Revealed Comparative Advantage and Export Intensity Analysis of India’s Agricultural Trade with EU27: A Product Level Study

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We employ Balassa’s Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) index and the Export Intensity Index (EII) to identify comparative advantages and export orientation, respectively. Symmetric transformations of these indices (SRCA and SEII) are applied to facilitate quadrant-based diagnostics of trade performance. The analysis covers 610 agricultural commodities and reveals that only about 105 products approximately 17% exhibit an average RCA greater than 1 (indicating global comparative advantage), while merely 56 products (9% Approx.) show an average EII lesser than 1 (implying above average export intensity to the EU). Notably, very few items (27, 4% Approx.) score above 1 on both indices, underscoring a narrow intersection of high competitiveness and strong EU market penetration. India’s top RCA commodities – for example, castor oil (HS 151530) and turmeric (HS 091030) with exceptionally high RCA values (77 and 53) often have underwhelming EII (0.84 and 0.66, respectively), signalling untapped export potential in the EU market. In contrast, certain niche products like ossein (animal bone concentrate, HS 050610) and sesamum seeds (HS 120740) translate their strong RCA into high EII (e.g. EII greater than 1), exemplifying optimal alignment of comparative advantage with EU orientation. The majority of the products, however, fall into a low RCA, low EII quadrant, indicating limited competitiveness and engagement in EU agri goods trade. These findings highlight substantial scope for India to enhance its trade competitiveness with the EU by leveraging high RCA products and addressing market access barriers that impede the realization of comparative advantage. Aligning export strategy with revealed strengths through product specific support, quality compliance, and favourable trade negotiations is crucial for capitalizing on India’s competitive niches and should inform India–EU FTA discussions on SPS harmonization, Geographical Indication (GI) protection, and certification standards. India EU trade agricultural exports revealed comparative advantage export intensity index RCA EII WITS HS6 classification trade competitiveness agri-policy and EU27 Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Agriculture remains a cornerstone of the Indian economy, providing livelihoods for over 43% of the workforce and contributing significantly to rural income and socio-economic stability (FAO, 2021 ; Chand et al., 2021 ; Narayanan, 2020 ). Despite its importance, the sector faces persistent structural constraints, including small landholdings, fragmented value chains, low mechanization, price volatility, and limited access to high value international markets (Sharma & Saini, 2016 ; Gulati et al., 2022 ; Kumar & Kapoor, 2021 ). These challenges have constrained income growth, contributed to agrarian distress, and remain central to policy discourse (Government of India, 2018 ; Mehta & Kumar, 2023 ). In response, India has increasingly emphasized export led agricultural growth. The Agriculture Export Policy (AEP) of 2018 prioritizes market diversification, value addition, and integration into global value chains to achieve the target of doubling farmers’ incomes (Government of India, 2018 ; ICRIER, 2022 ). Among potential export destinations, the European Union (EU27) represents a high value market characterized by stringent sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards, technical barriers to trade, and rigorous certification regimes, which collectively restrict market access for many Indian agricultural commodities (Jaffee & Henson, 2004 ; Mehta & Kumar, 2023 ). Despite India’s natural and comparative advantages in products such as spices, horticultural items, and marine products, export penetration into the EU remains limited and uneven (Batra & Khan, 2005 ; Kumar & Kapoor, 2021 ; Gulati et al., 2022 ). Non-Tariff measures (NTMs), including Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs), traceability requirements, and quality certification obligations, further exacerbate this underperformance (Jaffee & Henson, 2004 ; Sharma & Saini, 2016 ). Consequently, understanding the interplay between India’s comparative advantage and its orientation toward the EU market is critical for designing effective trade policy interventions (Balassa, 1965 ; Leamer & Stern, 1970 ). Quantitative trade indicators such as the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and Export Intensity Index (EII) provide powerful tools for measuring product level competitiveness and market focus. RCA identifies commodities where India holds a relative advantage in global markets, while EII measures the degree of export concentration toward the EU relative to world trade patterns (Kumar & Kapoor, 2021 ). Previous studies employing RCA and EII have identified high potential agricultural products and highlighted the gaps between competitiveness and market penetration (Sharma & Saini, 2016 ; Gulati et al., 2022 ; Mehta & Kumar, 2023 ). However, few analyses have applied these indices to India–EU trade over an extended period using granular 6-digit HS data, leaving a gap in the literature regarding both longitudinal trends and product specific insights. This study addresses this gap by conducting a product level analysis of India’s agricultural exports to the EU27 from 2009 to 2024 using HS 6-digit classification data from the World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) database (World Bank, 2024 ). By calculating RCA and EII values, along with their symmetric transformations (SRCA and SEII), the research identifies products with strong comparative advantage, evaluates their export orientation toward the EU, and highlights underutilized trade potential. This empirical approach provides policy relevant insights for enhancing India’s agricultural trade competitiveness and facilitating more effective market integration with the EU (FAO, 2021 ; ICRIER, 2022 ; Gulati et al., 2022 ). Unlike earlier works that examined aggregate trade or limited categories, this study is the first to apply RCA and EII jointly at HS-6 product level over a 15-year period for India–EU agricultural trade. Literature Review The use of quantitative trade indices, particularly the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and Export Intensity Index (EII), has become central to understanding the competitiveness and market orientation of national exports. These indices provide a structured approach to assess not only the relative global advantage of specific commodities but also the extent to which countries focus their exports on particular markets (Balassa, 1965 ; Leamer & Stern, 1970 ). Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) measures a country’s export specialization by comparing the share of a product in its export basket to the product’s share in global trade. A value greater than 1 indicates that the country has a comparative advantage in that product. Previous studies have demonstrated RCA’s utility in identifying India’s globally competitive products. For instance, Batra and Khan ( 2005 ) found that India consistently exhibits comparative advantage in spices, marine products, and certain textiles. Sharma and Saini ( 2016 ) applied RCA at the HS 6-digit level to classify Indian agricultural exports into high potential and underperforming categories, demonstrating the need for fine grained product level analysis to guide export strategy. Export Intensity Index (EII) complements RCA by assessing the degree of export orientation toward a specific market relative to the world. An EII value greater than 1 implies a higher than average export intensity to that market (Leamer & Stern, 1970 ). In the context of India’s agricultural trade, Kumar and Kapoor ( 2021 ) observed that despite India’s strong RCA in several products, EII toward the EU remained low compared to markets like the Middle East, indicating underutilized market potential. The empirical results of this study align with these observations, showing that even globally competitive products such as turmeric (HS 091030) and castor oil (HS 151530) have EII values below 1, highlighting untapped EU market opportunities. Regulatory and structural constraints in the EU further explain these gaps between global competitiveness and market orientation. The European Union imposes stringent Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) standards and technical barriers to trade (TBT) that disproportionately affect exporters from developing countries (Jaffee & Henson, 2004 ). Gulati et al. ( 2022 ) emphasize that India’s limited export performance in horticultural and processed food products is largely due to inadequate testing infrastructure, fragmented value chains, and certification related hurdles. This is reflected in the bottom left quadrant (low RCA, low EII) of the SRCA SEII scatter plot for Indian agri products, indicating products that are neither globally competitive nor EU focused. Quadrant based diagnostics using symmetric transformations of RCA (SRCA) and EII (SEII) offer a more nuanced understanding of trade patterns. In the SRCA SEII framework, products with high SRCA but low SEII, such as Seeds of cumin (HS 090930) and mucilages & thickeners (HS 130232), are globally competitive but underpenetrated in the EU, signaling opportunities for targeted export promotion and regulatory facilitation. Conversely, products like ossein (HS 050610) and sesamum seeds (HS 120740) exhibit both high SRCA and SEII, demonstrating successful translation of global advantage into strong EU market presence. The literature also underscores the longitudinal value of RCA and EII analysis. Mehta and Kumar ( 2023 ) highlight that persistent low EII over multiple years, despite strong RCA, points to structural market inefficiencies rather than transient trade shocks. Our findings corroborate this trend: out of 610 agricultural products analyzed between 2009 and 2024, only 105 products exhibit RCA greater than 1, while merely 56 products have EII greater than 1. This asymmetry reinforces the importance of market specific interventions and policy measures that enhance EU access for India’s competitive products. Several studies have applied these dual indices to assess strategic export promotion. Sharma and Saini ( 2016 ) proposed combining RCA and EII matrices to classify commodities into four quadrants: (i) globally competitive and EU oriented, (ii) competitive but under penetrated, (iii) EU oriented but globally weak, and (iv) neither competitive nor EU oriented. Our product level SRCA SEII analysis confirms that the majority of Indian agricultural exports fall into quadrants (ii) and (iv), underscoring the need for product specific support, capacity building, and targeted trade facilitation. In summary, the literature establishes RCA and EII as robust tools for trade diagnostics. However, prior studies largely focus on aggregate trade patterns or select product categories. This research extends the empirical framework to 610 HS 6-digit products over 15 years, offering a granular and longitudinal view of India–EU agricultural trade, and providing actionable insights to align comparative advantage with market orientation. Methodology This study employs a quantitative analytical framework to evaluate India’s agricultural export competitiveness and market orientation toward the EU27. The analysis is grounded in product level trade data (HS 6 digit) from 2009 to 2024, sourced from the World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) database (World Bank, 2024 ). Using this granular data ensures accurate identification of India’s comparative advantage and export focus for individual commodities, capturing both global and regional trade dynamics. Data Source and Scope The research relies exclusively on secondary data of India's Import/exports to the 27 member countries of the European Union, specifically: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden. The trade data is sourced from the World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) database, which aggregates international trade flows based on customs data submitted by national governments and verified by multilateral institutions including the World Bank, UN COMTRADE, and WTO. The dataset encompasses 664 agricultural products, classified according to the Harmonized System (HS) Nomenclature, Edition 2007 (H3) as developed by the World Customs Organization (WCO). For analytical consistency and international comparability, only data at the 6-digit of the HS classification system has been used. This threshold ensures standardization, as HS codes beyond six digits are often country specific and not harmonized at the global level. However, 54 of these agri products were not exported by India to the EU27 at any point during the 15-year study period (2009–2024). As such, their RCA and EII values could not be computed, and they were excluded from the final analysis. The effective number of products analyzed is thus 610. Product Classification and Time Frame The study covers a 15-year period from 2009 to 2024, enabling an inter temporal assessment of India’s agricultural trade performance with the EU. Products have been grouped into thematic subcategories based on trade function and descriptive keywords (e.g., spices, cereals, legumes, essential oils, processed foods), facilitating both aggregate and disaggregate level comparisons. Analytical Framework Two trade performance indicators form the backbone of the empirical analysis: Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) RCA quantifies whether India holds a relative advantage in exporting a given commodity compared to the rest of the world. It is calculated as: RCAij = (Xij / Xit) / (Xwj / Xwt) where ​ Xij is exports of product i by country j, Xit​ is total exports by country i, Xwj is world exports of product j, and Xwt is total world exports. An RCA greater 1 indicates that India holds a comparative advantage in the product, while RCA lesser than 1 signals comparative disadvantage. Previous studies confirm RCA’s utility in identifying India’s global strengths in spices, oils, and niche agri products (Sharma & Saini, 2016 ). Export Intensity Index (EII) EII measures the degree of India's export orientation toward the EU27 for a given product, relative to the global trade pattern. It is calculated as: EIIij = (Xij / Xit) / (Mj / Mw) Where Xij is exports of product i by country j, Xit is the export of country i Mj Total world imports of j from all countries An EII value greater than 1 indicates that India exports more intensively to the EU than the global average. Data Processing and Index Construction To enhance interpretability and enable direct visual comparison between trade competitiveness and market orientation and enable quadrant-based trade diagnostics the original RCA and EII values were transformed into their symmetric forms, yielding values bounded between − 1 and + 1. This transformation is particularly useful for scatter plotting and quadrant-based trade diagnostics. The formulas used for the symmetric transformation are as follows: Symmetric Revealed Comparative Advantage (SRCA): SRCA = (RCA − 1) / (RCA + 1) where: SRCA is the Symmetric Revealed Comparative Advantage RCA is the standard Revealed Comparative Advantage value Symmetric Export Intensity Index (SEII): SEII = (EII − 1) / (EII + 1) Where: SEII is the Symmetric Export Intensity Index EII is the standard Export Intensity Index value An SEII and SRCA value greater than 0 indicates that India exports more intensively to the EU than the global average. No prior study applies symmetric RCA and EII transformations (SRCA, SEII) to India–EU agri-trade, which this paper introduces as a novel diagnostic tool Quadrant Based Trade Diagnostics The study employs SRCA SEII scatter plots to categorize products into four quadrants: High SRCA, High SEII – Globally competitive and EU focused (best performing products, e.g., ossein HS 050610, sesamum seeds HS 120740) High SRCA, Low SEII – Competitive globally but under penetrated in EU (e.g., castor oil HS 151530, turmeric HS 091030) Low SRCA, High SEII – Limited global competitiveness but relatively high EU orientation (reflects niche or diaspora driven exports) Low SRCA, Low SEII – Neither competitive nor EU focused (majority of vegetables and low value horticultural items) This framework identifies strategic export gaps and priority sectors for policy intervention, trade facilitation, and market development The authors calculated RCA, EII, SRCA and SEII values manually using cleaned trade data from the WITS platform. All values were computed in consistent units and normalized annually. Descriptive statistics, category level averages, and longitudinal trends were then derived from the calculated indices. The present study fills this empirical gap by analyzing 610 agricultural products using 16 years of RCA and EII data 2009 to 2024. Results and Discussion Overview of India’s Agricultural Trade Competitiveness and EU Orientation The analysis of India’s agricultural exports to the EU27 over the period 2009–2024 reveals significant heterogeneity in both global competitiveness and market orientation across 610 HS 6-digit products. Employing Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and the Export Intensity Index (EII), the study identifies that only a limited subset of commodities exhibits both high global competitiveness and substantial orientation toward the EU market. Approximately 17% of products (105 commodities) displayed an average RCA greater than 1, signalling a comparative advantage in global trade, with prominent examples including castor oil (HS 151530), turmeric (HS 091030), and preserved cucumbers and gherkins (HS 071140). Despite this, only 9% of products (56 commodities) exhibited an EII above 1, suggesting that India’s exports to the EU remain below expected levels relative to global trade, indicating untapped market potential (Leamer & Stern, 1970 ). Symmetric transformations of these indices into SRCA and SEII further highlight the distribution of products across four performance quadrants, with many globally competitive products showing low EU orientation and a substantial number of products falling into the low RCA, low EII quadrant. This pattern reflects structural constraints, regulatory challenges, and limited market integration, consistent with prior findings on India’s agri-export performance to high value markets (Gulati et al., 2022 ; Jaffee & Henson, 2004 ; Kumar & Kapoor, 2021 ). Notably, certain niche commodities such as ossein (HS 050610) and sesamum seeds (HS 120740) successfully translate comparative advantage into high EU market penetration, demonstrating the potential for targeted trade facilitation and policy interventions to enhance market orientation. Overall, these results indicate a misalignment between global competitiveness and EU export intensity, emphasizing the need for product specific strategies to realize India’s trade potential in high value European agricultural markets (Sharma & Saini, 2016 ; Mehta & Kumar, 2023 ). These transformations compress the unbounded nature of RCA and EII into a standardized scale, facilitating effective quadrant mapping and comparative interpretation across products. The scatter plot (figure.1) uses SRCA on the X axis and SEII on the Y axis. The graph reveals several important trends. The bottom left quadrant (SRCA lesser than 0, SEII lesser than 0) is densely populated, indicating that many products lack both global competitiveness and EU market orientation. Conversely, the top right quadrant (SRCA greater than 0, SEII greater than 0) highlights a smaller but strategically critical group of products that exhibit both strong competitiveness and focused EU trade integration. Products in the bottom right quadrant (SRCA greater than 0, SEII lesser than 0) are globally competitive but underpenetrated in the EU market suggesting untapped export potential hindered by regulatory or logistical barriers. The top left quadrant (SRCA lesser than 0, SEII greater than 0) contains products with unexpectedly high EU presence despite limited global competitiveness, potentially reflecting niche market demand or diaspora driven trade. The observed positive linear trendline in the plot implies a weak but positive correlation between competitiveness and market intensity, underscoring that improvements in RCA may enhance export focus toward the EU. However, the scattered nature of the data also suggests a need for differentiated policy approaches based on specific product characteristics and market dynamics. Top Performing Products by RCA Table 1 below presents the five agricultural products with the highest average RCA values during the study period. These products reflect India’s strongest global comparative advantage. Table 1 Top 5 Products by Average RCA (2009–2024) Product Code Product Name Avg. RCA Avg. EII 130211 Opium 76.86 1.09 151530 Castor oil & its fractions 76.69 0.84 071140 Cucumbers & gherkins (preserved) 71.71 1.18 050610 Ossein & acid treated bones 55.21 4.79 091030 Turmeric (curcuma) 52.95 0.66 These high RCA values confirm India’s longstanding strength in niche exports such as castor oil, cucumbers, and turmeric, which are globally competitive due to agro-climatic advantages and historical production specialization. Figure 2 illustrates the top 10 agricultural products from India with the highest average Symmetric Revealed Comparative Advantage (SRCA) values, juxtaposed against their corresponding Symmetric Export Intensity Index (SEII) scores. The SRCA metric standardizes RCA values on a − 1 to + 1 scale, facilitating direct comparison with SEII, which is similarly normalized. The chart reveals a crucial asymmetry between India’s global competitiveness and its market orientation toward the EU27. While all ten products exhibit SRCA values approaching the upper bound (+ 1), indicating extremely strong comparative advantage in global trade, their SEII values are highly variable, ranging from positive alignment to negative divergence. Notably, products like Ossein & bones treated with acid (HS 50610) and Sesamum seeds (HS 120740) not only have high SRCA but also relatively strong SEII scores, suggesting that India has successfully translated global competitiveness into active EU market penetration. These products exemplify optimal trade alignment and may serve as benchmark commodities in trade strategy development. In contrast, products such as Seeds of cumin (HS 090930) and Mucilages & thickeners (HS 130232) exhibit negative SEII values, despite very high SRCA. This indicates significant underutilization of the EU market, reflecting either regulatory barriers (e.g., SPS, labeling requirements) or strategic neglect in export targeting. These are high potential products where policy support and market facilitation could yield measurable gains. Other products like Turmeric (HS 091030) and Castor oil (HS 151530) also show positive SRCA but only marginal or negative SEII values, suggesting underperformance in the EU relative to their global strengths. This supports the broader theme that comparative advantage does not necessarily translate into market orientation, particularly in a high regulation environment like the EU. Even among India's most globally competitive agri-products, EU market presence remains inconsistent. Strategic realignment through targeted promotion, trade facilitation, and compliance infrastructure is essential to unlock the full potential of these exports in the European Union. Bottom Performing Products by RCA In contrast, many agricultural products fall below the threshold of RCA = 1. Table 2 shows five products with consistently poor comparative advantage, suggesting that India lacks export competitiveness in these categories. Table 2 Bottom 5 Products by Average RCA (RCA lesser than 1) Product Code Product Name Avg. RCA Avg. EII 070940 Celery (fresh/chilled) 0.00 0.02 071290 Vegetables & mixtures, provisionally preserved 0.00 0.03 070920 Asparagus (fresh/chilled) 0.00 0.01 070951 Mushrooms (fresh/chilled) 0.00 0.01 070952 Truffles (fresh/chilled) 0.00 0.01 These items reflect either structural limitations in domestic production or strong import competition from other countries (e.g., Peru, Netherlands, China) in the EU market. Top Performing Products by EII Table 3 highlights products with the highest export intensity to the EU. These products reflect not only competitiveness but also a clear EU market orientation. Table 3 Top 5 Products by Average EII Product Code Product Name Avg. RCA Avg. EII 121190 Other plants/parts used in perfumery 18.32 10.67 050610 Ossein & bones treated with acid 55.21 4.79 121190 Other herbs (duplicates by HS6 split) 16.55 4.21 080131 Cashew nuts, in shell 4.33 3.69 130219 Other vegetable saps and extracts 7.82 3.65 This suggests value added herbal, pharmaceutical, and nutraceutical products are better aligned with EU import demand, despite modest total export volumes. Bottom Performing Products by EII Products with the lowest EII (Table 4 ) highlight a disconnect between global competitiveness and EU market engagement. Table 4 Bottom 5 Products by Average EII (EII lesser than 0.05) Product Code Product Name Avg. RCA Avg. EII 070952 Truffles (fresh/chilled) 0.00 0.01 070951 Mushrooms (fresh/chilled) 0.00 0.01 070920 Asparagus 0.00 0.01 070940 Celery 0.00 0.02 071290 Preserved vegetable mixtures 0.00 0.03 Discussion The findings of this study underscore that India’s agricultural export strengths are concentrated in a limited number of products that exhibit both high Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and moderately strong Export Intensity Index (EII), such as castor oil, turmeric, and preserved cucumbers. Despite this, market under penetration persists across a broad spectrum of globally competitive commodities, largely due to stringent Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures, lack of targeted branding, and EU specific certification barriers. The analysis, grounded in HS 6 digit level data over a 15-year period, highlights the necessity of category level interventions, particularly in promising sectors like medicinal plants and processed foods, which display latent potential when evaluated through RCA or EII metrics alone. This approach provides an empirical foundation for strategic trade promotion and for guiding negotiations under the India–EU Free Trade Agreement (Mehta & Kumar, 2023 ; Sharma & Saini, 2016 ). A focused assessment of product categories reveals nuanced opportunities and challenges. Spices and condiments, including turmeric, pepper, and cardamom, exhibit strong global competitiveness but relatively low EII toward the EU. Strengthening India’s position in this segment requires promoting EU focused branding, particularly for Geographical Indication (GI) tagged spices(FAO, 2025), ensuring alignment with maximum residue limits (MRLs), and expanding testing and certification infrastructure in major producing regions. These measures are expected to enhance compliance readiness and improve price realization for farmers engaged in high value spice cultivation (Gulati et al., 2022 ; Jaffee & Henson, 2004 ). Essential oils and medicinal plants represent a rare alignment of high RCA and strong EII, exemplified by products such as lemongrass oil and ossein. Scaling this advantage requires investment in supply chains for phytopharmaceutical and wellness linked exports, facilitation of organic and ethical certification access, and explicit inclusion of these sectors in India–EU FTA discussions. Such interventions would directly benefit smallholder producers engaged in herbal and value added agriculture (Sharma & Saini, 2016 ; Kumar & Kapoor, 2021 ). In the processed foods category, high competitiveness is frequently constrained by EU regulatory frictions, primarily arising from stringent food safety standards. Policy priorities should include upgrading processing infrastructure to EU compliant norms, enhancing cold chain logistics, and fostering public private partnerships within food clusters. These steps can transform surplus raw produce into export grade goods, improve rural employment, and reduce post harvest losses. The fruits and vegetables subsector exhibits low RCA and EII, reflecting systemic barriers such as perishability and Non-Tariff SPS constraints. Focused interventions should prioritize crops with proven EU demand, such as mangoes and okra, promote bilateral engagement for SPS harmonization, and incentivize EU aligned cold chain infrastructure in high output states. These measures can facilitate access to premium EU markets and provide farmers with a more stable income stream. Emerging opportunities in legumes and pulses including chickpeas and mung beans are evident as these commodities demonstrate increasing competitiveness and orientation toward the EU. Value addition aligned with the EU’s plant-based protein demand, development of organic production clusters, and promotion of packaged pulse based food lines tailored for diaspora and health conscious markets are recommended to strengthen this subsector (Mehta & Kumar, 2023 ). While cashews and other nuts remain strong, other oilseeds, such as sesame and flax, underperform due to processing inefficiencies and quality mismatches. Developing decentralized nut and seed processing hubs, standardizing fumigation and packaging norms with EU counterparts, and building category specific export branding can bridge these gaps. Animal derived products, such as ossein and gelatin, provide feasible export opportunities in EU industrial supply chains. Enhancing traceability, ensuring veterinary certification compliance, and promoting ethically sourced by products can help capture EU demand without affecting domestic consumption sensitivities. Beyond conventional categories, approximately one-third of products (200+) fall into emerging/niche categories (e.g., gums, resins, botanical derivatives), which require further cluster analysis. Employing RCA EII cluster analysis and market intelligence tools can help identify viable emerging exports, support pilot scale export trials, and build SME capabilities around high margin niche commodities, such as gums, resins, and botanical derivatives. Finally, to mainstream competitiveness insights into trade policy, RCA and EII data should be institutionalized in FTA negotiation frameworks. Establishing a centralized digital dashboard that maps EU compliance requirements would enable exporters to adapt in real time, while pooled multi product certification schemes could reduce compliance costs for small and marginal exporters. These measures would expand grassroots participation and strengthen India’s agricultural trade engagement with high value EU markets (Sharma & Saini, 2016 ; Gulati et al., 2022 ). Conclusion This study provides a comprehensive, disaggregated, and evidence based evaluation of India’s agricultural exports to the European Union (EU27) by examining product level competitiveness and market orientation through the dual frameworks of Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and Export Intensity Index (EII). Utilizing 15 years of trade data across 610 HS 6-digit agricultural products, the analysis elucidates the persistent gaps between India’s global strengths and its actual penetration into the EU agricultural market. The findings reveal that a limited subset of commodities such as castor oil, turmeric, preserved cucumbers, essential oils, and certain botanical extracts demonstrates high RCA, reflecting India’s intrinsic comparative advantage. However, these products often exhibit lower than expected EII values, indicating underexploited market potential due to regulatory barriers, SPS compliance challenges, and logistical constraints (Balassa, 1965 ; Sharma & Saini, 2016 ; Gulati et al., 2022 ). Conversely, a substantial portion of agricultural products falls into the low RCA, low EII quadrant, highlighting structural limitations, high foreign competition, and inadequate integration into EU trade channels. The analysis also identifies emerging and unclassified agri products, including certain legumes, medicinal plants, and value-added derivatives, as promising candidates for diversification and targeted promotion. Symmetric transformations of RCA and EII (SRCA and SEII) enabled quadrant-based diagnostics that clearly distinguish globally competitive but underpenetrated commodities from niche EU oriented products, thereby offering a granular basis for strategic trade policy interventions. These findings are particularly relevant in the context of India’s persistent agrarian distress, where low farm incomes and market instability continue to constrain rural livelihoods (Chand et al., 2021 ; Narayanan, 2020 ). By integrating RCA EII diagnostics into product specific recommendations such as strengthening compliance infrastructure, facilitating bilateral SPS harmonization, expanding certification access, and deploying digital trade facilitation tools India can better align export potential with actual market realization. Moreover, the study reinforces the practical utility of RCA and EII not only as analytical instruments but also as actionable tools for export planning, policy prioritization, and trade negotiation. Embedding these indices within India’s agricultural trade architecture can enhance farm level profitability, reduce trade asymmetries, and optimize the allocation of resources toward high potential commodities, thereby leveraging international trade as a mechanism for inclusive and sustainable rural development. Importantly, the identification of products with high global competitiveness but low EU penetration suggests an urgent need for policy driven interventions to convert latent trade potential into realized market outcomes, ensuring that India’s agricultural export strategy is both targeted and responsive to the needs of farmers. Declarations Ethical Approval and Consent to Participate Not applicable. This study did not involve human participants, animal subjects, or personal data. Consent for Publication Not applicable. The manuscript does not contain any individual person’s data in any form (including individual details, images, or videos). Funding This research received no external funding. References Balassa, B. (1965). Trade liberalisation and “revealed” comparative advantage. The Manchester School, 33 (2), 99–123. Batra, A., & Khan, Z. (2005). India’s export competitiveness: An analysis of sectoral trends. Indian Economic Review, 40 (2), 145–167. Batra, A., & Khan, Z. (2005). 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Comparative export intensity of Indian agricultural products: Evidence from ASEAN, EU, and Middle East. Journal of International Trade and Economic Development, 30 (3), 387–403. Leamer, E., & Stern, R. (1970). Quantitative measurement of trade orientation. Journal of Political Economy, 78 (3), 641–662. Leamer, E. E., & Stern, R. M. (1970). Quantitative international economics . Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Mehta, R., & Kumar, M. (2023). India–EU trade relations: Progress, prospects and challenges. Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 32 (1), 1–22. Mehta, V., & Kumar, R. (2023). India–EU FTA prospects and agricultural trade. Asian Economic Policy Review, 18 (2), 101–118. Narayanan, S. (2020). Stagnation of Indian farm incomes: A policy perspective. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 75 (4), 301–317. Panagariya, A. (2004). India's trade reform . Brookings Institution. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/2004_panagariya.pdf Sharma, A., & Saini, G. K. (2016). Assessing India's agricultural export competitiveness using RCA and EII. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 29 (2), 275–283. Sharma, S., & Saini, R. (2016). Using RCA and EII to analyze India’s agricultural exports. Journal of World Trade, 50 (3), 455–475. World Bank. (2024). World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) database . Retrieved from https://wits.worldbank.org Reuters. (2024). Agriculture most problematic area in India–EU trade pact talks. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/agriculture-most-problematic-area-india-eu-trade-pact-talks-german-minister-says-2024-10-24/ Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7709006","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":527766678,"identity":"b0814afa-a9f2-4af9-b060-fb7fee320d25","order_by":0,"name":"Saravanan Sengunthar","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFAD9saGA3BOAlFaeA42HIDrIU6LBFDZAUKKQEC+/ezDzzw1d+TNJR83Hv64xy6agf3wA4aHO3BrMTiTbizNc+yZ4c7ZiUCHPUvObeBJM2BIPINHC0Mag+QMtsOMG26DtBxgzm1gyGFgSGzD47D+Z8w/Z/w7bL/hJsj7B+pzG/jf4NfCcCONTeJj2+HEDTcYQVoO5zZIELDF4MYzNouPfYeTN5wBOuzMgeO5bRLPDA7gd1ga842Eb4dtNxw//vhDxYHq3H7+5IcPf+JzGAZgYyAyfkbBKBgFo2AU4AYANeheDvU57UgAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Saravanan","middleName":"","lastName":"Sengunthar","suffix":""},{"id":527766679,"identity":"25aa209d-b010-41b3-b953-864033f58315","order_by":1,"name":"Pravin Jadhav","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and 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01:04:17","extension":"html","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":84019,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7709006/v1/4bebae785a647cf7fc751e93.html"},{"id":93817104,"identity":"458e8056-0e68-4f92-9e33-529bfa49bcb6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-18 01:12:17","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":409266,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of India’s agricultural products (610 Agri-goods Exported from India to EU27) in SRCA–SEII quadrants (2009–2024)Average.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7709006/v1/0793a63bc18ce84c995557f6.png"},{"id":93816886,"identity":"584c4dfe-fde4-4ab8-a16c-e57d45b1f2ac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-18 01:04:17","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":236512,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eillustrates the top 10 agricultural products from India with the highest average Symmetric Revealed Comparative Advantage (SRCA) values, juxtaposed against their corresponding Symmetric Export Intensity Index (SEII) scores. The SRCA metric standardizes RCA values on a –1 to +1 scale, facilitating direct comparison with SEII, which is similarly normalized.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7709006/v1/9f050a3627ec1be6b8a065c2.png"},{"id":95176935,"identity":"808ce66d-a9ad-46d9-92ac-8ea4c98607f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-05 07:38:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1245204,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7709006/v1/173856ab-3144-4eee-aafd-3c0e09bf4f5d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Revealed Comparative Advantage and Export Intensity Analysis of India’s Agricultural Trade with EU27: A Product Level Study","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAgriculture remains a cornerstone of the Indian economy, providing livelihoods for over 43% of the workforce and contributing significantly to rural income and socio-economic stability (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Chand et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Narayanan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Despite its importance, the sector faces persistent structural constraints, including small landholdings, fragmented value chains, low mechanization, price volatility, and limited access to high value international markets (Sharma \u0026amp; Saini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Gulati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kumar \u0026amp; Kapoor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These challenges have constrained income growth, contributed to agrarian distress, and remain central to policy discourse (Government of India, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Mehta \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn response, India has increasingly emphasized export led agricultural growth. The Agriculture Export Policy (AEP) of 2018 prioritizes market diversification, value addition, and integration into global value chains to achieve the target of doubling farmers\u0026rsquo; incomes (Government of India, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; ICRIER, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Among potential export destinations, the European Union (EU27) represents a high value market characterized by stringent sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards, technical barriers to trade, and rigorous certification regimes, which collectively restrict market access for many Indian agricultural commodities (Jaffee \u0026amp; Henson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Mehta \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite India\u0026rsquo;s natural and comparative advantages in products such as spices, horticultural items, and marine products, export penetration into the EU remains limited and uneven (Batra \u0026amp; Khan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Kumar \u0026amp; Kapoor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Gulati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Non-Tariff measures (NTMs), including Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs), traceability requirements, and quality certification obligations, further exacerbate this underperformance (Jaffee \u0026amp; Henson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Sharma \u0026amp; Saini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, understanding the interplay between India\u0026rsquo;s comparative advantage and its orientation toward the EU market is critical for designing effective trade policy interventions (Balassa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e; Leamer \u0026amp; Stern, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantitative trade indicators such as the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and Export Intensity Index (EII) provide powerful tools for measuring product level competitiveness and market focus. RCA identifies commodities where India holds a relative advantage in global markets, while EII measures the degree of export concentration toward the EU relative to world trade patterns (Kumar \u0026amp; Kapoor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies employing RCA and EII have identified high potential agricultural products and highlighted the gaps between competitiveness and market penetration (Sharma \u0026amp; Saini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Gulati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Mehta \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, few analyses have applied these indices to India\u0026ndash;EU trade over an extended period using granular 6-digit HS data, leaving a gap in the literature regarding both longitudinal trends and product specific insights.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study addresses this gap by conducting a product level analysis of India\u0026rsquo;s agricultural exports to the EU27 from 2009 to 2024 using HS 6-digit classification data from the World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) database (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). By calculating RCA and EII values, along with their symmetric transformations (SRCA and SEII), the research identifies products with strong comparative advantage, evaluates their export orientation toward the EU, and highlights underutilized trade potential. This empirical approach provides policy relevant insights for enhancing India\u0026rsquo;s agricultural trade competitiveness and facilitating more effective market integration with the EU (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; ICRIER, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Gulati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Unlike earlier works that examined aggregate trade or limited categories, this study is the first to apply RCA and EII jointly at HS-6 product level over a 15-year period for India\u0026ndash;EU agricultural trade.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe use of quantitative trade indices, particularly the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and Export Intensity Index (EII), has become central to understanding the competitiveness and market orientation of national exports. These indices provide a structured approach to assess not only the relative global advantage of specific commodities but also the extent to which countries focus their exports on particular markets (Balassa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e; Leamer \u0026amp; Stern, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRevealed Comparative Advantage (RCA)\u003c/b\u003e measures a country’s export specialization by comparing the share of a product in its export basket to the product’s share in global trade. A value greater than 1 indicates that the country has a comparative advantage in that product. Previous studies have demonstrated RCA’s utility in identifying India’s globally competitive products. For instance, Batra and Khan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) found that India consistently exhibits comparative advantage in spices, marine products, and certain textiles. Sharma and Saini (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) applied RCA at the HS 6-digit level to classify Indian agricultural exports into high potential and underperforming categories, demonstrating the need for fine grained product level analysis to guide export strategy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExport Intensity Index (EII)\u003c/b\u003e complements RCA by assessing the degree of export orientation toward a specific market relative to the world. An EII value greater than 1 implies a higher than average export intensity to that market (Leamer \u0026amp; Stern, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e). In the context of India’s agricultural trade, Kumar and Kapoor (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) observed that despite India’s strong RCA in several products, EII toward the EU remained low compared to markets like the Middle East, indicating underutilized market potential. The empirical results of this study align with these observations, showing that even globally competitive products such as turmeric (HS 091030) and castor oil (HS 151530) have EII values below 1, highlighting untapped EU market opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRegulatory and structural constraints\u003c/b\u003e in the EU further explain these gaps between global competitiveness and market orientation. The European Union imposes stringent Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) standards and technical barriers to trade (TBT) that disproportionately affect exporters from developing countries (Jaffee \u0026amp; Henson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Gulati et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) emphasize that India’s limited export performance in horticultural and processed food products is largely due to inadequate testing infrastructure, fragmented value chains, and certification related hurdles. This is reflected in the bottom left quadrant (low RCA, low EII) of the SRCA SEII scatter plot for Indian agri products, indicating products that are neither globally competitive nor EU focused.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eQuadrant based diagnostics\u003c/b\u003e using symmetric transformations of RCA (SRCA) and EII (SEII) offer a more nuanced understanding of trade patterns. In the SRCA SEII framework, products with high SRCA but low SEII, such as Seeds of cumin (HS 090930) and mucilages \u0026amp; thickeners (HS 130232), are globally competitive but underpenetrated in the EU, signaling opportunities for targeted export promotion and regulatory facilitation. Conversely, products like ossein (HS 050610) and sesamum seeds (HS 120740) exhibit both high SRCA and SEII, demonstrating successful translation of global advantage into strong EU market presence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe literature also underscores the longitudinal value of RCA and EII analysis. Mehta and Kumar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) highlight that persistent low EII over multiple years, despite strong RCA, points to structural market inefficiencies rather than transient trade shocks. Our findings corroborate this trend: out of 610 agricultural products analyzed between 2009 and 2024, only 105 products exhibit RCA greater than 1, while merely 56 products have EII greater than 1. This asymmetry reinforces the importance of market specific interventions and policy measures that enhance EU access for India’s competitive products.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have applied these dual indices to assess strategic export promotion. Sharma and Saini (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) proposed combining RCA and EII matrices to classify commodities into four quadrants: (i) globally competitive and EU oriented, (ii) competitive but under penetrated, (iii) EU oriented but globally weak, and (iv) neither competitive nor EU oriented. Our product level SRCA SEII analysis confirms that the majority of Indian agricultural exports fall into quadrants (ii) and (iv), underscoring the need for product specific support, capacity building, and targeted trade facilitation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the literature establishes RCA and EII as robust tools for trade diagnostics. However, prior studies largely focus on aggregate trade patterns or select product categories. This research extends the empirical framework to 610 HS 6-digit products over 15 years, offering a granular and longitudinal view of India–EU agricultural trade, and providing actionable insights to align comparative advantage with market orientation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employs a quantitative analytical framework to evaluate India’s agricultural export competitiveness and market orientation toward the EU27. The analysis is grounded in product level trade data (HS 6 digit) from 2009 to 2024, sourced from the World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) database (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Using this granular data ensures accurate identification of India’s comparative advantage and export focus for individual commodities, capturing both global and regional trade dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eData Source and Scope\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research relies exclusively on secondary data of India's Import/exports to the 27 member countries of the European Union, specifically: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe trade data is sourced from the World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) database, which aggregates international trade flows based on customs data submitted by national governments and verified by multilateral institutions including the World Bank, UN COMTRADE, and WTO.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe dataset encompasses 664 agricultural products, classified according to the Harmonized System (HS) Nomenclature, Edition 2007 (H3) as developed by the World Customs Organization (WCO). For analytical consistency and international comparability, only data at the 6-digit of the HS classification system has been used. This threshold ensures standardization, as HS codes beyond six digits are often country specific and not harmonized at the global level. However, 54 of these agri products were not exported by India to the EU27 at any point during the 15-year study period (2009–2024). As such, their RCA and EII values could not be computed, and they were excluded from the final analysis. The effective number of products analyzed is thus 610.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eProduct Classification and Time Frame\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study covers a 15-year period from 2009 to 2024, enabling an inter temporal assessment of India’s agricultural trade performance with the EU. Products have been grouped into thematic subcategories based on trade function and descriptive keywords (e.g., spices, cereals, legumes, essential oils, processed foods), facilitating both aggregate and disaggregate level comparisons.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalytical Framework\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo trade performance indicators form the backbone of the empirical analysis:\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eRevealed Comparative Advantage (RCA)\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eRCA quantifies whether India holds a relative advantage in exporting a given commodity compared to the rest of the world. It is calculated as:\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eRCAij = (Xij / Xit) / (Xwj / Xwt)\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere ​ Xij is exports of product i by country j,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eXit​ is total exports by country i,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eXwj is world exports of product j, and\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eXwt is total world exports.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn RCA greater 1 indicates that India holds a comparative advantage in the product, while RCA lesser than 1 signals comparative disadvantage. Previous studies confirm RCA’s utility in identifying India’s global strengths in spices, oils, and niche agri products (Sharma \u0026amp; Saini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eExport Intensity Index (EII)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEII measures the degree of India's export orientation toward the EU27 for a given product, relative to the global trade pattern. It is calculated as:\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eEIIij = (Xij / Xit) / (Mj / Mw)\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere Xij is exports of product i by country j,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eXit is the export of country i\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMj Total world imports of j from all countries\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn EII value greater than 1 indicates that India exports more intensively to the EU than the global average.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eData Processing and Index Construction\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo enhance interpretability and enable direct visual comparison between trade competitiveness and market orientation and enable quadrant-based trade diagnostics the original RCA and EII values were transformed into their symmetric forms, yielding values bounded between − 1 and + 1. This transformation is particularly useful for scatter plotting and quadrant-based trade diagnostics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe formulas used for the symmetric transformation are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSymmetric Revealed Comparative Advantage (SRCA):\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSRCA = (RCA − 1) / (RCA + 1)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSRCA\u003c/em\u003e is the Symmetric Revealed Comparative Advantage\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRCA\u003c/em\u003e is the standard Revealed Comparative Advantage value\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSymmetric Export Intensity Index (SEII):\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSEII = (EII − 1) / (EII + 1)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSEII\u003c/em\u003e is the Symmetric Export Intensity Index\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEII\u003c/em\u003e is the standard Export Intensity Index value\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn SEII and SRCA value greater than 0 indicates that India exports more intensively to the EU than the global average. No prior study applies symmetric RCA and EII transformations (SRCA, SEII) to India–EU agri-trade, which this paper introduces as a novel diagnostic tool\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eQuadrant Based Trade Diagnostics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study employs SRCA SEII scatter plots to categorize products into four quadrants:\u003c/p\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHigh SRCA, High SEII\u003c/b\u003e – Globally competitive and EU focused (best performing products, e.g., ossein HS 050610, sesamum seeds HS 120740)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHigh SRCA, Low SEII\u003c/b\u003e – Competitive globally but under penetrated in EU (e.g., castor oil HS 151530, turmeric HS 091030)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLow SRCA, High SEII\u003c/b\u003e – Limited global competitiveness but relatively high EU orientation (reflects niche or diaspora driven exports)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLow SRCA, Low SEII\u003c/b\u003e – Neither competitive nor EU focused (majority of vegetables and low value horticultural items)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis framework identifies strategic export gaps and priority sectors for policy intervention, trade facilitation, and market development\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors calculated RCA, EII, SRCA and SEII values manually using cleaned trade data from the WITS platform. All values were computed in consistent units and normalized annually. Descriptive statistics, category level averages, and longitudinal trends were then derived from the calculated indices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study fills this empirical gap by analyzing 610 agricultural products using 16 years of RCA and EII data 2009 to 2024.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eOverview of India\u0026rsquo;s Agricultural Trade Competitiveness and EU Orientation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of India\u0026rsquo;s agricultural exports to the EU27 over the period 2009\u0026ndash;2024 reveals significant heterogeneity in both global competitiveness and market orientation across 610 HS 6-digit products. Employing Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and the Export Intensity Index (EII), the study identifies that only a limited subset of commodities exhibits both high global competitiveness and substantial orientation toward the EU market. Approximately 17% of products (105 commodities) displayed an average RCA greater than 1, signalling a comparative advantage in global trade, with prominent examples including castor oil (HS 151530), turmeric (HS 091030), and preserved cucumbers and gherkins (HS 071140). Despite this, only 9% of products (56 commodities) exhibited an EII above 1, suggesting that India\u0026rsquo;s exports to the EU remain below expected levels relative to global trade, indicating untapped market potential (Leamer \u0026amp; Stern, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSymmetric transformations of these indices into SRCA and SEII further highlight the distribution of products across four performance quadrants, with many globally competitive products showing low EU orientation and a substantial number of products falling into the low RCA, low EII quadrant. This pattern reflects structural constraints, regulatory challenges, and limited market integration, consistent with prior findings on India\u0026rsquo;s agri-export performance to high value markets (Gulati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Jaffee \u0026amp; Henson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Kumar \u0026amp; Kapoor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, certain niche commodities such as ossein (HS 050610) and sesamum seeds (HS 120740) successfully translate comparative advantage into high EU market penetration, demonstrating the potential for targeted trade facilitation and policy interventions to enhance market orientation. Overall, these results indicate a misalignment between global competitiveness and EU export intensity, emphasizing the need for product specific strategies to realize India\u0026rsquo;s trade potential in high value European agricultural markets (Sharma \u0026amp; Saini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mehta \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese transformations compress the unbounded nature of RCA and EII into a standardized scale, facilitating effective quadrant mapping and comparative interpretation across products.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe scatter plot (figure.1) uses SRCA on the X axis and SEII on the Y axis. The graph reveals several important trends. The bottom left quadrant (SRCA lesser than 0, SEII lesser than 0) is densely populated, indicating that many products lack both global competitiveness and EU market orientation. Conversely, the top right quadrant (SRCA greater than 0, SEII greater than 0) highlights a smaller but strategically critical group of products that exhibit both strong competitiveness and focused EU trade integration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eProducts in the bottom right quadrant (SRCA greater than 0, SEII lesser than 0) are globally competitive but underpenetrated in the EU market suggesting untapped export potential hindered by regulatory or logistical barriers. The top left quadrant (SRCA lesser than 0, SEII greater than 0) contains products with unexpectedly high EU presence despite limited global competitiveness, potentially reflecting niche market demand or diaspora driven trade.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe observed positive linear trendline in the plot implies a weak but positive correlation between competitiveness and market intensity, underscoring that improvements in RCA may enhance export focus toward the EU. However, the scattered nature of the data also suggests a need for differentiated policy approaches based on specific product characteristics and market dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTop Performing Products by RCA\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e below presents the five agricultural products with the highest average RCA values during the study period. These products reflect India\u0026rsquo;s strongest global comparative advantage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTop 5 Products by Average RCA (2009\u0026ndash;2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduct Code\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduct Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg. RCA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg. EII\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e130211\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOpium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e151530\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCastor oil \u0026amp; its fractions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e071140\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCucumbers \u0026amp; gherkins (preserved)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e050610\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOssein \u0026amp; acid treated bones\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e091030\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurmeric (curcuma)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese high RCA values confirm India\u0026rsquo;s longstanding strength in niche exports such as castor oil, cucumbers, and turmeric, which are globally competitive due to agro-climatic advantages and historical production specialization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the top 10 agricultural products from India with the highest average Symmetric Revealed Comparative Advantage (SRCA) values, juxtaposed against their corresponding Symmetric Export Intensity Index (SEII) scores. The SRCA metric standardizes RCA values on a \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 to +\u0026thinsp;1 scale, facilitating direct comparison with SEII, which is similarly normalized.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe chart reveals a crucial asymmetry between India\u0026rsquo;s global competitiveness and its market orientation toward the EU27. While all ten products exhibit SRCA values approaching the upper bound (+\u0026thinsp;1), indicating extremely strong comparative advantage in global trade, their SEII values are highly variable, ranging from positive alignment to negative divergence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNotably, products like Ossein \u0026amp; bones treated with acid (HS 50610) and Sesamum seeds (HS 120740) not only have high SRCA but also relatively strong SEII scores, suggesting that India has successfully translated global competitiveness into active EU market penetration. These products exemplify optimal trade alignment and may serve as benchmark commodities in trade strategy development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, products such as Seeds of cumin (HS 090930) and Mucilages \u0026amp; thickeners (HS 130232) exhibit negative SEII values, despite very high SRCA. This indicates significant underutilization of the EU market, reflecting either regulatory barriers (e.g., SPS, labeling requirements) or strategic neglect in export targeting. These are high potential products where policy support and market facilitation could yield measurable gains.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther products like Turmeric (HS 091030) and Castor oil (HS 151530) also show positive SRCA but only marginal or negative SEII values, suggesting underperformance in the EU relative to their global strengths. This supports the broader theme that comparative advantage does not necessarily translate into market orientation, particularly in a high regulation environment like the EU.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEven among India's most globally competitive agri-products, EU market presence remains inconsistent. Strategic realignment through targeted promotion, trade facilitation, and compliance infrastructure is essential to unlock the full potential of these exports in the European Union.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eBottom Performing Products by RCA\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, many agricultural products fall below the threshold of RCA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows five products with consistently poor comparative advantage, suggesting that India lacks export competitiveness in these categories.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBottom 5 Products by Average RCA (RCA lesser than 1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduct Code\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduct Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg. RCA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg. EII\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e070940\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCelery (fresh/chilled)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e071290\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegetables \u0026amp; mixtures, provisionally preserved\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e070920\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsparagus (fresh/chilled)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e070951\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMushrooms (fresh/chilled)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e070952\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTruffles (fresh/chilled)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese items reflect either structural limitations in domestic production or strong import competition from other countries (e.g., Peru, Netherlands, China) in the EU market.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTop Performing Products by EII\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e highlights products with the highest export intensity to the EU. These products reflect not only competitiveness but also a clear EU market orientation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTop 5 Products by Average EII\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduct Code\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduct Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg. RCA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg. EII\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121190\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther plants/parts used in perfumery\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e050610\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOssein \u0026amp; bones treated with acid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121190\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther herbs (duplicates by HS6 split)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e080131\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCashew nuts, in shell\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e130219\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther vegetable saps and extracts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis suggests value added herbal, pharmaceutical, and nutraceutical products are better aligned with EU import demand, despite modest total export volumes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eBottom Performing Products by EII\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eProducts with the lowest EII (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) highlight a disconnect between global competitiveness and EU market engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBottom 5 Products by Average EII (EII lesser than 0.05)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduct Code\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduct Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg. RCA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg. EII\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e070952\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTruffles (fresh/chilled)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e070951\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMushrooms (fresh/chilled)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e070920\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsparagus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e070940\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCelery\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e071290\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePreserved vegetable mixtures\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDiscussion\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study underscore that India\u0026rsquo;s agricultural export strengths are concentrated in a limited number of products that exhibit both high Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and moderately strong Export Intensity Index (EII), such as castor oil, turmeric, and preserved cucumbers. Despite this, market under penetration persists across a broad spectrum of globally competitive commodities, largely due to stringent Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures, lack of targeted branding, and EU specific certification barriers. The analysis, grounded in HS 6 digit level data over a 15-year period, highlights the necessity of category level interventions, particularly in promising sectors like medicinal plants and processed foods, which display latent potential when evaluated through RCA or EII metrics alone. This approach provides an empirical foundation for strategic trade promotion and for guiding negotiations under the India\u0026ndash;EU Free Trade Agreement (Mehta \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sharma \u0026amp; Saini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA focused assessment of product categories reveals nuanced opportunities and challenges. Spices and condiments, including turmeric, pepper, and cardamom, exhibit strong global competitiveness but relatively low EII toward the EU. Strengthening India\u0026rsquo;s position in this segment requires promoting EU focused branding, particularly for Geographical Indication (GI) tagged spices(FAO, 2025), ensuring alignment with maximum residue limits (MRLs), and expanding testing and certification infrastructure in major producing regions. These measures are expected to enhance compliance readiness and improve price realization for farmers engaged in high value spice cultivation (Gulati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Jaffee \u0026amp; Henson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEssential oils and medicinal plants represent a rare alignment of high RCA and strong EII, exemplified by products such as lemongrass oil and ossein. Scaling this advantage requires investment in supply chains for phytopharmaceutical and wellness linked exports, facilitation of organic and ethical certification access, and explicit inclusion of these sectors in India\u0026ndash;EU FTA discussions. Such interventions would directly benefit smallholder producers engaged in herbal and value added agriculture (Sharma \u0026amp; Saini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Kumar \u0026amp; Kapoor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the processed foods category, high competitiveness is frequently constrained by EU regulatory frictions, primarily arising from stringent food safety standards. Policy priorities should include upgrading processing infrastructure to EU compliant norms, enhancing cold chain logistics, and fostering public private partnerships within food clusters. These steps can transform surplus raw produce into export grade goods, improve rural employment, and reduce post harvest losses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe fruits and vegetables subsector exhibits low RCA and EII, reflecting systemic barriers such as perishability and Non-Tariff SPS constraints. Focused interventions should prioritize crops with proven EU demand, such as mangoes and okra, promote bilateral engagement for SPS harmonization, and incentivize EU aligned cold chain infrastructure in high output states. These measures can facilitate access to premium EU markets and provide farmers with a more stable income stream.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmerging opportunities in legumes and pulses including chickpeas and mung beans are evident as these commodities demonstrate increasing competitiveness and orientation toward the EU. Value addition aligned with the EU\u0026rsquo;s plant-based protein demand, development of organic production clusters, and promotion of packaged pulse based food lines tailored for diaspora and health conscious markets are recommended to strengthen this subsector (Mehta \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile cashews and other nuts remain strong, other oilseeds, such as sesame and flax, underperform due to processing inefficiencies and quality mismatches. Developing decentralized nut and seed processing hubs, standardizing fumigation and packaging norms with EU counterparts, and building category specific export branding can bridge these gaps.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnimal derived products, such as ossein and gelatin, provide feasible export opportunities in EU industrial supply chains. Enhancing traceability, ensuring veterinary certification compliance, and promoting ethically sourced by products can help capture EU demand without affecting domestic consumption sensitivities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeyond conventional categories, approximately one-third of products (200+) fall into emerging/niche categories (e.g., gums, resins, botanical derivatives), which require further cluster analysis. Employing RCA EII cluster analysis and market intelligence tools can help identify viable emerging exports, support pilot scale export trials, and build SME capabilities around high margin niche commodities, such as gums, resins, and botanical derivatives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, to mainstream competitiveness insights into trade policy, RCA and EII data should be institutionalized in FTA negotiation frameworks. Establishing a centralized digital dashboard that maps EU compliance requirements would enable exporters to adapt in real time, while pooled multi product certification schemes could reduce compliance costs for small and marginal exporters. These measures would expand grassroots participation and strengthen India\u0026rsquo;s agricultural trade engagement with high value EU markets (Sharma \u0026amp; Saini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Gulati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides a comprehensive, disaggregated, and evidence based evaluation of India\u0026rsquo;s agricultural exports to the European Union (EU27) by examining product level competitiveness and market orientation through the dual frameworks of Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and Export Intensity Index (EII). Utilizing 15 years of trade data across 610 HS 6-digit agricultural products, the analysis elucidates the persistent gaps between India\u0026rsquo;s global strengths and its actual penetration into the EU agricultural market. The findings reveal that a limited subset of commodities such as castor oil, turmeric, preserved cucumbers, essential oils, and certain botanical extracts demonstrates high RCA, reflecting India\u0026rsquo;s intrinsic comparative advantage. However, these products often exhibit lower than expected EII values, indicating underexploited market potential due to regulatory barriers, SPS compliance challenges, and logistical constraints (Balassa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e; Sharma \u0026amp; Saini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Gulati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, a substantial portion of agricultural products falls into the low RCA, low EII quadrant, highlighting structural limitations, high foreign competition, and inadequate integration into EU trade channels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis also identifies emerging and unclassified agri products, including certain legumes, medicinal plants, and value-added derivatives, as promising candidates for diversification and targeted promotion. Symmetric transformations of RCA and EII (SRCA and SEII) enabled quadrant-based diagnostics that clearly distinguish globally competitive but underpenetrated commodities from niche EU oriented products, thereby offering a granular basis for strategic trade policy interventions. These findings are particularly relevant in the context of India\u0026rsquo;s persistent agrarian distress, where low farm incomes and market instability continue to constrain rural livelihoods (Chand et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Narayanan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). By integrating RCA EII diagnostics into product specific recommendations such as strengthening compliance infrastructure, facilitating bilateral SPS harmonization, expanding certification access, and deploying digital trade facilitation tools India can better align export potential with actual market realization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the study reinforces the practical utility of RCA and EII not only as analytical instruments but also as actionable tools for export planning, policy prioritization, and trade negotiation. Embedding these indices within India\u0026rsquo;s agricultural trade architecture can enhance farm level profitability, reduce trade asymmetries, and optimize the allocation of resources toward high potential commodities, thereby leveraging international trade as a mechanism for inclusive and sustainable rural development. Importantly, the identification of products with high global competitiveness but low EU penetration suggests an urgent need for policy driven interventions to convert latent trade potential into realized market outcomes, ensuring that India\u0026rsquo;s agricultural export strategy is both targeted and responsive to the needs of farmers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval and Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable. This study did not involve human participants, animal subjects, or personal data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable. The manuscript does not contain any individual person\u0026rsquo;s data in any form (including individual details, images, or videos).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBalassa, B. (1965). Trade liberalisation and \u0026ldquo;revealed\u0026rdquo; comparative advantage. \u003cem\u003eThe Manchester School, 33\u003c/em\u003e(2), 99\u0026ndash;123.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBatra, A., \u0026amp; Khan, Z. (2005). India\u0026rsquo;s export competitiveness: An analysis of sectoral trends. \u003cem\u003eIndian Economic Review, 40\u003c/em\u003e(2), 145\u0026ndash;167.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBatra, A., \u0026amp; Khan, Z. (2005). Revealed comparative advantage: An analysis for India and China. ICRIER Working Paper No. 168.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChand, R., Saxena, R., \u0026amp; Rana, S. (2021). Farm income in India: Myths and realities. \u003cem\u003eEconomic \u0026amp; Political Weekly, 56\u003c/em\u003e(14), 24\u0026ndash;28.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFAO. (2021). India at a glance: FAO in India. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/india/fao-in-india/india-at-a-glance/en/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEuropean Commission. (2022). EU\u0026ndash;India agreement. Retrieved from https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-relationships-country-and-region/countries-and-regions/india/eu-india-agreement_en\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGulati, A., Juneja, R., \u0026amp; Banerjee, P. (2022). \u003cem\u003eHarnessing Indian agriculture for global markets\u003c/em\u003e. NITI Aayog.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGulati, A., Sharma, P., \u0026amp; Kapoor, S. (2022). India\u0026rsquo;s underperformance in EU agri-food exports: Causes and policy implications. \u003cem\u003eEconomic \u0026amp; Political Weekly, 57\u003c/em\u003e(5), 32\u0026ndash;45.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGovernment of India. (2018). \u003cem\u003eAgriculture Export Policy 2018\u003c/em\u003e. Ministry of Commerce \u0026amp; Industry. Retrieved from https://commerce.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Agriculture-Export-Policy-2018.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eICRIER. (2022). SPS barriers and their impact on India\u0026rsquo;s agri exports to the European Union. Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eICRIER. (2023). SPS barriers to India\u0026rsquo;s agriculture export. Retrieved from https://icrier.org/pdf/SPS_Barriers_to_India_Agriculture_Export.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIndian Express. (2023). India\u0026apos;s agricultural exports to EU. Retrieved from https://indianexpress.com/article/business/india-agricultural-exports-eu-2023-8596742/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJaffee, S., \u0026amp; Henson, S. (2004). Standards and trade: Regulatory barriers in developing countries. \u003cem\u003eWorld Bank Policy Research Working Paper, 3346-3348.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKumar, P., \u0026amp; Kapoor, S. (2021). Export intensity of Indian agricultural products: ASEAN, EU and Middle East. \u003cem\u003eJournal of International Trade, 12\u003c/em\u003e(3), 45\u0026ndash;62.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKumar, S., \u0026amp; Kapoor, K. (2021). Comparative export intensity of Indian agricultural products: Evidence from ASEAN, EU, and Middle East. \u003cem\u003eJournal of International Trade and Economic Development, 30\u003c/em\u003e(3), 387\u0026ndash;403.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeamer, E., \u0026amp; Stern, R. (1970). Quantitative measurement of trade orientation. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Political Economy, 78\u003c/em\u003e(3), 641\u0026ndash;662.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeamer, E. E., \u0026amp; Stern, R. M. (1970). \u003cem\u003eQuantitative international economics\u003c/em\u003e. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMehta, R., \u0026amp; Kumar, M. (2023). India\u0026ndash;EU trade relations: Progress, prospects and challenges. \u003cem\u003eJournal of International Trade \u0026amp; Economic Development, 32\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1\u0026ndash;22.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMehta, V., \u0026amp; Kumar, R. (2023). 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Using RCA and EII to analyze India\u0026rsquo;s agricultural exports. \u003cem\u003eJournal of World Trade, 50\u003c/em\u003e(3), 455\u0026ndash;475.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Bank. (2024). \u003cem\u003eWorld Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) database\u003c/em\u003e. Retrieved from https://wits.worldbank.org\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eReuters. (2024). Agriculture most problematic area in India\u0026ndash;EU trade pact talks. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/agriculture-most-problematic-area-india-eu-trade-pact-talks-german-minister-says-2024-10-24/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"India EU trade, agricultural exports, revealed comparative advantage, export intensity index, RCA, EII, WITS, HS6 classification, trade competitiveness, agri-policy, and EU27","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7709006/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7709006/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluates India\u0026rsquo;s agricultural export competitiveness with the EU27 using product level trade data (HS 6 digit) from 2009\u0026ndash;2024. We employ Balassa\u0026rsquo;s Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) index and the Export Intensity Index (EII) to identify comparative advantages and export orientation, respectively. Symmetric transformations of these indices (SRCA and SEII) are applied to facilitate quadrant-based diagnostics of trade performance. The analysis covers 610 agricultural commodities and reveals that only about 105 products approximately 17% exhibit an average RCA greater than 1 (indicating global comparative advantage), while merely 56 products (9% Approx.) show an average EII lesser than 1 (implying above average export intensity to the EU). Notably, very few items (27, 4% Approx.) score above 1 on both indices, underscoring a narrow intersection of high competitiveness and strong EU market penetration. India\u0026rsquo;s top RCA commodities \u0026ndash; for example, castor oil (HS 151530) and turmeric (HS 091030) with exceptionally high RCA values (77 and 53) often have underwhelming EII (0.84 and 0.66, respectively), signalling untapped export potential in the EU market. In contrast, certain niche products like ossein (animal bone concentrate, HS 050610) and sesamum seeds (HS 120740) translate their strong RCA into high EII (e.g. EII greater than 1), exemplifying optimal alignment of comparative advantage with EU orientation. The majority of the products, however, fall into a low RCA, low EII quadrant, indicating limited competitiveness and engagement in EU agri goods trade. These findings highlight substantial scope for India to enhance its trade competitiveness with the EU by leveraging high RCA products and addressing market access barriers that impede the realization of comparative advantage. Aligning export strategy with revealed strengths through product specific support, quality compliance, and favourable trade negotiations is crucial for capitalizing on India\u0026rsquo;s competitive niches and should inform India\u0026ndash;EU FTA discussions on SPS harmonization, Geographical Indication (GI) protection, and certification standards.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Revealed Comparative Advantage and Export Intensity Analysis of India’s Agricultural Trade with EU27: A Product Level Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-18 01:04:12","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7709006/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5846d2b2-7216-4981-82fd-9c26d6482d8a","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-05T07:38:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-18 01:04:12","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7709006","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7709006","identity":"rs-7709006","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}