In search of the forest dormouse Dryomys nitedula Pallas, 1778 (Mammalia: Gliridae) in the Eastern Alps: which method is best?

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Eva Ladurner, Regula Tester, Stefan Resch, Christine Resch This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6313824/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The forest dormouse Dryomys nitedula Pallas, 1778 (Rodentia: Gliridae) is an arboreal and nocturnal small mammal species. This study assessed the effectiveness of different survey methods for detecting the elusive species at six study sites within the Alpine region of Terra Raetica (border area of Switzerland, Austria, and Italy), its western distribution limit. The aim was to establish a monitoring method for further studies on biology and habitat requirements of Dryomys nitedula . Methods compared included 90 wooden and 90 wood-concrete nest boxes, 45 tracking tubes, and 22 sites with wildlife cameras, each mounted at varying heights on trees. The forest dormouse was successfully detected using nest boxes, wildlife cameras and tracking tubes. Despite the higher effort required for transportation, installation, and maintenance, nest boxes showed high potential for ecological studies and long-term monitoring, especially when mounted above 2 meters. Wildlife cameras proved particularly suitable due to their low maintenance and long-term applicability, while tracking tubes offered advantages such as low cost and suitability for citizen science projects. In addition to fieldwork, public relations are a useful complement for discovering new occurrence points. Therefore, the study recommends combining multiple methods tailored to the specific research question and a minimum monitoring period of two years to achieve reliable results. Nest box wildlife camera tracking tube mounting height citizen science Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction The forest dormouse Dryomys nitedula Pallas, 1778 (Rodentia: Gliridae) is a small rodent species, belonging to the family Gliridae. Its main distribution extends from the Balkans via Ukraine and northern Iran in the south to the Baltic countries and Moscow in the north, with a western distribution limit in the Eastern Alps (Kryštufek and Vohralik 1994 ; Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999 ; Grimmberger and Rudloff 2009 ; Grimmberger 2017 ). In this region, an alpine subspecies, Dryomys nitedula intermedius Nehring, 1902, was described by Schedl ( 1968 ): Its distribution extends from eastern Switzerland to the border of the Vienna Basin in Austria, from the central and eastern Southern Alps in northeast Italy up to the northern Dinarides in Ex-Yugoslavia. In contrast to the mostly brown-backed populations of Dryomys nitedula , the alpine subspecies D. n. intermedius is characterized by a grey upper side of the body with indistinct brown tones or without them and a smaller scull as other subspecies. It has a bushy grey tail, and the belly is lighter in colour than the back, yellowish white to white. The tail often has a white tip (Krystufek 1985, Schedl 1968 ; Storch 1978 ; Spitzenberger 1983; Paolucci et al. 1987 ). Even though little is known about its current distribution, it appears to be rare within its eastern range (Spitzenberger 2001 , Meinig et al. 2020 , Müller and Filli 2021 , Resch et al. 2023 , Tester 2018 ). Compared to other dormouse species in Europe, research on the forest dormouse remains limited (Fedyń et al. 2021 , Tester 2018 ). Moreover, the existing knowledge on its biology and ecology primarily originates from the northern and eastern parts of its distribution range (Sidorowicz 1959 ; Juškaitis 2015 ; Silaeva et al. 2020). D. nitedula is strictly protected under the EU Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC (Annex IV), which mandates regular monitoring. But cost-intensive live trapping, a proven method for D. nitedula (Ściński and Borowski 2006 ; Magomedov 2015 ), is rarely feasible for large-scale faunistic surveys and long-term monitoring. The use of nest boxes is another widely applied and well-established method (Nowakowski and Godlewska, 2006 ; Pilāts et al., 2012 ; Juškaitis et al., 2012 , 2015; Juškaitis and Keturka, 2017 ). In this transnational study, we aimed to assess the reliability of nest boxes for detecting D. n. intermedius , identify potential improvements to this methodology, and evaluate the effectiveness of additional detection methods, such as wildlife cameras (Di Cerbo and Biancardi, 2013 ; Resch and Blatt, 2017; Suzuki and Ando, 2019 ; Mori et al., 2020 ; Villing and Horst, 2021 ) and tracking tubes (Haag and Tester, 2016 ; Mills et al., 2016 , 2017; Melcore et al., 2020 ; Bullion et al., 2021 ), as they had not yet been evaluated for the forest dormouse. Finally, the extent to which public relations work and Citizen Science projects can contribute to knowledge about the distribution of the species should be determined. Furthermore, we employed citizen science as an additional method to detect new occurrences of the rare dormouse. A better understanding of effective monitoring techniques will enable future research to focus on the species’ population biology and habitat requirements. Ultimately, these insights will contribute to the development of targeted conservation measures for D. n. intermedius in the Eastern Alps 2. Study site Our study took place in the Alpine region of Terra Raetica, the border triangle between Switzerland, Austria, and Italy. In Engiadina and Val Müstair (CH), in Ötztaler Alps (AT) and in the Venosta Valley (IT), two sample plots each were chosen for the survey (Fig. 2 ). They were set up at locations with current (Switzerland and Italy) or historical evidence (Austria) of the forest dormouse. Details on the single sample plots are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Main characteristics of the 6 study sites in the Terra Raetica region. Region Municipality Sample plot Code Altitude Exposition Habitat CH-Engiadina Valsot Raschvella RAS 1,100-1,200 m W Riparian forest with Alnus incana , forest with Picea abies Val Müstair Santa Maria STM 1,380 m N Riparian forest with Alnus incana , forest with Larix decidua AT-Ötztaler Alps Oetz Piburger Wald PBW 900 m NE Mixed forest, dominated by Picea abies Pfunds Wildmoos WMS 1,600 m NE Subalpine spruce forest with Picea abies IT-Venosta Valley Martell Zufrittboden ZFB 1,950 m W Subalpine mixed coniferous forest Prad a. St. Stafflin STA 1,750 m S Subalpine mixed coniferous forest 3. Material and methods For each sample plot, a total of 15 spots were established, the distance between the stations being 50 m. Fieldwork was conducted from September 2020 to October 2021, with five regular inspections of the sampling sites carried out starting from June 2021. The following methods were used during the study period: 3.1 Nest boxes We used wooden nest boxes (dimensions: 140 x 140 x 200 mm, entrance hole 30–35 mm diameter) and wood-concrete nest boxes (model HMH “Hasselfeldt”, dimensions 250 x 180 x 290 mm, entrance gap 18 mm), both with the entrance hole on the trunk side to exclude birds. The nest boxes were placed at two different heights on the tree, between 1–2 m (installation height a) and between 2–4 m high (installation height b) and were mounted alternately from tree to tree at these two heights. This was intended to show the preference of the species for one of the two types of nest box and for one height. Animals from occupied nest boxes were measured and their sex and age determined by the guidelines of Gurnell and Flowerdew ( 2006 ). If no forest dormouse was found, but a nest with faeces suspected of being a forest dormouse, the faeces were collected and genetically identified. Old nests from currently unoccupied nest boxes were removed. 3.2 Wildlife cameras On 22 sites, different models of wildlife cameras, recording modes and baits were tested for their suitability for dormice monitoring. The devices were mounted on tree trunks on different heights. In some cases, they were orientated towards the nest boxes to get insight in the activity around the nest boxes and information about their efficiency. The properties and setting modes are listed in Table 2 . Table 2 Properties of wildlife cameras used during the study on Dryomys nitedula in the Terra Raetica region. *Cameras with optimized focus were mounted on the sides of tree trunks using sturdy metal frames. Wildlife camera model No. of sites Rec. time [months] Exposure type Bait Mounting heigth [cm] Record mode Evidence of D. nitedula Cuddeback X-Change Infrared* 2 2 Infrared-LED metal containers with airholes filled with nut-muesli bars crumbs 150 1 photo, 10 sec time delay on 150 cm heigth Cuddeback X-Change Color* 2 8 White-light electronic flash rags with walnut oil 150 on 150 cm heigth Bushnell Nature View HD 4 20 Infrared-LED rag with pumpkin seed oil 150 3 Photos on 150 cm heigth Bushnell Nature View HD 6 6 Infrared-LED peanut butter, bird seeds, and mealworms in a flat, open container 120–500 1 Photo, 10 sec video on 150 cm heigth Boly Trail Camera SG562-D 5 7 White-LED 200–450 on 300 cm height KeepGuard KG795 3 3 White-LED 120–400 no evidence 22 46 3.3 Tracking tubes: At each spot a tracking tube consisting of polypropylene twin-wall sheets (dimensions 430 x 60 x 60 mm, including rain cover) was put on the tree, fitted with an oil-based ink mixture to capture the tracks of small mammals passing through (Haag and Tester 2016 ). The tracks on the sheets from the tracking tubes were determined according to Marchesi et al. (2008) and Haag ( 2014 ). 3.4 Public relations To raise awareness and encourage sighting reports, standardized research on the forest dormouse was complemented by public relations efforts from project partners (AT-Ötztal Nature Park, CH-UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Engiadina Val Müstair, IT-Stelvio National Park). Several activities such as educational programs and excursions took place. In the Citizen Science project “Wild neighbours” in Switzerland, including tracking tunnel construction in activities with children and families, 30 wooden tracking tunnels measuring 15 cm x 15 cm x 100 cm were used on 46 sites to look for small mammals. The tunnels were installed on a height of 100 cm. In addition, the public was invited via press releases, Facebook and Instagram calls to report findings of dormice, particularly the forest dormouse. 4. Results In our research, the forest dormouse was detected in only three of the six study areas in the Terra Raetica region, in one study area per country (Fig. 2 ). It could be detected using each of the methods applied. However, the detection success varied significantly: Of the 22 spots sampled using wildlife cameras, 26,1% recorded observations of the forest dormouse. In contrast, the other methods—tracking tubes, wooden nest boxes, and wood-concrete nest boxes were less effective with a success rate of only 3,3% (Fig. 1 ). 4.1 Nest boxes A total of seven records of the species were obtained using nest boxes, two records in AT-PBW and IT-STA, three in CH-STM (Table 3 ). However, in one study site only nests with faeces were found, but no animal, so the presence of the forest dormouse in this site was confirmed genetically. Three of the seven detections were made in wooden nest boxes and three in wood-concrete nest boxes (Table 3 ). With only one exception, all detections were associated with installation height b, meaning that nearly all occupied nest boxes were installed at heights exceeding 2 meters. At the beginning of July 2021, a female with four young was found in the only successful nest box with installation height a, i.e. in a wood-concrete nest box at a height of 120 cm. The forest dormouse nests found mostly consisted of moss, once the moss was mixed with needles of Larix decidua and some leaves of Salix caprea and in one case it consisted of pure lichens ( Usnea sp.). The material used for nest construction was present in the immediate vicinity of the nest site. In all seven nest boxes used by the forest dormouse in this study there was a great amount of faeces in a corner of the box. Table 3 Summary of detections of all small mammal species in the six study areas of Terra Raetica based on the applied methods. In the wildlife cameras, only one detection per month and species was counted to avoid double counting. species Nest box Tracking tube Wildlife camera wood-concrete wooden Dryomys nitedula 3 4 4 7 Eliomys quercinus 1 2 4 13 Muscardinus avellanarius 1 1 10 7 Glis glis 0 1 4 1 Apodemus sp. 2 0 11 14 Myodes glareolus 0 0 0 7 small mammal indet. 0 0 6 2 Total 7 8 39 51 4.2 Wildlife cameras Wildlife cameras provided positive seven detections of Dryomys nitedula in the same three study areas as the nest boxes, in AT-PBW, CH-STM, and IT-STA. A great part of these successful cameras was installed at a height of only 1.5 m (Table 2 ). In contrast to the nest boxes, which were almost exclusively used at an installation height of over 2 m, the wildlife cameras regularly recorded the forest dormouse during its activity phases at a lower height. The species was detected with both white light and infrared flashes (Table 2 ). However, with two white light cameras, which took 1 photo and 10 sec film, it was noticeable that in 14 of 17 recordings only the photo could be taken, but no film of the animal. This was not the case with the camera with infrared light, where the animal stayed at the bait for the entire duration of the 10 sec film, after the photo was taken. 4.3 Tracking tubes The tracking tubes showed traces of Dryomys nitedula only in two of the six study sites with a total of four observations (Table 3 ). 4.4 Findings of other small mammal species In addition to the records of the forest dormouse, observations of other small mammal species were also made within the study areas of Terra Raetica. The methods used confirmed the presence of the three other dormouse species native to the study region, hazel dormouse Muscardinus avellanarius , garden dormouse Eliomys quercinus and edible dormouse Glis glis . Among the other arboreal small mammals, wood mice Apodemus sp. and the bank vole Myodes glareolus were detected (Table 3 ). Overall, most species were documented using wildlife cameras, followed by tracking tubes (Table 3 ). The edible dormouse was the only dormouse species that could not be detected in the wood-concrete boxes. 4.5 Public relations Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the planned cross-border exchange regarding public relations between study regions was not possible. Nevertheless, through public relations efforts in the individual countries, a total of 13 records were obtained for the forest dormouse within and outside the Terra Raetica region (CH-Grisons, AT-North Tyrol, IT-South Tyrol) (Fig. 2 ). A total of 67 records of small mammals were made as part of the Citizen Science project “Wild neighbours” in Switzerland using the wooden tracking tunnels. 28 tunnels provided evidence of Glis glis , 27 of Eliomys quercinus , eight of indeterminate small mammals and four of Muscardinus avellanarius . Dryomys nitedula was not found. 5. Discussion Our transnational study showed that all three methods—nest boxes, tracking tubes, and wildlife cameras—are suitable for detecting the forest dormouse ( Dryomys nitedula ), though each presents specific advantages and limitations that should be considered when planning and implementing surveys on this species: 5.1 Nest boxes Detection success with nest boxes was relatively low, with only seven forest dormouse records out of 180 deployed boxes compared to 4−11 individuals in 63 wooden nest boxes in Juškaitis et al ( 2012 ). However, the fact that a female with young was already found in one of the wood-concrete boxes in the first year of the study indicates that the nest boxes may offer a valuable nesting site to the species. Juškaitis ( 2005 ) showed, that suitable nesting sites, especially reproductive cavities, are a limiting factor for dormice. Nest boxes remain valuable tools for obtaining ecological insights into activity patterns, diet, habitat preferences, population dynamics, and interspecific competition, as shown by Hecker and Bakó (2003), Nowakowski and Godlewska ( 2006 ) and Sevianu and Filipas ( 2008 ). In our study, both wood-concrete and wooden nest boxes yielded nearly identical detection success rates. While the small sample size does not allow for definitive conclusions, results suggest that installation height influences nest box occupancy, as six out of seven detections were recorded above 2 m. This could be due to reduced competition from other small mammal species, such as wood mice, which are less abundant at greater heights (Ladurner and Cazzolli 2002 , Juškaitis and Keturka 2017 ). Compared to other tested methods, nest boxes - especially the heavier wood-concrete ones (~ 5 kg) - require significant effort for transport and installation. Their use is not particularly efficient for general faunistic surveys but remains essential for long-term population studies of the forest dormouse. Multi-year studies are especially important for species with low population densities, as detection rates may increase over time as individuals become accustomed to artificial nest sites (Juškaitis 2005 ). Birds and Glis glis often use nest boxes but were absent from wood-concrete boxes in our study. The 18 mm rear entrance and lateral spacer likely limit their access. Testing at lower altitudes could confirm if such boxes help exclude Glis glis in high-density areas, to keep the nest boxes free for surveys of other target species. 5.2 Wildlife cameras This study confirms the suitability of wildlife cameras for detecting arboreal small mammals, specifically Dryomys nitedula . While their effectiveness in small mammal research is well established (Di Cerbo and Biancardi 2013 ; Mölle et al. 2022 ; Kleiven et al. 2022 ; Hopkins et al. 2024 ; Verhees et al. 2024 ), our findings support their extended applicability to this species. Wildlife cameras provide continuous habitat monitoring year-round, requiring minimal maintenance, and offering cost-efficiency (De Bondi et al. 2010 ; McCleery et al. 2021 ; Porter and Dueser 2024 ; Verhees et al. 2024 ). Their utility is particularly relevant for elusive species or those with low population densities (Stille et al. 2018 ; Resch and Resch 2024 ), making them a valuable tool for studying the forest dormouse. Although this study is too small to confirm or rule out avoidance behaviour, our results suggest that wildlife cameras equipped with a white-light electronic flash were successful. However, individuals exposed to white LED flashes often fled after the first exposure, limiting further observations. Motion video recordings would be beneficial for behavioural analyses. Given the ongoing debate about whether white-light flashes affect mammal detection rates (McCleery 2021; Glen 2013; Resch and Resch 2019 ) and since colour images are unnecessary for distinguishing dormouse species, infrared-LED cameras should be preferred for D. nitedula studies. Based on these findings, we recommend wildlife cameras as a key method for large-scale presence assessments of arboreal species like the forest dormouse. Effective baiting methods include rags or household sponges soaked in walnut oil and fruit juice placed in the camera's capture area as also demonstrated for Eliomys quercinus (Queckenstedt et al. 2024 ). 5.3 Tracking tubes in survey and tracking tunnels in Citizen Science Among the three detection methods, tracking tubes yielded the fewest detections per site. However, only 15 tracking tubes were deployed per study area. For greater detection success, the installation with 25 up to 50 tracking tubes per site would have been advisable (Haag and Tester 2016 ; Bullion 2021). The tracking tube method is very advantageous for less common but not rare species, not clumped distributed animals or animals with a narrow habitat spectrum as hedgehogs, as shown in many cities of Europe and Switzerland (Yarnell et al. 2014 ). The wooden tunnels in the Citizen Science project “Wild neighbours” were also able to provide a lot of additional evidence of the more common species Glis glis and Eliomys quercinus in the Terra Raetica. This confirms the effectiveness of the method for Citizen Science and its application for non-rare species. Rare species such as the forest dormouse are often discovered by chance during these campaigns. Our results emphasise how important such Citizen Science projects are as a supplement for research efforts, especially regarding distribution data of the species. Despite lower detection success for forest dormice, tracking tubes have clear advantages: they are inexpensive, lightweight, and easy to transport and install (Haag and Tester 2016 ). A major advantage is their suitability for citizen science projects, as they can be deployed by volunteers, such as school classes, conservation groups and nature enthusiasts, while expert analysis is only required for the determination of the traces. 5.4 Effectiveness of public relations in discovering new occurrences Through public outreach efforts, records of the forest dormouse have also been obtained outside the Terra Raetica region. The high number of photo-verified reports (13 confirmed records) demonstrates that media-based calls for sightings are an effective method for getting occurence data of the forest dormouse. Declarations Competing Interests The authors declare that there are no financial or non-financial conflicts of interest directly or indirectly related to the submitted work. Funding Declaration: European Regional Development Fund and Interreg V-A Italy-Austria 2014–2020, Interreg Mittelprojekt IM/VI „Bilche“ Author Contribution Eva Ladurner, Stefan Resch, Regula Tester, Christine Resch contributed equally to this work. Acknowledgement The collection of data used in this publication was funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Interreg V-A Italy-Austria 2014-2020. Our special thanks got to the project partners Ötztal Nature Park, UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Engiadina Val Müstair and Stelvio National Park, and the team who gave us its support during the fieldwork. Additionally, we acknowledge Wilde Nachbarn for their contributions. References Bakó, B, Hecker K (2006) Factors determining the distribution of coexisting dormouse species (Gliridae, Rodentia). Pol. J. Ecol. 54: 379-386. 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Silaeva T, Andreychev A, Kiyaykina O, Balčiauskas L. (2021) Taxonomic and ecological composition of forest stands inhabited by forest dormouse Dryomys nitedula (Rodentia: Gliridae) in the Middle Volga. Biologia 76: 1475-1482. https://link.springer.com/article/10.2478/s11756-020-00651-3 Spitzenberger, F. 2001: Die Säugetierfauna Österreichs. Austria Medien Service, Graz. Stille D, Kraft R, Luding H (2018) Die Waldbirkenmaus ( Sicista betulina ) im Bayerischen Wald - FFH-Monitoring einer schwer erfassbaren Kleinsäugerart mit Hilfe von Wildkameras. Anliegen Natur 40: 63-68. Storch, G (1978) Dryomys nitedula (Pallas, 1779) - Baumschläfer. In: Niethammer J and Krapp F (ed) Handbuch der Säugetiere Europas: Rodentia I. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden, pp 226-237 Suzuki KK, Ando M (2019) Tree trunk camera trapping for a small dormouse. Mammal Res. 64: 479-484. Tester R (2018) Der Baumschläfer – die unbekannte, seltene Schlafmaus. Fauna Fokus 41. Verhees JJF, van der Putten TAW, van Hoof PH, Heijkers D, Lemmers P, Esser HJ, de Boer WF (2024) Comparing the effectiveness of short-focal camera trapping, live trapping, and soil eDNA for surveying small mammals: A case study on Eurasian water shrew ( Neomys fodiens ). Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 70:13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-023-01760-5 Villing N, Horst L (2021) Camera-trap assisted monitoring of presence and ecology of the hazel dormouse. Faunist.-Ökol. Mitt. 10: 79-82. Yarnell R, Pacheco M, Williams B, Neumann J, Rymer D, Baker P (2014) Using occupancy analysis to validate the use of footprint tunnels as a method for monitoring the hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus. Mammal Review. 44:5. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mam.12026 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 27 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 27 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 29 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 28 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 28 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 28 Apr, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 28 Apr, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 27 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 26 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6313824","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Method Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":449677311,"identity":"80aee210-1ba9-4f92-bc95-7bcb793c58d9","order_by":0,"name":"Eva Ladurner","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Naturmuseum Südtirol","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eva","middleName":"","lastName":"Ladurner","suffix":""},{"id":449677312,"identity":"5f585f54-ad1e-48c3-a962-6c54b988f8cc","order_by":1,"name":"Regula Tester","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5UlEQVRIie3RMQrCMBSA4RcC7RLoGlHwCk8CilDsVVIKmQSvUBF0afeeRBxbCnXpARwVwVlxaSeNky7Gjg75pxd435AEwGb75zwA+j6R2LT7WpQAvfg16YF1Jph3JZPYK05t4y/EflXirfGDwE2P0O6+k0FOqWBSTbd1FYWZVGHC9kjS+jvhQJ0+yBLHh7komSwl4wooWRuJ2zbygSJb3DV5BGx4+UkcYDJH5HMa6YEk3PlB9FX6TEXI60qMMhWFSa2gSE3EXZ70O83Q26zO/OrPAndTkWNrIJ9f/i43AJvNZrN16Aki7kZfdN01SwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Pro Bilche","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Regula","middleName":"","lastName":"Tester","suffix":""},{"id":449677313,"identity":"56e9be5e-385c-443f-9208-ad52e0887804","order_by":2,"name":"Stefan Resch","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"apodemus – Institut für Wildtierbiologie","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Stefan","middleName":"","lastName":"Resch","suffix":""},{"id":449677314,"identity":"0840bde8-af68-4411-9142-167a1ed03267","order_by":3,"name":"Christine Resch","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"apodemus – Institut für Wildtierbiologie","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Christine","middleName":"","lastName":"Resch","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-26 15:38:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6313824/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6313824/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":81810347,"identity":"535e4dbf-bf8e-4c4e-a915-3c4ab51d622f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-02 08:40:30","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":20726,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSummary of detection success of the forest dormouse (\u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e) by applied methods in the study area of Terra Raetica.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6313824/v1/9a19a4ea79632a28551ceafe.png"},{"id":81809881,"identity":"a1c5dbea-0d48-4a2e-93e8-7ea4e2e92455","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-02 08:32:30","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":85820,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEvidence of \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e between July 2020 and December 2021 in the study area Terra Raetica in the border triangle Switzerland, Austria, and Italy.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6313824/v1/2160e929995d329fb7a8c47a.png"},{"id":81810701,"identity":"b89790e8-0082-4493-9c41-f83883fc4da7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-02 08:48:30","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":865379,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6313824/v1/b8ea1df0-feda-49fd-ad03-be622540ce69.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"In search of the forest dormouse Dryomys nitedula Pallas, 1778 (Mammalia: Gliridae) in the Eastern Alps: which method is best?","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe forest dormouse \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e Pallas, 1778 (Rodentia: Gliridae) is a small rodent species, belonging to the family Gliridae. Its main distribution extends from the Balkans via Ukraine and northern Iran in the south to the Baltic countries and Moscow in the north, with a western distribution limit in the Eastern Alps (Kryštufek and Vohralik \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Mitchell-Jones et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Grimmberger and Rudloff \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Grimmberger \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In this region, an alpine subspecies, \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula intermedius\u003c/em\u003e Nehring, 1902, was described by Schedl (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1968\u003c/span\u003e): Its distribution extends from eastern Switzerland to the border of the Vienna Basin in Austria, from the central and eastern Southern Alps in northeast Italy up to the northern Dinarides in Ex-Yugoslavia. In contrast to the mostly brown-backed populations of \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e, the alpine subspecies \u003cem\u003eD. n. intermedius\u003c/em\u003e is characterized by a grey upper side of the body with indistinct brown tones or without them and a smaller scull as other subspecies. It has a bushy grey tail, and the belly is lighter in colour than the back, yellowish white to white. The tail often has a white tip (Krystufek 1985, Schedl \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1968\u003c/span\u003e; Storch \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Spitzenberger 1983; Paolucci et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). Even though little is known about its current distribution, it appears to be rare within its eastern range (Spitzenberger \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e, Meinig et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, M\u0026uuml;ller and Filli \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, Resch et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, Tester \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompared to other dormouse species in Europe, research on the forest dormouse remains limited (Fedyń et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, Tester \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the existing knowledge on its biology and ecology primarily originates from the northern and eastern parts of its distribution range (Sidorowicz \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1959\u003c/span\u003e; Juškaitis \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Silaeva et al. 2020). \u003cem\u003eD. nitedula\u003c/em\u003e is strictly protected under the EU Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC (Annex IV), which mandates regular monitoring. But cost-intensive live trapping, a proven method for \u003cem\u003eD. nitedula\u003c/em\u003e (Ściński and Borowski \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Magomedov \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), is rarely feasible for large-scale faunistic surveys and long-term monitoring. The use of nest boxes is another widely applied and well-established method (Nowakowski and Godlewska, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Pilāts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Juškaitis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e, 2015; Juškaitis and Keturka, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this transnational study, we aimed to assess the reliability of nest boxes for detecting \u003cem\u003eD. n. intermedius\u003c/em\u003e, identify potential improvements to this methodology, and evaluate the effectiveness of additional detection methods, such as wildlife cameras (Di Cerbo and Biancardi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Resch and Blatt, 2017; Suzuki and Ando, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Mori et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Villing and Horst, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and tracking tubes (Haag and Tester, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mills et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, 2017; Melcore et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Bullion et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), as they had not yet been evaluated for the forest dormouse. Finally, the extent to which public relations work and Citizen Science projects can contribute to knowledge about the distribution of the species should be determined.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, we employed citizen science as an additional method to detect new occurrences of the rare dormouse. A better understanding of effective monitoring techniques will enable future research to focus on the species\u0026rsquo; population biology and habitat requirements. Ultimately, these insights will contribute to the development of targeted conservation measures for \u003cem\u003eD. n. intermedius\u003c/em\u003e in the Eastern Alps\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Study site","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur study took place in the Alpine region of Terra Raetica, the border triangle between Switzerland, Austria, and Italy. In Engiadina and Val M\u0026uuml;stair (CH), in \u0026Ouml;tztaler Alps (AT) and in the Venosta Valley (IT), two sample plots each were chosen for the survey (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). They were set up at locations with current (Switzerland and Italy) or historical evidence (Austria) of the forest dormouse. Details on the single sample plots are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMain characteristics of the 6 study sites in the Terra Raetica region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMunicipality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample plot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCode\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAltitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExposition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabitat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCH-Engiadina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValsot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaschvella\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,100-1,200 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiparian forest with \u003cem\u003eAlnus incana\u003c/em\u003e, forest with \u003cem\u003ePicea abies\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVal M\u0026uuml;stair\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSanta Maria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,380 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiparian forest with \u003cem\u003eAlnus incana\u003c/em\u003e, forest with \u003cem\u003eLarix decidua\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT-\u0026Ouml;tztaler Alps\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOetz\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePiburger Wald\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e900 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed forest, dominated by \u003cem\u003ePicea abies\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePfunds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWildmoos\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,600 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubalpine spruce forest with \u003cem\u003ePicea abies\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIT-Venosta Valley\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMartell\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZufrittboden\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZFB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,950 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubalpine mixed coniferous forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrad a. St.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStafflin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,750 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubalpine mixed coniferous forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Material and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eFor each sample plot, a total of 15 spots were established, the distance between the stations being 50 m. Fieldwork was conducted from September 2020 to October 2021, with five regular inspections of the sampling sites carried out starting from June 2021. The following methods were used during the study period:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Nest boxes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used wooden nest boxes (dimensions: 140 x 140 x 200 mm, entrance hole 30\u0026ndash;35 mm diameter) and wood-concrete nest boxes (model HMH \u0026ldquo;Hasselfeldt\u0026rdquo;, dimensions 250 x 180 x 290 mm, entrance gap 18 mm), both with the entrance hole on the trunk side to exclude birds. The nest boxes were placed at two different heights on the tree, between 1\u0026ndash;2 m (installation height a) and between 2\u0026ndash;4 m high (installation height b) and were mounted alternately from tree to tree at these two heights. This was intended to show the preference of the species for one of the two types of nest box and for one height. Animals from occupied nest boxes were measured and their sex and age determined by the guidelines of Gurnell and Flowerdew (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). If no forest dormouse was found, but a nest with faeces suspected of being a forest dormouse, the faeces were collected and genetically identified. Old nests from currently unoccupied nest boxes were removed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Wildlife cameras\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn 22 sites, different models of wildlife cameras, recording modes and baits were tested for their suitability for dormice monitoring. The devices were mounted on tree trunks on different heights. In some cases, they were orientated towards the nest boxes to get insight in the activity around the nest boxes and information about their efficiency. The properties and setting modes are listed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProperties of wildlife cameras used during the study on \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e in the Terra Raetica region. *Cameras with optimized focus were mounted on the sides of tree trunks using sturdy metal frames.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWildlife camera model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo. of sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRec. time [months]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExposure type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBait\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMounting heigth [cm]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecord mode\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvidence of \u003cem\u003eD. nitedula\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCuddeback X-Change Infrared*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfrared-LED\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emetal containers with airholes filled with nut-muesli bars crumbs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 photo, 10 sec time delay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eon 150 cm heigth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCuddeback X-Change Color*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite-light electronic flash\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003erags with walnut oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eon 150 cm heigth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBushnell Nature View HD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfrared-LED\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003erag with pumpkin seed oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 Photos\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eon 150 cm heigth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBushnell Nature View HD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfrared-LED\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epeanut butter, bird seeds, and mealworms in a flat, open container\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u0026ndash;500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 Photo, 10 sec video\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eon 150 cm heigth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoly Trail Camera SG562-D\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite-LED\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u0026ndash;450\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eon 300 cm height\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKeepGuard KG795\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite-LED\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u0026ndash;400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eno evidence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Tracking tubes:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt each spot a tracking tube consisting of polypropylene twin-wall sheets (dimensions 430 x 60 x 60 mm, including rain cover) was put on the tree, fitted with an oil-based ink mixture to capture the tracks of small mammals passing through (Haag and Tester \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The tracks on the sheets from the tracking tubes were determined according to Marchesi et al. (2008) and Haag (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Public relations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo raise awareness and encourage sighting reports, standardized research on the forest dormouse was complemented by public relations efforts from project partners (AT-\u0026Ouml;tztal Nature Park, CH-UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Engiadina Val M\u0026uuml;stair, IT-Stelvio National Park). Several activities such as educational programs and excursions took place. In the Citizen Science project \u0026ldquo;Wild neighbours\u0026rdquo; in Switzerland, including tracking tunnel construction in activities with children and families, 30 wooden tracking tunnels measuring 15 cm x 15 cm x 100 cm were used on 46 sites to look for small mammals. The tunnels were installed on a height of 100 cm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, the public was invited via press releases, Facebook and Instagram calls to report findings of dormice, particularly the forest dormouse.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn our research, the forest dormouse was detected in only three of the six study areas in the Terra Raetica region, in one study area per country (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). It could be detected using each of the methods applied. However, the detection success varied significantly: Of the 22 spots sampled using wildlife cameras, 26,1% recorded observations of the forest dormouse. In contrast, the other methods\u0026mdash;tracking tubes, wooden nest boxes, and wood-concrete nest boxes were less effective with a success rate of only 3,3% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Nest boxes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of seven records of the species were obtained using nest boxes, two records in AT-PBW and IT-STA, three in CH-STM (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). However, in one study site only nests with faeces were found, but no animal, so the presence of the forest dormouse in this site was confirmed genetically. Three of the seven detections were made in wooden nest boxes and three in wood-concrete nest boxes (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). With only one exception, all detections were associated with installation height b, meaning that nearly all occupied nest boxes were installed at heights exceeding 2 meters. At the beginning of July 2021, a female with four young was found in the only successful nest box with installation height a, i.e. in a wood-concrete nest box at a height of 120 cm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe forest dormouse nests found mostly consisted of moss, once the moss was mixed with needles of \u003cem\u003eLarix decidua\u003c/em\u003e and some leaves of \u003cem\u003eSalix caprea\u003c/em\u003e and in one case it consisted of pure lichens (\u003cem\u003eUsnea\u003c/em\u003e sp.). The material used for nest construction was present in the immediate vicinity of the nest site. In all seven nest boxes used by the forest dormouse in this study there was a great amount of faeces in a corner of the box.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of detections of all small mammal species in the six study areas of Terra Raetica based on the applied methods. In the wildlife cameras, only one detection per month and species was counted to avoid double counting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003especies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNest box\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTracking tube\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWildlife camera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ewood-concrete\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ewooden\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEliomys quercinus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMuscardinus avellanarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGlis glis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eApodemus\u003c/em\u003e sp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyodes glareolus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esmall mammal indet.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Wildlife cameras\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWildlife cameras provided positive seven detections of \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e in the same three study areas as the nest boxes, in AT-PBW, CH-STM, and IT-STA. A great part of these successful cameras was installed at a height of only 1.5 m (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast to the nest boxes, which were almost exclusively used at an installation height of over 2 m, the wildlife cameras regularly recorded the forest dormouse during its activity phases at a lower height.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe species was detected with both white light and infrared flashes (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). However, with two white light cameras, which took 1 photo and 10 sec film, it was noticeable that in 14 of 17 recordings only the photo could be taken, but no film of the animal. This was not the case with the camera with infrared light, where the animal stayed at the bait for the entire duration of the 10 sec film, after the photo was taken.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Tracking tubes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe tracking tubes showed traces of \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e only in two of the six study sites with a total of four observations (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Findings of other small mammal species\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the records of the forest dormouse, observations of other small mammal species were also made within the study areas of Terra Raetica. The methods used confirmed the presence of the three other dormouse species native to the study region, hazel dormouse \u003cem\u003eMuscardinus avellanarius\u003c/em\u003e, garden dormouse \u003cem\u003eEliomys quercinus\u003c/em\u003e and edible dormouse \u003cem\u003eGlis glis\u003c/em\u003e. Among the other arboreal small mammals, wood mice \u003cem\u003eApodemus\u003c/em\u003e sp. and the bank vole \u003cem\u003eMyodes glareolus\u003c/em\u003e were detected (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, most species were documented using wildlife cameras, followed by tracking tubes (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The edible dormouse was the only dormouse species that could not be detected in the wood-concrete boxes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.5 Public relations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the COVID-19 pandemic, the planned cross-border exchange regarding public relations between study regions was not possible. Nevertheless, through public relations efforts in the individual countries, a total of 13 records were obtained for the forest dormouse within and outside the Terra Raetica region (CH-Grisons, AT-North Tyrol, IT-South Tyrol) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 67 records of small mammals were made as part of the Citizen Science project \u0026ldquo;Wild neighbours\u0026rdquo; in Switzerland using the wooden tracking tunnels. 28 tunnels provided evidence of \u003cem\u003eGlis glis\u003c/em\u003e, 27 of \u003cem\u003eEliomys quercinus\u003c/em\u003e, eight of indeterminate small mammals and four of \u003cem\u003eMuscardinus avellanarius\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e was not found.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur transnational study showed that all three methods\u0026mdash;nest boxes, tracking tubes, and wildlife cameras\u0026mdash;are suitable for detecting the forest dormouse (\u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e), though each presents specific advantages and limitations that should be considered when planning and implementing surveys on this species:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Nest boxes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDetection success with nest boxes was relatively low, with only seven forest dormouse records out of 180 deployed boxes compared to 4\u0026minus;11 individuals in 63 wooden nest boxes in Juškaitis et al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). However, the fact that a female with young was already found in one of the wood-concrete boxes in the first year of the study indicates that the nest boxes may offer a valuable nesting site to the species. Juškaitis (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) showed, that suitable nesting sites, especially reproductive cavities, are a limiting factor for dormice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNest boxes remain valuable tools for obtaining ecological insights into activity patterns, diet, habitat preferences, population dynamics, and interspecific competition, as shown by Hecker and Bak\u0026oacute; (2003), Nowakowski and Godlewska (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) and Sevianu and Filipas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). In our study, both wood-concrete and wooden nest boxes yielded nearly identical detection success rates. While the small sample size does not allow for definitive conclusions, results suggest that installation height influences nest box occupancy, as six out of seven detections were recorded above 2 m. This could be due to reduced competition from other small mammal species, such as wood mice, which are less abundant at greater heights (Ladurner and Cazzolli \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e, Juškaitis and Keturka \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Compared to other tested methods, nest boxes - especially the heavier wood-concrete ones (~\u0026thinsp;5 kg) - require significant effort for transport and installation. Their use is not particularly efficient for general faunistic surveys but remains essential for long-term population studies of the forest dormouse. Multi-year studies are especially important for species with low population densities, as detection rates may increase over time as individuals become accustomed to artificial nest sites (Juškaitis \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirds and \u003cem\u003eGlis glis\u003c/em\u003e often use nest boxes but were absent from wood-concrete boxes in our study. The 18 mm rear entrance and lateral spacer likely limit their access. Testing at lower altitudes could confirm if such boxes help exclude \u003cem\u003eGlis glis\u003c/em\u003e in high-density areas, to keep the nest boxes free for surveys of other target species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Wildlife cameras\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study confirms the suitability of wildlife cameras for detecting arboreal small mammals, specifically \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e. While their effectiveness in small mammal research is well established (Di Cerbo and Biancardi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; M\u0026ouml;lle et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kleiven et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Hopkins et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Verhees et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), our findings support their extended applicability to this species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWildlife cameras provide continuous habitat monitoring year-round, requiring minimal maintenance, and offering cost-efficiency (De Bondi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; McCleery et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Porter and Dueser \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Verhees et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Their utility is particularly relevant for elusive species or those with low population densities (Stille et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Resch and Resch \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), making them a valuable tool for studying the forest dormouse.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough this study is too small to confirm or rule out avoidance behaviour, our results suggest that wildlife cameras equipped with a white-light electronic flash were successful. However, individuals exposed to white LED flashes often fled after the first exposure, limiting further observations. Motion video recordings would be beneficial for behavioural analyses. Given the ongoing debate about whether white-light flashes affect mammal detection rates (McCleery 2021; Glen 2013; Resch and Resch \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and since colour images are unnecessary for distinguishing dormouse species, infrared-LED cameras should be preferred for \u003cem\u003eD. nitedula\u003c/em\u003e studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on these findings, we recommend wildlife cameras as a key method for large-scale presence assessments of arboreal species like the forest dormouse. Effective baiting methods include rags or household sponges soaked in walnut oil and fruit juice placed in the camera's capture area as also demonstrated for \u003cem\u003eEliomys quercinus\u003c/em\u003e (Queckenstedt et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3 Tracking tubes in survey and tracking tunnels in Citizen Science\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the three detection methods, tracking tubes yielded the fewest detections per site. However, only 15 tracking tubes were deployed per study area. For greater detection success, the installation with 25 up to 50 tracking tubes per site would have been advisable (Haag and Tester \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Bullion 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe tracking tube method is very advantageous for less common but not rare species, not clumped distributed animals or animals with a narrow habitat spectrum as hedgehogs, as shown in many cities of Europe and Switzerland (Yarnell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The wooden tunnels in the Citizen Science project \u0026ldquo;Wild neighbours\u0026rdquo; were also able to provide a lot of additional evidence of the more common species \u003cem\u003eGlis glis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEliomys quercinus\u003c/em\u003e in the Terra Raetica. This confirms the effectiveness of the method for Citizen Science and its application for non-rare species. Rare species such as the forest dormouse are often discovered by chance during these campaigns. Our results emphasise how important such Citizen Science projects are as a supplement for research efforts, especially regarding distribution data of the species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite lower detection success for forest dormice, tracking tubes have clear advantages: they are inexpensive, lightweight, and easy to transport and install (Haag and Tester \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). A major advantage is their suitability for citizen science projects, as they can be deployed by volunteers, such as school classes, conservation groups and nature enthusiasts, while expert analysis is only required for the determination of the traces.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.4 Effectiveness of public relations in discovering new occurrences\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrough public outreach efforts, records of the forest dormouse have also been obtained outside the Terra Raetica region. The high number of photo-verified reports (13 confirmed records) demonstrates that media-based calls for sightings are an effective method for getting occurence data of the forest dormouse.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there are no financial or non-financial conflicts of interest directly or indirectly related to the submitted work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFunding Declaration: European Regional Development Fund and Interreg V-A Italy-Austria 2014\u0026ndash;2020, Interreg Mittelprojekt IM/VI \u0026bdquo;Bilche\u0026ldquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEva Ladurner, Stefan Resch, Regula Tester, Christine Resch contributed equally to this work.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe collection of data used in this publication was funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Interreg V-A Italy-Austria 2014-2020. Our special thanks got to the project partners \u0026Ouml;tztal Nature Park, UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Engiadina Val M\u0026uuml;stair and Stelvio National Park, and the team who gave us its support during the fieldwork. Additionally, we acknowledge Wilde Nachbarn for their contributions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBak\u0026oacute;, B, Hecker K (2006) Factors determining the distribution of coexisting dormouse species (Gliridae, Rodentia). Pol. J. Ecol. 54: 379-386.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBullion S, Burrough K, Chanin P, Langton S, Looser A (2021) Detecting hazel dormice \u003cem\u003eMuscardinus avellanarius\u003c/em\u003e with nest tubes and tracking tunnels: maximising the probability of success. Mammal Commun. 7: 38-46. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDe Bondi N, White JG, Stevens M, Cooke R (2010) A comparison of the effectiveness of camera trapping and live trapping for sampling terrestrial small-mammal communities. Wildl. Res. 37: 456-465.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDi Cerbo AR, Biancardi CM (2013) Monitoring small and arboreal mammals by camera traps: effectiveness and applications. Acta Theriol. 58: 279-283.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFedyń I, Figarski T, Kajtoch Ł (2021) Overview of the impact of forest habitats quality and landscape disturbances on the ecology and conservation of dormice species. Eur. J. For. Res. 140: 511-526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-021-01362-3.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGlen AS, Cockburn S, Nichols M, Ekanayake J, Warburton B (2013) Optimising camera traps for monitoring small mammals. PLoS ONE 8: e67940. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067940\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrimmberger E (2017) Die S\u0026auml;ugetiere Mitteleuropas. Quelle \u0026amp; Meyer, Wiebelsheim.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrimmberger E, Rudloff K (2009) Atlas der S\u0026auml;ugetiere Europas, Nordafrikas und Vorderasiens. 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Mammal Res. 64: 479-484. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTester R (2018) Der Baumschl\u0026auml;fer \u0026ndash; die unbekannte, seltene Schlafmaus. Fauna Fokus 41. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVerhees JJF, van der Putten TAW, van Hoof PH, Heijkers D, Lemmers P, Esser HJ, de Boer WF (2024) Comparing the effectiveness of short-focal camera trapping, live trapping, and soil eDNA for surveying small mammals: A case study on Eurasian water shrew (\u003cem\u003eNeomys fodiens\u003c/em\u003e). Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 70:13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-023-01760-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVilling N, Horst L (2021) Camera-trap assisted monitoring of presence and ecology of the hazel dormouse. Faunist.-\u0026Ouml;kol. Mitt. 10: 79-82.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYarnell R, Pacheco M, Williams B, Neumann J, Rymer D, Baker P (2014) Using occupancy analysis to validate the use of footprint tunnels as a method for monitoring the hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus. Mammal Review. 44:5. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mam.12026\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"european-journal-of-wildlife-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ejwr","sideBox":"Learn more about [European Journal of Wildlife Research](http://link.springer.com/journal/10344)","snPcode":"10344","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10344/3","title":"European Journal of Wildlife Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Nest box, wildlife camera, tracking tube, mounting height, citizen science","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6313824/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6313824/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe forest dormouse \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e Pallas, 1778 (Rodentia: Gliridae) is an arboreal and nocturnal small mammal species. This study assessed the effectiveness of different survey methods for detecting the elusive species at six study sites within the Alpine region of Terra Raetica (border area of Switzerland, Austria, and Italy), its western distribution limit. The aim was to establish a monitoring method for further studies on biology and habitat requirements of \u003cem\u003eDryomys nitedula\u003c/em\u003e. Methods compared included 90 wooden and 90 wood-concrete nest boxes, 45 tracking tubes, and 22 sites with wildlife cameras, each mounted at varying heights on trees. The forest dormouse was successfully detected using nest boxes, wildlife cameras and tracking tubes. Despite the higher effort required for transportation, installation, and maintenance, nest boxes showed high potential for ecological studies and long-term monitoring, especially when mounted above 2 meters. Wildlife cameras proved particularly suitable due to their low maintenance and long-term applicability, while tracking tubes offered advantages such as low cost and suitability for citizen science projects. In addition to fieldwork, public relations are a useful complement for discovering new occurrence points. Therefore, the study recommends combining multiple methods tailored to the specific research question and a minimum monitoring period of two years to achieve reliable results.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"In search of the forest dormouse Dryomys nitedula Pallas, 1778 (Mammalia: Gliridae) in the Eastern Alps: which method is best?","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-02 08:24:25","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6313824/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-05-27T11:38:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-27T11:24:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"289630820613854558913287338904947803674","date":"2025-04-29T11:53:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-28T19:52:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"339784324193471821981097903763559284513","date":"2025-04-28T17:28:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-28T07:03:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-04-28T06:25:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-04-28T02:15:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"European Journal of Wildlife Research","date":"2025-03-26T15:24:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"european-journal-of-wildlife-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ejwr","sideBox":"Learn more about [European Journal of Wildlife Research](http://link.springer.com/journal/10344)","snPcode":"10344","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10344/3","title":"European Journal of Wildlife Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d19bfdbf-fcf0-4c0c-9a35-defacd0c7fb9","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 2nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-26T16:54:27+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-02 08:24:25","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6313824","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6313824","identity":"rs-6313824","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}