Retention of CO2 gas in gas hydrates with promoters and its dissociation in temperature-controlled atmosphere

Retention of CO2 gas in gas hydrates with promoters and its dissociation in temperature-controlled atmosphere | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Retention of CO 2 gas in gas hydrates with promoters and its dissociation in temperature-controlled atmosphere Ann Mary Kollemparembil, Shubhangi Srivastava, Mohammad Mobarak, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3937600/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This investigation aims to elucidate the dissociation of CO 2 gas from gas hydrates (GH) over a 60-minute duration at varying temperatures, with the objective of understanding the entrapment of CO 2 gas within GH with the use of GH promoters. The study examines four food-grade amino acids possessing surfactant capabilities—cysteine, leucine, methionine, and valine—as well as lecithin, to discern their potential as food-grade GH promoters. Dissociation of GH from its promoters is investigated at temperatures of -18°C, 10°C, 20°C, and 23°C. 0.1% and 1% of the weight of the water utilized in the GH reactor is comprised of amino acids and lecithin respectively. The study explores the individual and combined effect of promoters, with a specific attention on leucine and methionine, identified as the most effective amino acid promoters. These two promoters exhibit synergistic effects when combined with lecithin. The CO 2 content within normal GH is found to be 9.7% and 15.6% when employing methionine, leucine, and lecithin. Analysis of the GH dissociation graph at different temperatures, considering various promoters, indicates that the use of efficient promoters in combination enhances gas containment. Notably, enhanced stability is observed at higher temperatures, such as 20°C, extending over a prolonged duration of 20 minutes. This increased stability may prove advantageous for CO 2 GH applications in the food industry. Gas Hydrate Gas Hydrate Promoter Amino Acids Surfactant Gas Hydrate Dissociation Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Introduction Gas hydrates (GH) are non-stoichiometric substances that resemble ice and are created by trapping gas (guest) molecules in hydrogen-bonded water molecules. They develop under circumstances of high pressure and low temperature, with host and guest molecules bonded through Van der Waals forces (Harrison, 2010 ). Guest molecules can exist in either gaseous or liquid states. Water molecules can form cavities (cages) that possess consistent pentagonal and hexagonal surfaces. The only factor preventing hydrate cages from collapsing under their own attractive forces is the presence of a guest molecule, which can be found either within the cage or in a substantial fraction of the cages surrounding it, given that these cages are larger than crystalline ice holes (Ma et al., 2016 ). Within the cavities of the water molecules, the guest molecule spins freely. Some typical guest molecules are methane, ethane, propane, carbon dioxide, natural gas, etc. A typical GH structure is composed of approximately 85% water molecules that are hydrogen-bonded to form cages that confine the guest molecules (Sloan et al., 2007). Due to the high water content of GH, its characteristics are akin to those of ice. However, hydrates and ice differ significantly in their mechanical and thermal characteristics. Since the rate of water diffusion in hydrates is less than that of ice, hydrate structures are more robust as ice structures. Also, GH doesn’t transfer heat as well as ice does and can hold more heat. Hydrate synthesis is dependent upon several main factors: reduced temperature, elevated pressure, the existence of guest molecules, and an adequate quantity of water molecules. Production occurs more through a physical process when compared to a chemical one.GH formation is a crystallization process that involves techniques for nucleation and growth crystal formation. GH nucleation is a minor phenomenon that involves only a few molecules (Khurana et al., 2017 ). This process is referred to as the production and expansion of hydrate nuclei to a crucial size for future growth. Ke et al. ( 2019 ) explained model of the labile cluster nucleation hypothesis is based on the notion that water clusters around dissolved gas molecules can develop to a critical radius. Nucleation is complete when a threshold size of cluster aggregation is attained, allowing hydrate growth to commence. To promote the development of GH, chemical and mechanical methods are commonly employed. The chemical strategy is employed to promote hydrate formation under milder conditions, boost the formation rate and gas absorption, and enhance hydrate selectivity, whilst the mechanical methods aim to increase the contact area and mass transfer between water and gas (Dashti et al., 2015 ). Two fundamental categories of GH chemical additives—inhibitors and promoters—are frequently used to modify the thermodynamic production of gas hydrates, depending on the application. They operate by the manipulation of the equilibrium boundary conditions of the hydrate phase, either by accelerating or delaying hydrate nucleation and crystal growth (Rossi et al., 2021). The chemical promoters for gas hydrates that are now available include thermodynamic hydrate promoters (THPs) and kinetic hydrate promoters (KHPs). The hydrate phase boundary conditions are modified to higher temperatures and lower pressures using THPs. During the hydrate formation process, KHPs are also employed to enhance gas/water absorption, hydrate induction time, and formation rate (Wang et al., 2020 ). For CO 2 collection and sequestration, THPs and KHPs are utilized (Park et al., 2013 ), as well as in storage and transit of gas (Song et al., 2014 ; Veluswamy et al., 2018 ). General THPs comprise tetrahydrofuran (THF) and acetone, whereas nanoparticles (Nashed et al., 2018 ), sodium dodecyl sulfate (Pan et al., 2018 ), and other surfactants are KHPs. The numerous additives are all synthetic compounds that are either required in extremely high quantities to be effective or are hazardous and constitute a safety risk. As a result, researchers are currently looking towards greener, biodegradable, and benign additives that might potentially replace old conventional promoters and traditional inhibitors that are both ecologically prohibitive and ineffective. As is known, amino acids are chemical substances that are commonly referred to as the building blocks (monomer units) of proteins and are an important part of the human diet. An amino acid is composed of a carboxyl (COOH) group, an amino (NH2) group, a hydrogen (H) atom, and a distinctive organic R group (or side chain). The presence of amine and carboxylic acid groups on the side chains of most amino acids imparts both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. The properties of this side chain dictate whether amino acids are classified as polar (hydrophilic) or nonpolar (hydrophobic) (Bhattacharjee et al., 2021). The side chain governs the chemical and physical properties of the molecule (Bavoh et al., 2017 ). Utilizing amino acids as growth promoters has the advantage of being biodegradable. In the past decade, amino acids have gained increased significance as additions in gas hydrate research. They can interact with water electrostatically. Most importantly, they are ecologically friendly, biodegradable, and water soluble, and they can be purchased in large quantities at a fair cost. An essential advantage of amino acids is their natural safety and biodegradability. Amino acids are also expected to be less costly than other synthetic compounds commonly employed as gas hydrate inhibitors or promoters (Bavoh et al., 2019 ; Sinehbaghizadeh et al., 2022 ). Potential applications of clathrate hydrate formation include the following: recovery of water from electrolyte solutions (desalination); storage of natural gas, hydrogen, and other substances in solid clathrate hydrates; recovery of water from aqueous organics (waste-water treatment and concentration of organic mixtures); gas separations; gas storage utilizing clathrate hydrates; and gas mixture separations utilizing clathrate hydrates (Englezos, 2022 ). Multiple dietary applications of GH have been documented in recent years. These CO 2 GH can replace existing technologies such as freeze-drying, reverse osmosis, and thermal evaporation for different food products if they are applied effectively (Srivastava et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, water readily dissolves the CO 2 gas, and the forces of contact between the CO 2 molecules and water are greater, increasing its prospects for production (Misyura and Donskoy, 2020 ). This study aims to comprehend the stability of CO 2 GH with promoters at various temperatures. Based on literature cysteine, leucine, methionine, and valine, along with lecithin, were investigated to assess the temperature stability and gas trapping of CO 2 GH at -18°C, 10°C, 20°C, and 23°C (ambient room temperature). These promoters are safe for human consumption, biodegradable, and eco-friendly. A thorough understanding of the CO 2 gas's stability at different temperatures is needed to calculate the amount of GH to be used in food processing, particularly as a leavening ingredient in the baking industry. The promoters are also employed in combination to improve the stability of GH in order to develop a candidate that could serve as a replacement for the existing leavening agent in the baking industry. Materials and methods 2.1 Production of gas hydrates 2.1.1 GH reactor and its arrangement GH production tests are conducted in a reactor with a total capacity of 1,500 mL that can resist pressures of up to 5,000 bar. Figure 1 illustrates the schematic representation of the reactor. It has two glass windows on either side of the reactor for seeing the reactor's inside, as well as a cooling jacket with a circulating water bath (IKA RC 2 Green basic model, IKA-Werke GmbH & Co. KG, Germany). The circulating coolant in the water bath maintains a temperature tolerance of 0.1°C. A digital thermometer positioned outside of the reactor is used to measure the temperature inside. The pressure regulator (WIKA type 111.10 model, ISO 5171, Landelfeld GmbH, Germany) with a pressure range of 0 to 60 bars controls the gas cylinder's pressure. Using a WIKA pressure manometer (WIKA, EN 837-1, pressure range 0–60 bars), the pressure within the reactor vessel was measured. A digital thermometer positioned outside of the reactor is used to measure the temperature inside. A perforated plate made of stainless steel and fastened to a frame is introduced into the reactor to facilitate the evacuation of GH from the internal cell. 2.1.2 Working of the GH reactor Generally, GH is created by adding 500 mL of cold, distilled water to the reactor. Carbon dioxide gas is released into the reactor via the bottom valve after the closure of the reactor lid. To run the system as a bubble column, the gas cylinder's output valve is slightly opened, and 37.5 bar of pressure is set on the manometer. To prevent freezing owing to an abrupt pressure differential, the optimal pressure level is approached gradually. After the reactor's interior pressure reaches its ideal range of 36–37 bars, the upper vent valve situated on the reactor's lid is left partly open to ensure a continuous flow of gas bubbles through the water. Therefore, the gas becomes more soluble in water. Three hours after the gas molecules have been dissolved at a low temperature (0–1°C), GH production commences with nucleation. Before each cycle of the experiment, the reactor cell is sanitized with water using a lab-scale aspiration pump (Bioengineering Peripex W1 Peristaltic Watson Marlow 314D Pump Head, Watson-Marlow Limited, Cornwall, United Kingdom) to prevent defects due to previous cycles of production. 2.2 Production of GH with promoters To manufacture GH using promoters, the same procedure as described previously is utilized. Water was combined with varied promoter concentrations and fed to the reactor for the same purpose. L-leucine, methionine, cysteine, valine, and lecithin were the five food-grade promoters investigated (Table 1 ). Each amino acid contains a unique organic side chain, as depicted in Fig. 2 . Individually or in combination, the effects of these five promoters were examined. The four amino acids were added at a concentration of 0.5 g (0.1% of water), and 5 g (1% of water) of lecithin was used regardless of whether they were used singly or in combination. Table 1 The chemical compounds used as the promoters for gas hydrates. Name of Compound Chemical Formula Molar Mass Lecithin C 35 H 66 NO 7 P 643.87 g/mol Leucine C 6 H 13 NO 2 131.17 g/mol Methionine C 5 H 11 NO 2 S 149.21 g/mol Cysteine C 3 H 7 NO 2 S 121.16 g/mol Valine C 5 H 11 NO 2 117.15 g/mol 2.3 Dissociation of GH at different temperatures and its measurement A one-hour investigation was conducted to measure the gas concentration in each batch and to find the most efficient promoter in terms of gas entrapment and stability by analyzing the dissociation of GH with promoters at different temperatures. The examined temperatures were − 18°C, 10°C, 20°C, and 23°C (room temperature). The manually crushed GH was placed in a square plastic weighing vessel and placed on the precision balance with a minimum readability of 0.01 g on the analytical balance (Sartorius Entris 224-1, Goettingen, Germany). The weight loss owing to dissociation is measured at 0 minutes, 2 minutes, 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, 20 minutes, 30 minutes, and 60 minutes for each of the four temperatures. The dissociation at -18°C was examined using a freezer that operates at that temperature. For temperatures other than room temperature, a fully automatic proofing cabinet (MIWE GV AS, MIWE Michael Wenz GmbH, Arnstein, Germany) with a temperature-regulating (-18 to + 35°C) facility was utilized. 2.4. Statistical analysis Each of the experiments was performed in triplicates. The statistical calculations, including mean and standard deviations, were performed in Excel 2019. The graphs were also drawn with the same software. In Excel 2019, the slope of a line is calculated using the SLOPE function. This function calculates the slope of a straight line that best fits the data points using the least squares method. Results 3.1. Dissociation of homogenous GH From Fig. 3 , it can be observed that the slope of the graph for temperature stability of normal gas hydrate shows that the stability of GH is highest at lower temperatures, like − 18°C. Similarly, the same stability is observed at higher temperatures, such as 10°C. On the other hand, disintegration by the escape of the gas is observed at temperatures of 20°C and 23°C. The minimum weight of GH was reached in 20 minutes of observation. Only a slight change in mass is seen beyond this point. The slope of the curve at the temperatures of 20°C and 23°C is also found to be the same. At temperatures above − 33.15°C and pressures above 0.1 MPa, GH can dissociate into gas and metastable liquid water. In this instance, water that wets the hydrate surface would form a continuous layer on the hydrate particles. This film is frozen to form an impenetrable protective ice crust, which prevents the hydrate from releasing gas (Manakov et al., 2017 ). Melnikov et al. ( 2012 ) postulated a consistent process for the creation of an impenetrable ice crust on the hydrate surface. As a result of this continuous film development, the GH does not dissolve at an atmospheric pressure of -18°C. This is true for GH with various promoters, both individually and in combination. The results in Table 2 prove this. However, dissociation occurs quickly at temperatures over the freezing point of water, such as 10, 20, and 23°C. Table 2 Change in the weight of gas hydrates containing various promoters and their combinations at different temperatures over a period of one hour. Promoters Time (min) -18°C 10°C 20°C 23°C Mass of GH (g) Normal GH 0 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 2 9.99 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 9.80 ± 0.01 9.84 ± 0.01 5 9.98 ± 0.01 10.00 ± 0.00 9.65 ± 0.00 9.73 ± 0.01 10 9.98 ± 0.01 9.99 ± 0.00 9.53 ± 0.01 9.52 ± 0.01 15 9.97 ± 0.00 9.98 ± 0.01 9.39 ± 0.00 9.29 ± 0.01 20 9.96 ± 0.00 9.97 ± 0.01 9.20 ± 0.00 9.16 ± 0.00 30 9.95 ± 0.00 9.94 ± 0.03 9.13 ± 0.01 9.12 ± 0.01 60 9.93 ± 0.01 9.90 ± 0.04 9.03 ± 0.01 9.01 ± 0.01 Lecithin 0 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 2 9.99 ± 0.01 10.00 ± 0.04 9.93 ± 0.07 9.96 ± 0.05 5 9.95 ± 0.03 9.97 ± 0.05 9.88 ± 0.15 9.93 ± 0.11 10 9.95 ± 0.02 9.95 ± 0.05 9.93 ± 0.17 9.91 ± 0.17 15 9.93 ± 0.04 9.94 ± 0.04 9.90 ± 0.16 9.90 ± 0.15 20 9.93 ± 0.04 9.95 ± 0.05 9.91 ± 0.16 9.90 ± 0.15 30 9.92 ± 0.03 9.94 ± 0.05 9.89 ± 0.14 9.88 ± 0.15 60 9.93 ± 0.00 9.82 ± 0.08 9.78 ± 0.15 9.82 ± 0.15 Cysteine 0 10.00 ± 0.0 10.00 ± 0.0 10.00 ± 0.0 10.00 ± 0.0 2 9.99 ± 0.00 10.01 ± 0.01 9.99 ± 0.01 10.00 ± 0.02 5 9.99 ± 0.00 10.01 ± 0.01 9.99 ± 0.01 9.99 ± 0.00 10 9.98 ± 0.01 9.99 ± 0.03 10.03 ± 0.02 10.00 ± 0.01 15 9.98 ± 0.00 9.97 ± 0.03 9.99 ± 0.03 9.99 ± 0.01 20 9.97 ± 0.01 9.98 ± 0.02 9.99 ± 0.04 9.98 ± 0.00 30 9.97 ± 0.01 9.97 ± 0.02 9.98 ± 0.00 9.95 ± 0.01 60 9.97 ± 0.01 9.94 ± 0.03 9.96 ± 0.11 9.80 ± 0.04 Leucine 0 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 2 9.99 ± 0.01 9.90 ± 0.07 9.87 ± 0.04 9.93 ± 0.07 5 9.97 ± 0.02 9.80 ± 0.08 9.75 ± 0.16 9.86 ± 0.16 10 9.95 ± 0.02 9.71 ± 0.24 9.62 ± 0.34 9.68 ± 0.37 15 9.95 ± 0.03 9.57 ± 0.41 9.56 ± 0.42 9.58 ± 0.49 20 9.94 ± 0.04 9.53 ± 0.44 9.59 ± 0.40 9.51 ± 0.56 30 9.93 ± 0.04 9.48 ± 0.51 9.59 ± 0.39 9.48 ± 0.59 60 9.95 ± 0.01 9.44 ± 0.50 9.48 ± 0.41 9.39 ± 0.56 Methionine 0 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 2 10.00 ± 0.01 9.84 ± 0.18 9.80 ± 0.08 9.76 ± 0.13 5 9.99 ± 0.00 9.64 ± 0.28 9.53 ± 0.22 9.55 ± 0.26 10 9.99 ± 0.01 9.42 ± 0.40 9.34 ± 0.39 9.49 ± 0.32 15 9.98 ± 0.01 9.28 ± 0.53 9.34 ± 0.41 9.46 ± 0.37 20 9.99 ± 0.01 9.24 ± 0.61 9.35 ± 0.41 9.48 ± 0.37 30 9.98 ± 0.02 9.22 ± 0.68 9.34 ± 0.40 9.46 ± 0.38 60 9.98 ± 0.02 9.17 ± 0.66 9.24 ± 0.42 9.30 ± 0.43 Valine 0 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 10.00 ± 0.00 2 9.98 ± 0.01 9.96 ± 0.02 9.92 ± 0.07 9.96 ± 0.05 5 9.96 ± 0.03 9.96 ± 0.04 9.86 ± 0.14 9.91 ± 0.10 10 9.96 ± 0.03 9.95 ± 0.05 9.86 ± 0.13 9.87 ± 0.14 15 9.95 ± 0.04 9.96 ± 0.06 9.87 ± 0.13 9.85 ± 0.12 20 9.95 ± 0.04 9.97 ± 0.06 9.87 ± 0.13 9.84 ± 0.12 30 9.95 ± 0.04 9.97 ± 0.07 9.84 ± 0.11 9.81 ± 0.09 60 9.96 ± 0.03 9.94 ± 0.10 9.76 ± 0.11 9.74 ± 0.12 Leucine + Lecithin 0 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 2 9.99 ± 0.01 9.80 ± 0.04 9.80 ± 0.01 9.84 ± 0.04 5 9.98 ± 0.01 9.82 ± 0.08 9.65 ± 0.05 9.73 ± 0.06 10 9.98 ± 0.01 9.58 ± 0.04 9.53 ± 0.05 9.52 ± 0.21 15 9.96 ± 0.01 9.37 ± 0.08 9.39 ± 0.08 9.29 ± 0.15 20 9.95 ± 0.01 9.16 ± 0.04 9.20 ± 0.06 9.16 ± 0.18 30 9.95 ± 0.01 8.98 ± 0.05 9.13 ± 0.09 9.12 ± 0.16 60 9.93 ± 0.02 8.84 ± 0.07 9.03 ± 0.11 9.01 ± 0.15 Methionine + Lecithin 0 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 2 10 ± 0.00 9.94 ± 0.03 9.80 ± 0.09 9.79 ± 0.20 5 10 ± 0.00 9.69 ± 0.14 9.57 ± 0.19 9.63 ± 0.30 10 10 ± 0.00 9.43 ± 0.21 9.17 ± 0.39 9.43 ± 0.51 15 10 ± 0.00 9.25 ± 0.25 8.95 ± 0.53 9.31 ± 0.64 20 10 ± 0.00 9.11 ± 0.38 8.91 ± 0.55 9.28 ± 0.67 30 10 ± 0.00 9.04 ± 0.46 8.89 ± 0.56 9.26 ± 0.66 60 9.99 ± 0.01 9.04 ± 0.46 8.85 ± 0.54 9.23 ± 0.67 Methionine + Leucine 0 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 2 9.98 ± 0.03 9.77 ± 0.18 9.66 ± 0.04 9.71 ± 0.17 5 9.95 ± 0.07 9.62 ± 0.27 9.13 ± 0.21 9.28 ± 0.46 10 9.94 ± 0.07 9.42 ± 0.45 8.76 ± 0.30 9.04 ± 0.56 15 9.94 ± 0.07 9.33 ± 0.56 8.58 ± 0.42 8.96 ± 0.59 20 9.94 ± 0.07 9.28 ± 0.61 8.58 ± 0.42 8.97 ± 0.58 30 9.94 ± 0.07 9.26 ± 0.63 8.56 ± 0.45 8.94 ± 0.59 60 9.93 ± 0.07 9.20 ± 0.63 8.47 ± 0.40 8.84 ± 0.65 Methionine + Leucine + Lecithin 0 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 2 9.99 ± 0.01 9.88 ± 0.08 9.83 ± 0.07 9.86 ± 0.16 5 9.97 ± 0.01 9.64 ± 0.25 9.55 ± 0.24 9.65 ± 0.35 10 9.97 ± 0.01 9.07 ± 0.66 9.12 ± 0.56 9.45 ± 0.60 15 9.96 ± 0.01 8.45 ± 1.11 8.81 ± 0.81 9.24 ± 0.87 20 9.95 ± 0.01 8.32 ± 1.20 8.59 ± 0.95 9.20 ± 0.91 30 9.95 ± 0.01 8.29 ± 1.23 8.46 ± 1.05 9.18 ± 0.93 60 9.94 ± 0.01 8.29 ± 1.23 8.44 ± 1.02 9.05 ± 0.88 The rate at which decomposition occurs at a temperature is most likely influenced by the solubility of CO 2 in liquid water. Consequently, CO 2 hydrates show better preservation below 0°C. Temperature and pressure precipitate an opposite trend in the dissociation rates, as expected. For CO 2 GH, the best preservation is reached at -3°C at any pressure (Giavarini et al., 2007 ). Hydrate stability under isochoric settings is lower than under isobaric conditions, according to decomposition studies of CO 2 at -93.15–6.85°C and 0.1–10 MPa (Sizova et al., 2020 ). The lower the ambient temperature, the longer the dissociation time (Frühling et al., 2023 ). The temperature range for CO 2 GH stability is, however, limited because of the slower flow of CO 2 gas through hydrate. This is because CO 2 can only travel through the hydrate through neighbouring large spaces without breaking additional hydrogen bonds (Kvamme, 2021 ). As a result, the use of promoters to improve GH performance is becoming more prevalent. GH promoters are chemicals that increase the formation of hydrates. Their properties are either thermodynamic or kinetic. Such additives are essential for the application of GH-based technologies. 3.2. Dissociation of gas hydrates with amino acids as promoters From Fig. 4 , the effect of the amino acid cysteine as a GH promoter is understood. It is clear that the gas with holding capacity of this particular GH is low. The nominal change in the mass of the GH observed over time is a direct indication of the low gas percentage. A very little loss of mass is seen in gas hydrates kept at 20°C and 23°C. This proves the inefficiency of cysteine as a promoter. It is evident from Table 3 that cysteine has the shortest side chain. The relationship between the amount of gas entrapped and its eventual release at various temperatures and the length of the side chain of amino acids is likewise consistent. Table 3 Distances between the α-Carbon and the most distant atom except hydrogen in the side chain Amino Acid Length of side chain (Å) Cysteine 2.817 ± 0.070 Leucine 3.799 ± 0.358 Methionine 4.541 ± 0.916 Valine 2.524 ± 0.046 Leucine alone shows its effect as a promoter of gas hydrate formation. In Fig. 5 , it is shown that GH contains more gas than the previous graphs. From this graph, it is clear that the higher the temperature, the faster the gas releases. When comparing Fig. 5 to Fig. 6 , it can be seen that GH with methionine as a promoter contains more CO 2 . However, the gas disintegration at 10°C is found to be faster than at the other higher temperatures. From Fig. 7 , the specific effect of valine on promoting gas entrapment in GH is found to be limited. The investigation at lower and higher temperatures shows the limited amount of CO 2 in the GH structure. Figures 5 and 6 illustrate the high gas entrapment in GH with leucine and methionine as promoters. It is evident from Figs. 5 and 6 that an even lower concentration (0.1 wt%) of leucine and methionine promotes the formation of CO 2 hydrate. It is clearly understandable from Table 2 that the gas content of GH varies with the addition of different promoters. Based on the studies and graph observations (Fig. 4 – 7 ), it is apparent that the efficiency of the promoters in descending order is as follows: valine > cysteine > leucine > methionine. Numerous investigations have demonstrated that amino acids potentially serve as GH promoters. The significance of amino acid side chain properties in hydrate formation has been emphasized by Veluswamy et al. ( 2017 ), who found that aromatic amino acids are more effective at promoting hydrate formation than aliphatic amino acids. Hydrophobic and aromatic side chains may promote hydrate formation (Nasir et al., 2020 ). The authors of the study, Liu et al. ( 2015 ), hypothesize that the observed enhanced effect of the specific amino acid hydrate is due to its surface activity and capillary adsorption characteristics. Comparable in surface action to conventional surfactants are amino acids that promote hydrate formation. It is possible that surfactants and hydrophobic amino acids might have a similar impact on GH formation, i.e., operate as KHPs by decreasing the hydrate nucleation time and/or speeding the hydrate growth rate. (Bhattacharjee et al., 2021). Biosurfactants increase GH development by reducing the induction time of GH production, enhancing the formation rate of GH, and solubilizing guest gases in the same manner as amino acids. (Arora et al., 2014). Furthermore, the conformation of the side chain of an amino acid is dependent upon its polarity, charge, and structure. They are thus amphiphilic compounds that possess surfactant characteristics (Tripathy et al., 2018 ). This surfactant feature enables amino acids to inhibit or disrupt the development and aggregation of hydrate nucleus crystal films at the gas/liquid interface. Due to this, a greater quantity of gas can dissolve in the liquid phase, resulting in a significant absorption of hydrate gas. Their hydrate-promoting effect can be attributed to the extremely porous and flexible structure of the hydrates generated in amino acid solutions (Veluswamy et al., 2016 ). In addition, Cai et al. ( 2017 ) demonstrated that methionine, a natural amino acid, is a kinetic CO 2 hydrate promoter. The gas-liquid interface's surface adsorption capacity is enhanced by the existence of porous and flexible hydrates. This enables the suction of additional liquids to the gas/liquid interface via improved capillary action, resulting in significant gas absorption during hydrate formation. This study also explored the effect of the natural amino acid L-methionine on the formation of CO 2 hydrates. According to the experts, the amphiphilic character of L-methionine is what promotes the formation of CO 2 hydrates. This characteristic of the molecule enables it to function as a dispersion and prevents hydrate particles from sticking and creating a film at the gas-liquid interface. The authors report that the incorporation of this amino acid at a very low concentration (0.2 wt. %) significantly accelerated the formation of CO 2 hydrate. Veluswamy et al. published in 2016 their findings about the shape of L-leucine-accelerated hydrate generation, and the second theory still fits with those results. According to research by Bavoh et al. ( 2019 ), leucine can convert around 95% of water into hydrates. Leucine comprises hydrophilic amine and carboxylic acid groups as well as a hydrophobic aliphatic isobutyl side chain. CO 2 moves through hydration more slowly on average. The cause is that CO 2 can only use nearby big voids to get through the hydrate without significantly additional hydrogen bonds being broken (Kvamme et al., 2021). Occupancy of the cage by the promoter in the structure restricts the hydrate's capacity to hold gas (Li et al., 2022 ). Therefore, raising the promoter concentration won't lead to an increase in GH gas containment. Through the reduction of interfacial tension, promoters can enhance the mass transfer that takes place at the interface of a gas and a liquid. Importantly, the interaction between amino acids and CO 2 molecules affects whether or not amino acids are promoted or inhibited in CO 2 systems. An initial reaction between CO 2 and amine results in intermediate zwitterions. The zwitterion then combines with alkaline compounds to create carbamates, or salts of amino acids (Zhang et al., 2018 ). These lower temperatures produce carbamates, which dissociate at higher temperatures to produce amino acids and CO 2 gas (Majchrowicz, 2014 ). Nevertheless, not all amino acids influence GH in the same way. According to the findings of Cai et al. ( 2017 ), the side chain length of amino acids was responsible for the faster hydrate kinetics observed in carbon dioxide hydrate formation tests. Leucine and methionine were discovered to have the optimal side chain lengths for enhancing the development of carbon dioxide hydrates while reducing the absorption of methane (Inkong et al., 2022 ). Because they are more soluble in water than other amino acids, shorter-chain amino acids demonstrated greater inhibitory efficacy at the same dose. Their inhibitory effects result from the hydrogen bonds formed between these amino acids and water molecules, which stop water's ability to create GH. Also the molecular weight of an amino acid are correlated to its side chain length and properties. In general, amino acids with smaller molecular masses have shorter chains and greater hydrophilic properties, resulting in stronger hydrogen bonding interactions with water and more pronounced hydrate formation inhibition (Li et al., 2022 ). However, increasing the percentage of amino acids in GH did not show any effect in increasing the gas withholding capacity of GH (Srivastava et al., 2022 ). 3.3. Dissociation of gas hydrates with lecithin as promoter From Table 2 , the individual effect of lecithin on promoting gas confinement in GH is found to be limited. The investigation at lower and higher temperatures shows the limited amount of CO 2 in the GH structure. Figure 8 demonstrates that the amount of gas trapped in GH with lecithin as a promoter is minimal. This is evident from the limited change in mass explained by the non-existence of a slope in the graph over a period of time. Lecithin has a limited effect as a promoter, as seen by the insignificant difference in weight between temperatures. Wang et al. ( 2021 ) discovered that lecithin's inhibitory effect on hydrate disintegration was primarily due to its surface adsorption. Lecithin is composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and choline. The active components of lecithin are both hydrophilic and lipophilic. Consequently, it is an outstanding emulsifier and surfactant. The aliphatic oxygen atoms of lecithin establish hydrogen bonds with the hydrate water molecules, whereas the hydroxyl groups (phosphate and choline) form hydrogen bonds with the liquid water. A net structure is created because of these hydrogen bonds. Thus, the lecithin molecules are adsorbed onto the hydrate structure, lowering the dissociation rate. Hence the effect of lecithin on CO 2 GH is modest. However, Gaikwad (2020) utilized lecithin as a hydrate promoter. They determined that the stimulating effect of lecithin is due to its porous hydrate structure, which stimulates the production of hydrates by increasing gas-to-water contact. And according to the results of Gautam (2022), the inhibitory effect of lecithin depends on its concentration. Lecithin cannot be considered an inhibitor since its impact on CO 2 GH is inadequate. 3.4. Combined effect of amino acids and lecithin on the stability of gas hydrates The combined effect of the amino acid leucine with lecithin shows a higher amount of gas in GH. Furthermore, from the graph (Fig. 9 ), it is understood that the GH is showing more stability without complete disintegration for a much longer time when compared to the normal GH. Similarly, Fig. 10 shows a comparable result to that of the previous one. The combined effect of methionine and lecithin helps in the formation of stable GH. The combination of promoters also increases the gas uptake by GH. A similar result on increased gas uptake by GH by the usage of a combination of amino acids and lecithin can be observed in the study conducted by Srivastava et al., in 2022. However, due to the high temperature to which the GH is subjected to in those experiments said in the above mentioned study, the majority of gas disintegration occurs in the first few minutes. As illustrated in Fig. 11 , the amino acids methionine and leucine, which have the greatest stimulatory effect on CO 2 GH, when combined produced GH with a greater gas concentration and greater temperature stability than in previous experiments. and methionine (0.1 wt.%) were individually combined with lecithin (1 wt.%) for the creation of hydrates, and the result demonstrated enhanced stability over an extended period of time. As a final test, the same amounts of leucine, methionine, and lecithin were combined to provide the best GH in terms of temperature stability and gas containment. The enhanced kinetics of this hydrate with the three promoters are depicted in Fig. 12 . Furthermore, it is evident that this GH takes a longer time to completely release the gas when compared to the GH with no promoters. The higher amount of gas in the GH provides stability at higher handling temperatures, which aids in the industrial application of the GH. Conclusion One of the challenges that this research tries to solve is the instability of GH under normal temperatures, which is a challenge in using it for industrial purposes. The main benefit of using CO 2 GH in the food industry is that it has a green label and is food-grade. Thus, it is advantageous to use it as an additive or to replace an existing food ingredient. The GH promoters used in this study are food-grade amino acids, which were found to serve their purpose of enhancing the temperature stability and gas-withholding capacity of GH. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the gas dissociation from GH may be described as a function of the environment's temperature and exposure time to that temperature. Significant differences in hydrate formation occur when amino acids are present compared to pure water. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the hydrate generated from amino acids and lecithin exhibits a profusion of pores and capillary channels, in contrast to the dense hydration produced from pure water. The porous design of hydrates allows additional liquid to be pulled through these pores, increasing the contact between the liquid and gas phases. The data indicates that leucine and methionine are the amino acid promoters responsible for producing CO 2 GH with enhanced properties. The addition of lecithin, valine, and cysteine to GH had no appreciable influence on the gas-holding capacity of GH or its temperature stability. Combining lecithin with leucine and methionine for GH synthesis produced the most effective CO 2 GH with a high gas concentration and greater temperature stability. Therefore, GH with food-grade promoters may be exploited in many food industry procedures with the help of a combination of promoters. Declarations Conflict of interest - Disclose any potential conflict of interest appropriately. The authors declare no conflict of interest. Acknowledgements This IGF project of the FEI is supported by AiF (AiF 21084 N) within the programme for promoting the Industrial Collective Research (IGF) of the German Ministry of Economics and Energy (BMWi), bases on a resolution of the German Parliament for which the authors are grateful. Expressing thanks to other colleagues of the Institute of process analytics and cereal science of the university of Hohenheim for their help and guidance. Thanks to the faculty of Erlangen University for providing us with the reactor and helping its framework and setup. Compliance with Ethical Standards This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. Data Availability Statement The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. All data and materials associated with this work are appropriately documented in the manuscript. Funding This IGF project of the FEI is supported by AiF (AiF 21084 N) within the programme for promoting the Industrial Collective Research (IGF) of the German Ministry of Economics and Energy (BMWi), bases on a resolution of the German Parliament for which the authors are grateful. Ethical Approval Not applicable Author Contributions The primary conceptualization of the project was led by Ann Mary Kollemparembil and Bernd Hitzmann. Ann Mary Kollemparembil, Shubhangi Srivastava, and Viktoria Zettel framed the methodology. Ann Mary Kollemparembil handled the software development and data curation for the manuscript, while validation was performed by Ann Mary Kollemparembil, Viktoria Zettel, and Bernd Hitzmann. Formal analysis was conducted by Ann Mary Kollemparembil and Mohammad Mobarak, while investigation tasks were carried out by Ann Mary Kollemparembil and Shubhangi Srivastava. Bernd Hitzmann, Antonio Delgado, and Bernhard Gatternig managed the necessary resources for the study. Original draft preparation was undertaken by Ann Mary Kollemparembil, Viktoria Zettel, and Bernd Hitzmann, who also participated in the review, editing, and visualization. Supervision of the work was provided by Bernd Hitzmann and Mario Jekle. Project administration was overseen by Bernd Hitzmann, and the funding acquisition was facilitated by Bernd Hitzmann and Antonio Delgado. References Arora, A., & Singh Cameotra, S. (2014). 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3937600","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":272387068,"identity":"9b13298e-fc24-4284-a420-3f5306f637ec","order_by":0,"name":"Ann Mary 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°C.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3937600/v1/1fde69048cb45db2081f4b66.png"},{"id":51085563,"identity":"7b8fc650-dc60-43ce-b80c-d7aadc6057e2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-13 19:54:40","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44444,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTemperature stability of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH with leucine and lecithin as promoters at -18 °C, 10 °C, 20 °C and 23 °C.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3937600/v1/bfb2efad10fb00db50abb86e.png"},{"id":51085568,"identity":"1e2ed156-9037-42ae-b11e-fe10cf160201","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-13 19:54:40","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44107,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTemperature stability of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH with methionine and lecithin as promoters at -18 °C, 10 °C, 20 °C and 23 °C.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3937600/v1/0bd09df156af74d32f63d951.png"},{"id":51085571,"identity":"92da5f4e-a2f3-4538-b9de-4b4667494daa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-13 19:54:40","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":45044,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTemperature stability of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH with methionine and leucine as promoters at -18 °C, 10 °C, 20 °C and 23 °C.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3937600/v1/c1c3339a0068b73e45b48eca.png"},{"id":51085569,"identity":"c1a72809-83fc-4cb8-8752-c8d4aef11d54","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-13 19:54:40","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":45193,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTemperature stability of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH with methionine, leucine and lecithin as promoters at -18 °C, 10 °C, 20 °C and 23 °C.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3937600/v1/704052b894c5a646ed5bec7b.png"},{"id":64199579,"identity":"4f015d78-ddba-44e3-a48f-3bddb508db80","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-10 01:19:31","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1278143,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3937600/v1/6051988f-ebab-49b8-8821-53e8292036ac.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eRetention of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e gas in gas hydrates with promoters and its dissociation in temperature-controlled atmosphere\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGas hydrates (GH) are non-stoichiometric substances that resemble ice and are created by trapping gas (guest) molecules in hydrogen-bonded water molecules. They develop under circumstances of high pressure and low temperature, with host and guest molecules bonded through Van der Waals forces (Harrison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Guest molecules can exist in either gaseous or liquid states. Water molecules can form cavities (cages) that possess consistent pentagonal and hexagonal surfaces. The only factor preventing hydrate cages from collapsing under their own attractive forces is the presence of a guest molecule, which can be found either within the cage or in a substantial fraction of the cages surrounding it, given that these cages are larger than crystalline ice holes (Ma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Within the cavities of the water molecules, the guest molecule spins freely. Some typical guest molecules are methane, ethane, propane, carbon dioxide, natural gas, etc. A typical GH structure is composed of approximately 85% water molecules that are hydrogen-bonded to form cages that confine the guest molecules (Sloan et al., 2007). Due to the high water content of GH, its characteristics are akin to those of ice. However, hydrates and ice differ significantly in their mechanical and thermal characteristics. Since the rate of water diffusion in hydrates is less than that of ice, hydrate structures are more robust as ice structures. Also, GH doesn\u0026rsquo;t transfer heat as well as ice does and can hold more heat.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHydrate synthesis is dependent upon several main factors: reduced temperature, elevated pressure, the existence of guest molecules, and an adequate quantity of water molecules. Production occurs more through a physical process when compared to a chemical one.GH formation is a crystallization process that involves techniques for nucleation and growth crystal formation. GH nucleation is a minor phenomenon that involves only a few molecules (Khurana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This process is referred to as the production and expansion of hydrate nuclei to a crucial size for future growth. Ke et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) explained model of the labile cluster nucleation hypothesis is based on the notion that water clusters around dissolved gas molecules can develop to a critical radius. Nucleation is complete when a threshold size of cluster aggregation is attained, allowing hydrate growth to commence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo promote the development of GH, chemical and mechanical methods are commonly employed. The chemical strategy is employed to promote hydrate formation under milder conditions, boost the formation rate and gas absorption, and enhance hydrate selectivity, whilst the mechanical methods aim to increase the contact area and mass transfer between water and gas (Dashti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Two fundamental categories of GH chemical additives\u0026mdash;inhibitors and promoters\u0026mdash;are frequently used to modify the thermodynamic production of gas hydrates, depending on the application. They operate by the manipulation of the equilibrium boundary conditions of the hydrate phase, either by accelerating or delaying hydrate nucleation and crystal growth (Rossi et al., 2021). The chemical promoters for gas hydrates that are now available include thermodynamic hydrate promoters (THPs) and kinetic hydrate promoters (KHPs). The hydrate phase boundary conditions are modified to higher temperatures and lower pressures using THPs. During the hydrate formation process, KHPs are also employed to enhance gas/water absorption, hydrate induction time, and formation rate (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e collection and sequestration, THPs and KHPs are utilized (Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), as well as in storage and transit of gas (Song et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Veluswamy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). General THPs comprise tetrahydrofuran (THF) and acetone, whereas nanoparticles (Nashed et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), sodium dodecyl sulfate (Pan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and other surfactants are KHPs. The numerous additives are all synthetic compounds that are either required in extremely high quantities to be effective or are hazardous and constitute a safety risk. As a result, researchers are currently looking towards greener, biodegradable, and benign additives that might potentially replace old conventional promoters and traditional inhibitors that are both ecologically prohibitive and ineffective.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs is known, amino acids are chemical substances that are commonly referred to as the building blocks (monomer units) of proteins and are an important part of the human diet. An amino acid is composed of a carboxyl (COOH) group, an amino (NH2) group, a hydrogen (H) atom, and a distinctive organic R group (or side chain). The presence of amine and carboxylic acid groups on the side chains of most amino acids imparts both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. The properties of this side chain dictate whether amino acids are classified as polar (hydrophilic) or nonpolar (hydrophobic) (Bhattacharjee et al., 2021). The side chain governs the chemical and physical properties of the molecule (Bavoh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Utilizing amino acids as growth promoters has the advantage of being biodegradable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the past decade, amino acids have gained increased significance as additions in gas hydrate research. They can interact with water electrostatically. Most importantly, they are ecologically friendly, biodegradable, and water soluble, and they can be purchased in large quantities at a fair cost. An essential advantage of amino acids is their natural safety and biodegradability. Amino acids are also expected to be less costly than other synthetic compounds commonly employed as gas hydrate inhibitors or promoters (Bavoh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Sinehbaghizadeh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotential applications of clathrate hydrate formation include the following: recovery of water from electrolyte solutions (desalination); storage of natural gas, hydrogen, and other substances in solid clathrate hydrates; recovery of water from aqueous organics (waste-water treatment and concentration of organic mixtures); gas separations; gas storage utilizing clathrate hydrates; and gas mixture separations utilizing clathrate hydrates (Englezos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Multiple dietary applications of GH have been documented in recent years. These CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH can replace existing technologies such as freeze-drying, reverse osmosis, and thermal evaporation for different food products if they are applied effectively (Srivastava et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, water readily dissolves the CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e gas, and the forces of contact between the CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e molecules and water are greater, increasing its prospects for production (Misyura and Donskoy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to comprehend the stability of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH with promoters at various temperatures. Based on literature cysteine, leucine, methionine, and valine, along with lecithin, were investigated to assess the temperature stability and gas trapping of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH at -18\u0026deg;C, 10\u0026deg;C, 20\u0026deg;C, and 23\u0026deg;C (ambient room temperature). These promoters are safe for human consumption, biodegradable, and eco-friendly. A thorough understanding of the CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e gas's stability at different temperatures is needed to calculate the amount of GH to be used in food processing, particularly as a leavening ingredient in the baking industry. The promoters are also employed in combination to improve the stability of GH in order to develop a candidate that could serve as a replacement for the existing leavening agent in the baking industry.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Production of gas hydrates\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.1 GH reactor and its arrangement\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGH production tests are conducted in a reactor with a total capacity of 1,500 mL that can resist pressures of up to 5,000 bar. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the schematic representation of the reactor. It has two glass windows on either side of the reactor for seeing the reactor\u0026apos;s inside, as well as a cooling jacket with a circulating water bath (IKA RC 2 Green basic model, IKA-Werke GmbH \u0026amp; Co. KG, Germany). The circulating coolant in the water bath maintains a temperature tolerance of 0.1\u0026deg;C. A digital thermometer positioned outside of the reactor is used to measure the temperature inside. The pressure regulator (WIKA type 111.10 model, ISO 5171, Landelfeld GmbH, Germany) with a pressure range of 0 to 60 bars controls the gas cylinder\u0026apos;s pressure. Using a WIKA pressure manometer (WIKA, EN 837-1, pressure range 0\u0026ndash;60 bars), the pressure within the reactor vessel was measured. A digital thermometer positioned outside of the reactor is used to measure the temperature inside. A perforated plate made of stainless steel and fastened to a frame is introduced into the reactor to facilitate the evacuation of GH from the internal cell.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.2 Working of the GH reactor\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGenerally, GH is created by adding 500 mL of cold, distilled water to the reactor. Carbon dioxide gas is released into the reactor via the bottom valve after the closure of the reactor lid. To run the system as a bubble column, the gas cylinder\u0026apos;s output valve is slightly opened, and 37.5 bar of pressure is set on the manometer. To prevent freezing owing to an abrupt pressure differential, the optimal pressure level is approached gradually. After the reactor\u0026apos;s interior pressure reaches its ideal range of 36\u0026ndash;37 bars, the upper vent valve situated on the reactor\u0026apos;s lid is left partly open to ensure a continuous flow of gas bubbles through the water. Therefore, the gas becomes more soluble in water. Three hours after the gas molecules have been dissolved at a low temperature (0\u0026ndash;1\u0026deg;C), GH production commences with nucleation. Before each cycle of the experiment, the reactor cell is sanitized with water using a lab-scale aspiration pump (Bioengineering Peripex W1 Peristaltic Watson Marlow 314D Pump Head, Watson-Marlow Limited, Cornwall, United Kingdom) to prevent defects due to previous cycles of production.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Production of GH with promoters\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo manufacture GH using promoters, the same procedure as described previously is utilized. Water was combined with varied promoter concentrations and fed to the reactor for the same purpose. L-leucine, methionine, cysteine, valine, and lecithin were the five food-grade promoters investigated (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Each amino acid contains a unique organic side chain, as depicted in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Individually or in combination, the effects of these five promoters were examined. The four amino acids were added at a concentration of 0.5 g (0.1% of water), and 5 g (1% of water) of lecithin was used regardless of whether they were used singly or in combination.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe chemical compounds used as the promoters for gas hydrates.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eName of Compound\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical Formula\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMolar Mass\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLecithin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e35\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e66\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e643.87 g/mol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeucine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e13\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e131.17 g/mol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMethionine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e149.21\u0026nbsp;g/mol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCysteine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e121.16 g/mol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e117.15 g/mol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Dissociation of GH at different temperatures and its measurement\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA one-hour investigation was conducted to measure the gas concentration in each batch and to find the most efficient promoter in terms of gas entrapment and stability by analyzing the dissociation of GH with promoters at different temperatures. The examined temperatures were \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;18\u0026deg;C, 10\u0026deg;C, 20\u0026deg;C, and 23\u0026deg;C (room temperature). The manually crushed GH was placed in a square plastic weighing vessel and placed on the precision balance with a minimum readability of 0.01 g on the analytical balance (Sartorius Entris 224-1, Goettingen, Germany). The weight loss owing to dissociation is measured at 0 minutes, 2 minutes, 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, 20 minutes, 30 minutes, and 60 minutes for each of the four temperatures. The dissociation at -18\u0026deg;C was examined using a freezer that operates at that temperature. For temperatures other than room temperature, a fully automatic proofing cabinet (MIWE GV AS, MIWE Michael Wenz GmbH, Arnstein, Germany) with a temperature-regulating (-18 to +\u0026thinsp;35\u0026deg;C) facility was utilized.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEach of the experiments was performed in triplicates. The statistical calculations, including mean and standard deviations, were performed in Excel 2019. The graphs were also drawn with the same software. In Excel 2019, the slope of a line is calculated using the SLOPE function. This function calculates the slope of a straight line that best fits the data points using the least squares method.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Dissociation of homogenous GH\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, it can be observed that the slope of the graph for temperature stability of normal gas hydrate shows that the stability of GH is highest at lower temperatures, like \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;18\u0026deg;C. Similarly, the same stability is observed at higher temperatures, such as 10\u0026deg;C. On the other hand, disintegration by the escape of the gas is observed at temperatures of 20\u0026deg;C and 23\u0026deg;C. The minimum weight of GH was reached in 20 minutes of observation. Only a slight change in mass is seen beyond this point. The slope of the curve at the temperatures of 20\u0026deg;C and 23\u0026deg;C is also found to be the same.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt temperatures above \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;33.15\u0026deg;C and pressures above 0.1 MPa, GH can dissociate into gas and metastable liquid water. In this instance, water that wets the hydrate surface would form a continuous layer on the hydrate particles. This film is frozen to form an impenetrable protective ice crust, which prevents the hydrate from releasing gas (Manakov et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Melnikov et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) postulated a consistent process for the creation of an impenetrable ice crust on the hydrate surface. As a result of this continuous film development, the GH does not dissolve at an atmospheric pressure of -18\u0026deg;C. This is true for GH with various promoters, both individually and in combination. The results in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e prove this. However, dissociation occurs quickly at temperatures over the freezing point of water, such as 10, 20, and 23\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChange in the weight of gas hydrates containing various promoters and their combinations at different temperatures over a period of one hour.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePromoters\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTime (min)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-18\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e23\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"5\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMass of GH (g)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNormal GH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLecithin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCysteine\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeucine\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.51\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethionine\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eValine\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeucine\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Lecithin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethionine\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Lecithin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.51\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.54\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethionine\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Leucine\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.65\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethionine\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Leucine\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Lecithin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.11\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.87\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.23\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.23\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.88\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe rate at which decomposition occurs at a temperature is most likely influenced by the solubility of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in liquid water. Consequently, CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e hydrates show better preservation below 0\u0026deg;C. Temperature and pressure precipitate an opposite trend in the dissociation rates, as expected. For CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH, the best preservation is reached at -3\u0026deg;C at any pressure (Giavarini et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Hydrate stability under isochoric settings is lower than under isobaric conditions, according to decomposition studies of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e at -93.15\u0026ndash;6.85\u0026deg;C and 0.1\u0026ndash;10 MPa (Sizova et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The lower the ambient temperature, the longer the dissociation time (Fr\u0026uuml;hling et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The temperature range for CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH stability is, however, limited because of the slower flow of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e gas through hydrate. This is because CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e can only travel through the hydrate through neighbouring large spaces without breaking additional hydrogen bonds (Kvamme, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, the use of promoters to improve GH performance is becoming more prevalent. GH promoters are chemicals that increase the formation of hydrates. Their properties are either thermodynamic or kinetic. Such additives are essential for the application of GH-based technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Dissociation of gas hydrates with amino acids as promoters\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the effect of the amino acid cysteine as a GH promoter is understood. It is clear that the gas with holding capacity of this particular GH is low. The nominal change in the mass of the GH observed over time is a direct indication of the low gas percentage. A very little loss of mass is seen in gas hydrates kept at 20\u0026deg;C and 23\u0026deg;C. This proves the inefficiency of cysteine as a promoter. It is evident from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e that cysteine has the shortest side chain. The relationship between the amount of gas entrapped and its eventual release at various temperatures and the length of the side chain of amino acids is likewise consistent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDistances between the \u0026alpha;-Carbon and the most distant atom except hydrogen in the side chain\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmino Acid\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLength of side chain (\u0026Aring;)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCysteine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.817\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeucine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.799\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.358\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMethionine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.541\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.916\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.524\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.046\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeucine alone shows its effect as a promoter of gas hydrate formation. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, it is shown that GH contains more gas than the previous graphs. From this graph, it is clear that the higher the temperature, the faster the gas releases. When comparing Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, it can be seen that GH with methionine as a promoter contains more CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e. However, the gas disintegration at 10\u0026deg;C is found to be faster than at the other higher temperatures. From Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, the specific effect of valine on promoting gas entrapment in GH is found to be limited. The investigation at lower and higher temperatures shows the limited amount of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in the GH structure. Figures\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e illustrate the high gas entrapment in GH with leucine and methionine as promoters. It is evident from Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e that an even lower concentration (0.1 wt%) of leucine and methionine promotes the formation of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e hydrate. It is clearly understandable from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e that the gas content of GH varies with the addition of different promoters. Based on the studies and graph observations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), it is apparent that the efficiency of the promoters in descending order is as follows: valine\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;cysteine\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;leucine\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;methionine.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNumerous investigations have demonstrated that amino acids potentially serve as GH promoters. The significance of amino acid side chain properties in hydrate formation has been emphasized by Veluswamy et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), who found that aromatic amino acids are more effective at promoting hydrate formation than aliphatic amino acids. Hydrophobic and aromatic side chains may promote hydrate formation (Nasir et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The authors of the study, Liu et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), hypothesize that the observed enhanced effect of the specific amino acid hydrate is due to its surface activity and capillary adsorption characteristics. Comparable in surface action to conventional surfactants are amino acids that promote hydrate formation. It is possible that surfactants and hydrophobic amino acids might have a similar impact on GH formation, i.e., operate as KHPs by decreasing the hydrate nucleation time and/or speeding the hydrate growth rate. (Bhattacharjee et al., 2021). Biosurfactants increase GH development by reducing the induction time of GH production, enhancing the formation rate of GH, and solubilizing guest gases in the same manner as amino acids. (Arora et al., 2014). Furthermore, the conformation of the side chain of an amino acid is dependent upon its polarity, charge, and structure. They are thus amphiphilic compounds that possess surfactant characteristics (Tripathy et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis surfactant feature enables amino acids to inhibit or disrupt the development and aggregation of hydrate nucleus crystal films at the gas/liquid interface. Due to this, a greater quantity of gas can dissolve in the liquid phase, resulting in a significant absorption of hydrate gas. Their hydrate-promoting effect can be attributed to the extremely porous and flexible structure of the hydrates generated in amino acid solutions (Veluswamy et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, Cai et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that methionine, a natural amino acid, is a kinetic CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e hydrate promoter. The gas-liquid interface's surface adsorption capacity is enhanced by the existence of porous and flexible hydrates. This enables the suction of additional liquids to the gas/liquid interface via improved capillary action, resulting in significant gas absorption during hydrate formation. This study also explored the effect of the natural amino acid L-methionine on the formation of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e hydrates. According to the experts, the amphiphilic character of L-methionine is what promotes the formation of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e hydrates. This characteristic of the molecule enables it to function as a dispersion and prevents hydrate particles from sticking and creating a film at the gas-liquid interface. The authors report that the incorporation of this amino acid at a very low concentration (0.2 wt. %) significantly accelerated the formation of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e hydrate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVeluswamy et al. published in 2016 their findings about the shape of L-leucine-accelerated hydrate generation, and the second theory still fits with those results. According to research by Bavoh et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), leucine can convert around 95% of water into hydrates. Leucine comprises hydrophilic amine and carboxylic acid groups as well as a hydrophobic aliphatic isobutyl side chain. CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e moves through hydration more slowly on average. The cause is that CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e can only use nearby big voids to get through the hydrate without significantly additional hydrogen bonds being broken (Kvamme et al., 2021). Occupancy of the cage by the promoter in the structure restricts the hydrate's capacity to hold gas (Li et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, raising the promoter concentration won't lead to an increase in GH gas containment. Through the reduction of interfacial tension, promoters can enhance the mass transfer that takes place at the interface of a gas and a liquid. Importantly, the interaction between amino acids and CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e molecules affects whether or not amino acids are promoted or inhibited in CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e systems. An initial reaction between CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and amine results in intermediate zwitterions. The zwitterion then combines with alkaline compounds to create carbamates, or salts of amino acids (Zhang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). These lower temperatures produce carbamates, which dissociate at higher temperatures to produce amino acids and CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e gas (Majchrowicz, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, not all amino acids influence GH in the same way. According to the findings of Cai et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), the side chain length of amino acids was responsible for the faster hydrate kinetics observed in carbon dioxide hydrate formation tests. Leucine and methionine were discovered to have the optimal side chain lengths for enhancing the development of carbon dioxide hydrates while reducing the absorption of methane (Inkong et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Because they are more soluble in water than other amino acids, shorter-chain amino acids demonstrated greater inhibitory efficacy at the same dose. Their inhibitory effects result from the hydrogen bonds formed between these amino acids and water molecules, which stop water's ability to create GH. Also the molecular weight of an amino acid are correlated to its side chain length and properties. In general, amino acids with smaller molecular masses have shorter chains and greater hydrophilic properties, resulting in stronger hydrogen bonding interactions with water and more pronounced hydrate formation inhibition (Li et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, increasing the percentage of amino acids in GH did not show any effect in increasing the gas withholding capacity of GH (Srivastava et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Dissociation of gas hydrates with lecithin as promoter\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the individual effect of lecithin on promoting gas confinement in GH is found to be limited. The investigation at lower and higher temperatures shows the limited amount of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in the GH structure. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates that the amount of gas trapped in GH with lecithin as a promoter is minimal. This is evident from the limited change in mass explained by the non-existence of a slope in the graph over a period of time. Lecithin has a limited effect as a promoter, as seen by the insignificant difference in weight between temperatures. Wang et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) discovered that lecithin's inhibitory effect on hydrate disintegration was primarily due to its surface adsorption. Lecithin is composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and choline. The active components of lecithin are both hydrophilic and lipophilic. Consequently, it is an outstanding emulsifier and surfactant. The aliphatic oxygen atoms of lecithin establish hydrogen bonds with the hydrate water molecules, whereas the hydroxyl groups (phosphate and choline) form hydrogen bonds with the liquid water. A net structure is created because of these hydrogen bonds. Thus, the lecithin molecules are adsorbed onto the hydrate structure, lowering the dissociation rate. Hence the effect of lecithin on CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH is modest. However, Gaikwad (2020) utilized lecithin as a hydrate promoter. They determined that the stimulating effect of lecithin is due to its porous hydrate structure, which stimulates the production of hydrates by increasing gas-to-water contact. And according to the results of Gautam (2022), the inhibitory effect of lecithin depends on its concentration. Lecithin cannot be considered an inhibitor since its impact on CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH is inadequate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.4. Combined effect of amino acids and lecithin on the stability of gas hydrates\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe combined effect of the amino acid leucine with lecithin shows a higher amount of gas in GH. Furthermore, from the graph (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e), it is understood that the GH is showing more stability without complete disintegration for a much longer time when compared to the normal GH. Similarly, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e shows a comparable result to that of the previous one. The combined effect of methionine and lecithin helps in the formation of stable GH. The combination of promoters also increases the gas uptake by GH. A similar result on increased gas uptake by GH by the usage of a combination of amino acids and lecithin can be observed in the study conducted by Srivastava et al., in 2022. However, due to the high temperature to which the GH is subjected to in those experiments said in the above mentioned study, the majority of gas disintegration occurs in the first few minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, the amino acids methionine and leucine, which have the greatest stimulatory effect on CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH, when combined produced GH with a greater gas concentration and greater temperature stability than in previous experiments. and methionine (0.1 wt.%) were individually combined with lecithin (1 wt.%) for the creation of hydrates, and the result demonstrated enhanced stability over an extended period of time. As a final test, the same amounts of leucine, methionine, and lecithin were combined to provide the best GH in terms of temperature stability and gas containment. The enhanced kinetics of this hydrate with the three promoters are depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e. Furthermore, it is evident that this GH takes a longer time to completely release the gas when compared to the GH with no promoters. The higher amount of gas in the GH provides stability at higher handling temperatures, which aids in the industrial application of the GH.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOne of the challenges that this research tries to solve is the instability of GH under normal temperatures, which is a challenge in using it for industrial purposes. The main benefit of using CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH in the food industry is that it has a green label and is food-grade. Thus, it is advantageous to use it as an additive or to replace an existing food ingredient. The GH promoters used in this study are food-grade amino acids, which were found to serve their purpose of enhancing the temperature stability and gas-withholding capacity of GH. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the gas dissociation from GH may be described as a function of the environment's temperature and exposure time to that temperature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificant differences in hydrate formation occur when amino acids are present compared to pure water. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the hydrate generated from amino acids and lecithin exhibits a profusion of pores and capillary channels, in contrast to the dense hydration produced from pure water. The porous design of hydrates allows additional liquid to be pulled through these pores, increasing the contact between the liquid and gas phases. The data indicates that leucine and methionine are the amino acid promoters responsible for producing CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH with enhanced properties. The addition of lecithin, valine, and cysteine to GH had no appreciable influence on the gas-holding capacity of GH or its temperature stability. Combining lecithin with leucine and methionine for GH synthesis produced the most effective CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH with a high gas concentration and greater temperature stability. Therefore, GH with food-grade promoters may be exploited in many food industry procedures with the help of a combination of promoters.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest - Disclose any potential conflict of interest appropriately.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis IGF project of the FEI is supported by AiF (AiF 21084 N) within the programme for promoting the Industrial Collective Research (IGF) of the German Ministry of Economics and Energy (BMWi), bases on a resolution of the German Parliament for which the authors are grateful.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExpressing thanks to other colleagues of the Institute of process analytics and cereal science of the university of Hohenheim for their help and guidance. Thanks to the faculty of Erlangen University for providing us with the reactor and helping its framework and setup.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompliance with Ethical Standards\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. All data and materials associated with this work are appropriately documented in the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis IGF project of the FEI is supported by AiF (AiF 21084 N) within the programme for promoting the Industrial Collective Research (IGF) of the German Ministry of Economics and Energy (BMWi), bases on a resolution of the German Parliament for which the authors are grateful.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe primary conceptualization of the project was led by Ann Mary Kollemparembil and Bernd Hitzmann. Ann Mary Kollemparembil, Shubhangi Srivastava, and Viktoria Zettel framed the methodology. Ann Mary Kollemparembil handled the software development and data curation for the manuscript, while validation was performed by Ann Mary Kollemparembil, Viktoria Zettel, and Bernd Hitzmann. Formal analysis was conducted by Ann Mary Kollemparembil and Mohammad Mobarak, while investigation tasks were carried out by Ann Mary Kollemparembil and Shubhangi Srivastava. Bernd Hitzmann, Antonio Delgado, and Bernhard Gatternig managed the necessary resources for the study. Original draft preparation was undertaken by Ann Mary Kollemparembil, Viktoria Zettel, and Bernd Hitzmann, who also participated in the review, editing, and visualization. Supervision of the work was provided by Bernd Hitzmann and Mario Jekle. Project administration was overseen by Bernd Hitzmann, and the funding acquisition was facilitated by Bernd Hitzmann and Antonio Delgado.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArora, A., \u0026amp; Singh Cameotra, S. 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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 98, 179-188.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Gas Hydrate, Gas Hydrate Promoter, Amino Acids, Surfactant, Gas Hydrate Dissociation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3937600/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3937600/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis investigation aims to elucidate the dissociation of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e gas from gas hydrates (GH) over a 60-minute duration at varying temperatures, with the objective of understanding the entrapment of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e gas within GH with the use of GH promoters. The study examines four food-grade amino acids possessing surfactant capabilities\u0026mdash;cysteine, leucine, methionine, and valine\u0026mdash;as well as lecithin, to discern their potential as food-grade GH promoters. Dissociation of GH from its promoters is investigated at temperatures of -18\u0026deg;C, 10\u0026deg;C, 20\u0026deg;C, and 23\u0026deg;C. 0.1% and 1% of the weight of the water utilized in the GH reactor is comprised of amino acids and lecithin respectively. The study explores the individual and combined effect of promoters, with a specific attention on leucine and methionine, identified as the most effective amino acid promoters. These two promoters exhibit synergistic effects when combined with lecithin. The CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e content within normal GH is found to be 9.7% and 15.6% when employing methionine, leucine, and lecithin. Analysis of the GH dissociation graph at different temperatures, considering various promoters, indicates that the use of efficient promoters in combination enhances gas containment. Notably, enhanced stability is observed at higher temperatures, such as 20\u0026deg;C, extending over a prolonged duration of 20 minutes. This increased stability may prove advantageous for CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e GH applications in the food industry.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Retention of CO2 gas in gas hydrates with promoters and its dissociation in temperature-controlled atmosphere","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-02-13 19:54:35","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3937600/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7cae29b4-3dce-4da2-8612-7438d2e61f22","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 13th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-09-10T01:11:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-02-13 19:54:35","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3937600","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3937600","identity":"rs-3937600","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}