dominant in the western part of Uganda, drylands in the northern part, and wetlands along the shores of massive lakes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Uganda also has approximately 4,800 species of higher plants with 70 being endemic and mainly concentrated in tropical forests in the western region (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). Among the 4800 species, tree species have been reported to have diverse uses (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). These natural resources have been heavily depended on by local people for products such as fuel wood, construction materials, medicine, and food (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). For example, estimates show that 20\u0026ndash;25% of rural people in developing countries depend on environmental resources for income generation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the immense contribution of these resources, Uganda\u0026rsquo;s vegetation has faced dramatic changes in coverage, and species composition due to anthropogenic activities (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the unsustainable harvesting of these resources is so alarming as it has been and continues to be done (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Due to this, the Ugandan Government has made momentous progress in putting in place policies, laws, and institutional frameworks on the conservation of biodiversity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). Interventions by the government thus offer hope for the existence of biodiversity. Additionally, the documentation of flora together with their medicinal benefits is also mandatory for the conservation of biodiversity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current body of literature on medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases in Uganda is extensive (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, single studies on the medicinal uses of tree species in Uganda are still lacking. Yet these trees are vulnerable as they are greatly dependent on for timber and charcoal thus posing a major threat to their existence (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). Besides, some of these tree species take long to grow (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). This study thus found it indispensable to compile a single study of medicinal tree species utilized in Uganda to manage different diseases and conditions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Literature Search and Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eInclusion criterion\u003c/b\u003e; studies that provide information on tree species used to manage diseases and disorders were the only ones included. Ethnobotanical surveys done in Uganda were included. Studies written in English were also included.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLiterature identification\u003c/b\u003e; Literature search was done by using the keywords \u0026ldquo;medicinal plants of Uganda\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;tree species of Uganda\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;flora diversity of Uganda\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;ethnobotanical survey\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;traditional medicine\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;medicinal plants.\u0026rdquo; Preliminary relevance was done for each paper using the title. If the title of any paper showed information discussing medicinal plants of Uganda, its full reference, author, year, title, and abstract, it was considered for further evaluation. Google Scholar, ResearchGate, AJOL, and PubMed were searched for articles on medicinal plants used in Uganda. The publication date was limited to 1995 and 2024, based on the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Study selection and data extraction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor any article to be considered in this review, it had to include details of a specific ethnobotany use, such as a tree used to manage bacterial infections. The method of preparation \u0026amp; administration should preferably have been recorded. From each paper, the following information was obtained: scientific names of trees used, parts used, disease/ disorder managed, mode of preparation and administration, and area of study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe selection of the articles was done in four steps. The first step involved checking the relevance of the studies based on their title. The second step involved evaluating the abstracts to make sure that they match to the inclusion criteria. If the primary inspection of an abstract of a paper did not give adequate information to make an informed judgment, the full paper was looked for in the third step and reviewed by the authors prior to making a decision concerning inclusion in the review. Lastly, those that appeared to meet the inclusion criteria were retrieved for extra appraisal (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). From each article, medicinal plants particularly those belonging to trees as a life form/ habit were scrutinized and then extracted into spreadsheets for easy data management. All scientific names of the plants were checked with The Plant List (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ewww.theplantlist.org\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.theplantlist.org\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were done to evaluate the data gathered for the current study. This was made possible with the use of Statistical Packages for Social Scientists (SPSS) (Version 20; IBM Inc.). Data visualization was performed on GraphPad Prism 8.0.2 program (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA) while Quantum Geographic Information System (Version 3.34.15) was used to generate maps.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Study characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA total of 50 publication records were considered for data extraction (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Medicinal tree species\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e156 tree species from 52 families (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) were documented. Some of the tree species documented were used to boost the immunity of patients while others were used to treat and manage different diseases. The families with most species were Fabaceae (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e), Euphorbiaceae (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e), Rubiaceae (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e), Myrtaceae (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e), Meliaceae (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e), and Moraceae (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). It is paramount to emphasize that much as this review captured only 156 medicinal tree species, there are still many tree species that have not yet been documented.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Ethnobotanical studies in Uganda focusing on trees\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn the present systematic review, it is indicative that Ethnobotanical studies have been conducted in all the regions of Uganda. i.e. central, western, eastern, southern, west Nile, and Northern regions of Uganda. The districts in these regions in which the studies were done were 39 in number and they included; Tororo, Mukono, Buikwe, Kamuli, Ssembabule, Kabale, Gulu, Mbarara, Isingiro, Kasese, Bushenyi, Arua, Dokolo, Mbale, Iganga, Rakai, Luwero, Kaabong, Kitgum, Pader, Ibanda, Kiruhura, Kampala, Wakiso, Masaka, Mpigi, Butebo, Kole, Soroti, Serere, Kabermaido, Oyam, Rukingiri, Sironko, Bulambuli, Bundibugyo, Kabarole, Bunyangabu, and Apac. It is however important to emphasize that in this review, the majority of studies on medicinal tree species in Uganda have been conducted in the western region compared to other regions (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Parts used on medicinal plants and mode of administration\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParts used\u003c/strong\u003e; according to Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, diverse parts on medicinal plants were being used. Specifically, leaves (34.7%) were highly depended on. The bark (32.0%) (Including stem and root bark) and roots (19.7%) were also commonly used. Additionally, other parts that were infrequently used included; stems, sap, twigs, flowers, shoots, fruits, seeds, and tubers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMode of preparation and administration\u003c/strong\u003e; according to Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the herbal medicines were mainly prepared as decoctions (60.8%) and as teas (8.8%). This was followed by herbal bathe (5.1%), applying powder of herbal medicine on the affected part (4.6%), and chewing (4.6%). The other methods of preparation and administration such as steam bathe, sniffing, crushing and tying on the affected part, steaming on fire, and chewing, and boiling then sitting in the water were not frequently used. During preparation of the herbal medicine, some adjuncts such as milk and honey were added for different reasons.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Most common medicinal plant families\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe families with most species were Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, Myrtaceae, Meliaceae, and Moraceae. The plant family, Fabaceae had the most species and this finding has been reported in another study which highlighted that this plant family was one of those widely used by local indigenous communities of Mpanga and Mabira core forest reserves to treat diseases such as anemia, diarrhea, and cancer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, Fabaceae has been proven to be effective in treating a number of infectious disorders (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Parts of plant used, mode of preparation and administration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiverse parts of medicinal plants used to treat and manage different ailments were revealed in the present review. Leaves were highly depended on followed by bark and roots. Stems, sap, twigs, flowers, shoots, fruits, seeds, and tubers were however infrequently used. This finding aligns with that of another study (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e) which highlighted leaves as being the frequently used plant parts, whilst seeds and fruits were not commonly used. Studies highlighting the choice for leaves consider that their frequent use is due to their plentiful together with high content of phytochemicals (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the wide usage of leaves, flowers, roots, and bark is an extensive habit in Uganda as recorded in central parts of Uganda (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), southern parts of Uganda (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e), western parts of Uganda (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e), areas near Kibale National Park (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e), and Mpigi in central Uganda (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e). The frequent use of leaves can also be attributed to their high regeneration rate and, in most situations, does not result in the plant dying, allowing the same plant to be constantly employed for a considerable amount of time (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings of the present review revealed decoctions as the most common method of preparing herbal medicine. This finding is consistent with another study (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e) carried in some East African countries and the African regions at large, where decoction was the most rampant method used to prepare herbal medicine. Decoctions may be reckoned when the plant part used is easily accessible (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the extreme usage of water as a solvent is also linked to its availability (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, water serving as a natural solvent fuels the immediate retrieval of bioactive compounds during herbal medicine preparation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Conservation status of medicinal plant species used\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome of the tree species included in this review have been listed as threatened. For example, \u003cem\u003eMilicia excelsa\u003c/em\u003e as near threatened, \u003cem\u003eAfrocarpus usambarensis\u003c/em\u003e is listed as endangered. \u003cem\u003ePrunus africana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e have also been listed as vulnerable in the wild. There is thus an urgent desire to ensure that much as these tree species are still relied on as sources of treatment and management of different ailments, their existence through cultivation and sustainable harvesting should be highly encouraged.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion and recommendation","content":"\u003cp\u003eDiverse tree species in Uganda have been used to treat and manage a number of diseases. The Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, Myrtaceae, Meliaceae, and Moraceae plant families accounted for the majority of these tree species. This research puts forth that although a number of tree species are greatly relied on for medicinal purposes, many other tree species with medicinal importance still remain undocumented, and with this immeasurable ethnobotanical knowledge remaining in the hands of the ancestors. Some of these tree species are also being destroyed by anthropogenic activities. The study thus recommends thorough sustainable harvesting of these medicinal tree species.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eAJOL\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfrican Journals Online\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePRISMA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no competing interests exist.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding statement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis review did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReview concept and design: Thomas James Wanyama\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiterature search: Thomas James Wanyama and Edith Nalubwama\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData analysis, visualization, and interpretation: Thomas James Wanyama\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDrafting of the manuscript: Thomas James Wanyama\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCritical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Thomas James Wanyama\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the authors read and approved the publication of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to acknowledge the authors of the academic resources referenced in our work. Your contributions to this work were an immense foundation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor\u0026rsquo;s information\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWanyama Thomas James: https://orcid.org/0009-0003-2235-1573\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNalubwama Edith: https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6333-1466\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUmaru KI, Ugoeze ES, Umaru IJ, Nanmar C, Tensaba AA, David BC (2024) Phytochemical Profiling, and Antifungal Potentials of Stem-Bark Extracts of East African (Khaya Anthotheca). Asian J Sci Technol Eng Art 2(3):418\u0026ndash;435\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAsiimwe S, Namutebi A, Borg-Karlson AK, Mugisha MK, Kakudidi EK, Hannington OO (2014) Documentation and consensus of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants used by the local communities of western Uganda. 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Adv Infect Dis 14(3):511\u0026ndash;522\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"ethnobotanical knowledge, herbal medicine, medicinal plants, medicinal tree species, traditional medicine, Uganda","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6127332/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6127332/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMedicinal plants are a source of many potent drugs due to their phytochemical properties. Studies on different plant life forms are voluminous, with exception of trees. No single study has been done on tree species used to manage ailments in different regions of Uganda from 1995 up to 2024. This study thus aimed to compile tree species used in Uganda to manage different ailments. The review examined 50 studies with ethnobotanical surveys done in Uganda. Data extraction focused on plant families and species, plant parts used, preparation methods and routes of administration, and the region in Uganda where the ethnobotanical field surveys were conducted. 156 tree species from 52 families were identified, including Fabaceae (21), Euphorbiaceae (10), Rubiaceae (9), Myrtaceae (9), Meliaceae (9), and Moraceae (9). Leaves (34.7%) were highly depended on followed by bark (32.0%) and roots (19.7%) were also commonly used. The majority of the herbal remedies were prepared by decoction and taken orally. Many tree species in Uganda are used to manage several ailments. However, other tree species with medicinal importance remain undocumented and yet some of them are being destroyed by anthropogenic activities. Efforts to ensure sustainable harvesting of these medicinal tree species are thus required.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Medicinal Tree Species used in Management of different Diseases in Uganda: A Systematic Review","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-03 10:58:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6127332/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"05ce086d-4965-44e6-b6e9-44a7fdbd3615","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":45006252,"name":"Botany"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-03-03T10:58:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-03 10:58:09","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6127332","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6127332","identity":"rs-6127332","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}