Relationships between available-holding water capacity, N-NO3- and K in the soil with parameters of nutritional status, vigour, yield, must and wine composition in the cv. Tempranillo

Relationships between available-holding water capacity, N-NO3- and K in the soil with parameters of nutritional status, vigour, yield, must and wine composition in the cv. 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Tempranillo José María Martínez-Vidaurre, Eva Pilar Pérez-Álvarez, Enrique García-Escudero, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1723498/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Purpose The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between the available water-holding capacity (AWC), available N-NO 3 − and K extractable content in the soil and the vine nutritional status, vigour, yield and quality of the musts and wines in D.O.Ca. Rioja vineyards over a period of five years (2010–2014). Methods The AWC, available N-NO 3 − and K extractable contents in the soil were analysed in twelve cv. Tempranillo plots. Vine yield and nutritional parameters were determined, as well as the K and polyphenols compounds in the musts and wines. Results In general, both the AWC and the N-NO 3 − content correlated positively with the N and K content of the petiole, the shoot weight, and the bunch weight, but negatively with the polyphenols and anthocyanins content of the musts and wines. The K that can be extracted from the soil also correlated with the K content of the petiole, and with the K in the musts and wines. Conclusions The AWC, the N-NO 3 − and the extractable K are soil parameters which have been linked to the growth and ripening of the vine plant, as well as to the composition of the must and wine. For D.O.Ca. Rioja wine-growing sector, these soil parameters would be a suitable tool in order to select soils that allow to obtain wines of better quality. available water-holding capacity must quality soil available N-NO3- soil K extractable wine quality Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction The key variable factors of vine cultivation and quality grape production are climate, soil, and plant material. These, together with the topography and agronomic practices, constitute a unique ecosystem known as the terroir (Seguin 1986 ; Van Leeuwen et al. 2004 ; Van Leeuwen and Seguin 2006 ; Van Leeuwen et al. 2018 ). The effect of climate is the greatest on most vine parameters, followed by soil and cultivar. In fact, climate characteristics have a strong influence on berry growth and composition (Tomasi et al. 2013). Regarding the climatic parameters, sunshine hours and temperature do not have a decisive impact on the quality of the vintage, in contrast to what happens with rainfall and its distribution throughout the vines growing cycle, especially in summer. For that reason, the effects of climate and soil on vine development and grape composition can be explained to a large degree by their influence on vine water status (Van Leeuwen et al. 2004 ). In regions with a Mediterranean climate, rainfall varies greatly from year to year, so that the availability of water for the vineyard can vary substantially between vintages (Catarino et al. 2018 ; Grainger et al. 2021 ; Lima et al. 2021 ) and the interactions of the soil with the vine plant can also be affected by this inter- and intra- annual climatic variability. The soil in which vines grow influences both the quality and the style of a wine (Reynolds, 2010). Soil characteristics may directly influence the water availability for plants, which will eventually determine the grapevines physiological performance (Brillante et al. 2015 , 2016). The resultant variations in whole plant physiology are associated to grape flavonoid composition (Yu et al. 2020 ), affecting wine quality. Ideally, vineyards should be established in areas where soil temperature (relative to air temperature), soil water-holding capacity (relative to rainfall and potential evapotranspiration) and soil nitrogen availability are optimum for the type of wine to be produced (Van Leeuwen et al. 2018 ). It is well known that the effect of the soil on vine behaviour is mediated through varying water content levels and their effects on vine water status (Seguin, 1970 ; Seguin 1986 ; Van Leeuwen and Seguin 1994 ). The available water in the root zone is one of the factors that affects plant growth, yield, bunch rot and berry composition (Echeverria et al. 2017). In addition, mild water deficits are known to have positive effects on reducing berry size (Smart, 1974 ; Intrigliolo and Castel 2010 ; Intrigliolo et al. 2016 ) and on berry skin anthocyanins and tannins content in red grape varieties (Matthews and Anderson 1988 ; Van Leeuwen and Seguin 1994 ; Koundouras et al. 1999 , García-Esparza et al. 2018; Pérez-Álvarez et al. 2021 ; Lizama et al. 2021 ). Consequently, determining the capacity of moisture retention of the complete profile of the soil can serve for considering the water available for the cultivation of the vine in each type of soil and, therefore, for assessing the effect of the vineyard development. Moreover, the availability of mineral soil nutrients is vital for the vines development, due to their impact on growth and the ripening process, as well as on the vigour and yield (Keller 2005 ). However, Seguin ( 1986 ) has found no relationship between soil minerals and wine quality, except for nitrogen (N). Both N deficiency and N excess have negative impacts on grapevine development and grape composition (Verdenal et al. 2021 ). There is a little evidence that soil minerals are major drivers of terroir expression (Van Leeuwen et al. 2018 ). It has been shown that nitrogen fertilization increases vigour and yield (Kliewer and Cook 1971 ; Spayd et al. 1994 ; Verdenal et al. 2021 ), extends the vegetative growth period (competing with and delaying grape ripening), increases grape sensitivity to fungal diseases (Thomidis et al. 2016 ) and can also decrease the polyphenols and anthocyanins content (Hilbert et al. 2003 ; Delgado et al. 2004 ; Schreiner et al. 2018 ). Without the addition of nitrogen fertilizer, the vine nitrogen status depends on organic matter content in the soil, its mineralization rate and the C/N ratio. Since nitrate (N-NO 3 − ) is the main form of N that the vines can assimilate, its content in the soil at the point of maximum growth of the vine (flowering) may be related to the vine nutritional level of N, its vigour and the content of polyphenols and anthocyanins in the grape (Pérez-Álvarez et al. 2013 ). Consequently, it would be necessary to look more deeply into the determination of N-NO 3 − levels in vine growing soils in order to know better their effect on the vine’s development and the quality of the grapes. With respect to potassium (K), the vine roots absorb this nutrient very easily, in the form of a monovalent cation, showing high mobility in the plant at intracellular level and at a long distance between organs, through the phloem and the xylem (Arrobas et al. 2014 ). This element proves essential for the growth of shoots, resistance to water stress and to diseases, as well as for the transport and translocation of the assimilated substances (Mpelasoka et al. 2003 ; Wang et al. 2013 ). Indirectly, potassium benefits the synthesis of phenolic compounds during ripening, which is related to the presence of carbohydrates in the berries (Mohammed et al. 1993 ). On the other hand, to prevent a flat taste, wines from grapevines with an excess of K need the addition of acid (Rühl et al. 1992 ) and these musts and wines are strongly susceptible to biological spoilage (Mpelasoka et al. 2003 ). A deficiency of K produces grapes with high acidity and lower anthocyanin content (Griesser et al. 2017 ). An excess of K may lead to a deficiency of Mg in the vine, producing musts with a higher pH and a considerable reduction in total acidity, accompanied by a loss of colour in red wines (Ramos et al. 2017). Due to all the aforementioned, the availability of K in the soil could be related to the vigour, yield and quality of the musts and the wines. For this reason, this study is based on the hypothesis that the edaphic parameters, moisture reserves and levels of K and N, have an important influence on the physiological processes of the vines by directly affecting the balance between their vegetative vigour and the production of the grapes (Van Leeuwen and Seguin 1994 ). In the literature, there are virtually no experiments that have studied, simultaneously, the link between the soil reserves of moisture and its available N-NO 3 − and K with respect to the nutritional status, growth and yield of the vine, and which have also analysed the composition of the musts and the wines. In relation to providing some information on the role of the soil, as well as its possible interactions with climate, it is proposed to study available water reserves, soil N-NO 3 − availability and extractable K, over five seasons in various cv. Tempranillo vineyards in the Najerilla Valley (D.O.Ca. Rioja) and to study the relationships with nutritional status, vigour, yield and musts and wines composition. Materials And Methods Area of study description The study was conducted in the Uruñuela vine-growing area, in the Rioja Alta subzone of the Denominación de Origen Calificada (D.O.Ca.) Rioja, North of Spain. This area presents fluvial (terrace) and torrential (alluvial fan and glacis) quaternary deposits that cover Neogene sedimentary materials. The primary landforms are slopes and platforms, with altitudes ranging from 440 to 583 m above sea level, because of intense water modelling. In general, the climate in the area is Mediterranean according to the UNESCO aridity index, with a slight influence of the Atlantic or Oceanic climate. Annual average temperature, rainfall and evapotranspiration data were registered by an agro-climatic station of the Government of La Rioja ( www.larioja.org/siar ) located in the same mesoclimate area as the experimental plots (Latitude: 42 o 27′43′′N; Longitude: 2 o 42′46′′W; altitude: 465 m above sea level). The climatic parameters studied were: annual mean temperature (ºC), annual mean rainfall (mm), annual solar radiation (MJ m − 2 ), annual potential evapotranspiration (ET o ) calculated using the Penman-Monteith formula, as well as precipitation intervals (mm) during various phases of the vine cycle. The values of these climatic parameters have been registered for five seasons (2010–2014) and are summarized in Table 1 . Also the climate series from 2004–2010 is shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Climatic data (annual mean temperature (ºC) and precipitation (mm), solar radiation (MJ m -2 ) and reference evapotranspiration (mm)) of years 2010 to 2014 in the study area and variation (%) respect to average value of the historical series 2004–2018. Climatic data † 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Tª m (º C) 12.5 11.6 (-7.2) 12.8 (2.4) 12.5 (0.0) 12.0 (-4.0) 13.1 (4.8) Annual mean P (mm) 476 383.6 (-19.4) 345.4 (-27.4) 455.8 (-4.2) 677.6 (42.4) 559.2 (17.5) P Jan-May (mm) 227.9 152.2 (-33.2) 172.8 (-24.2) 179.0 (-21.5) 380.8 (67.1) 221.4 (-2.9) P Apr-Oct (mm) 240.1 209.4 (-12.8) 176.8 (-26.4) 300.4 (20.1) 314.0 (30.8) 235.0 (-2.1) P Sept-Oct (mm) 67.1 73.4 (9.4) 33.4 (-50.2) 122.2 (82.1) 68.8 (2.5) 86.8 (29.4) Solar Rad. (MJ.m -2 ) 5216 5089 (-2.4) 5262 (0.9) 5284 (1.3) 4909 (-5.9) 5177 (0.7) ETo (mm) 977 945 (-3.2) 977 (0.0) 998 (2.1) 880 (-9.9) 958 (-1.9) † Complete climatic series (2004–2018); Tª m: mean temperature; P: precipitation; Jan: January; Apr: April; Oct: October; Sept: September; Rad : Radiation; ETo: crop reference Evapotranspiration Soil mapping of this area, carried out previously, revealed a moderate to high variability, characterizing 24 cartographic units of soils in 1,000 hectares. The soils are formed from silt-sand parent materials with gravel, pebbles and stone materials. The main pedogenesis processes are a translocation of carbonates and clay illuviation (Martínez-Vidaurre 2017 ; Martínez-Vidaurre et al. 2003 ). Experimental design and description of vineyards plots This study was carried out during five seasons (2010 to 2014) in twelve vineyards of the cv. Tempranillo ( Vitis vinifera L.) grafted on Richter-110 rootstock. The geographic coordinates of each plot selected are shown in Table 2 . All the vineyards were located over platforms with field slopes lower than 2% and the twelve vineyards were less than one km apart, so that the climatic conditions are considered homogeneous between the vineyards for a given vintage. Table 2 Geographic coordinates (ETRS89 projection system) and average altitude (m) of each vineyard plot. Plot Longitude Latitude Altitude (m) 1 2º42´28” 42º27´40” 472 2 2º42´9” 42º27´55” 467 3 2º42´54” 42º27´10” 475 4 2º42´56” 42º27´5” 476 5 2º41´6” 42º27´49” 508 6 2º41´34” 42º27´30” 510 7 2º41´22” 42º27´36” 517 8 2º40´22” 42º27´28” 566 9 2º40´29” 42º27´21” 565 10 2º40´30” 42º27´36” 564 11 2º40´59” 42º27´21” 552 12 2º41´15” 42º27´18” 558 Grapevines were in full production since the plant material was between 20 and 35 years old. Planting density was 2,900 to 3,100 grapevines per ha − 1 with vines at, approximately, 1.20 x 2.70 m (vine and row spacing) in an East-West row orientation. Vine training systems are double cordon and goblet. Within each vineyard, three adjacent rows of 50 vines were selected (plots) for taking samples and measurements. Chemical weed control was achieved beneath the vines. Also, soil tillage, to eliminate competitive sward, was carried out in the inter-row every 4 to 6 weeks during the growing season (February to August) using a cultivator. The vines were not irrigated, and N fertilization rates ranged between 12 to 24 kg N ha − 1 . . Soil description and soil analysis In each vineyard plot, two trial pits were dug (May 2010) for determination of effective soil depth, description of soil horizons, and determination of the percentage in volume of coarse elements in each horizon. Horizons were sampled, and soil samples were air dried, and the ground soil sieved to 2 mm. The soil samples were analysed to determine pH and electrical conductivity in water with a soil/solution ratio of 1:5, organic matter by dichromate oxidation (Nelson and Sommers 1982 ), soil texture by laser diffraction particle size (Diffractometer LSTM 13 320, Beckman Coulter), carbonate total by infrared (EQUILAB CO-202), Besides, soil K extractable content was determined by the Mehlich 3 method (Zhang et al. 2009 ). Each year at the flowering phenological stage (12 to 21 June), in each vineyard, four sub-samples were collected by auger, randomly in the inter-row, at three depths: 0 to 15, 15 to 30 and 30 to 45 cm and bulked to give a composite sample. The soil samples were air dried, ground and passed through 2-mm sieves. N-nitrate (N-NO 3 − ) was extracted from soil samples with 2 mol l − 1 KCl and determined by colorimetry at 550 and 660 nm, using a SEAL AutoAnalyzer 3HR (Seal Analytical, Hamburg, Germany), based on segmented flow. To express nitrogen as N-NO 3 − and in kg ha − 1 , the percentage of coarse fragments (> 2 mm) and the soil bulk density, recorded using the core method, were also determined in each sample. The total soil available water-holding capacity for each plot was calculated by adding up the soil available water-holding capacity of each horizon. The soil water-holding capacity for each described horizon was calculated according to the equations defined by Saxton and Rawls ( 2006 ), which use electrical conductivity, organic matter content, particle size distribution and the percentage in volume of coarse elements. The soil classification (USDA, 2006) and the main soil physical-chemical characteristics of each vineyard plot are presented in Table 3 . Table 3 Soil classification and main soil physicochemical characteristics of each vineyard plot. Plot Soil classification (USDA, 2006) pH (H 2 O) E.C. † (dS/m) O.M‡ (%) Clay (%) Silt (%) CaCO 3 (%) Available water capacity (AWC) (mm) Ap horizon (0–15 cm) Control section 1 Calcic Haploxeralf 8.55 0.13 0.69 18.7 49.5 6.5 62.2 2 Calcic Haploxeralf 7.20 0.43 0.61 17.1 52.4 0.5 57.3 3 Fluventic Haploxerept 8.15 0.15 1.00 20.6 38.8 0.5 128.5 4 Fluventic Haploxerept 8.20 0.13 1.05 24.1 28.7 1.3 146.5 5 Typic Calcixerept 8.40 0.20 1.30 17.8 56.9 28.7 87.7 6 Calcic Palexeralfs 8.60 0.11 0.48 16.3 56.8 1.2 73.6 7 Calcic Palexeralfs 8.35 0.12 0.73 17.1 56.0 1.5 78.1 8 Petrocalcic Palexeralf 7.95 0.19 0.73 14.1 58.6 1.0 63.1 9 Petrocalcic Palexeralf 8.50 0.11 0.65 21.9 51.3 3.4 60.2 10 Typic Calcixerept 8.35 0.14 0.97 18.5 52.5 3.5 56.3 11 Petrocalcic Palexerolls 8.50 0.14 1.11 19.6 45.5 23.8 58.6 12 Petrocalcic Palexerolls 8.40 0.15 1.87 22.9 40.0 14.7 59.4 † E.C.: Electric conductivity, ‡ O.M.: Organic matter Grapevine nutritional status In each plot at the veraison stage (23 August 2010, 24 August 2011, 16 August 2012, 28 August 2013 and 19 August 2014), 60 leaves were sampled on leaves opposite to the second cluster (Romero et al., 2010). In each leaf, petioles were separated, washed with tap water, and rinsed with distilled water. Plant material samples were dried at 60 ºC in a forced-air oven for 72 hours, and ground through a 0.5 mm sieve with an ultra centrifugal mill (Retsch ZM1). Nitrogen content in leaf blades and petioles was determined with an CNS elemental analyser (TruSpec CN, LECO). Contents were expressed on a dry weight basis as g 100 g − 1 . Potassium content was determined in petiole tissue by microwave hydrogen peroxide digestion and ICP–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-3300 DV, Perkin Elmer) Grapevine agronomic performance All the vineyard plots were hand harvested when berries reached the optimum technical maturity for the cv. “Tempranillo” in Rioja, which occurred when berries presented, approximately, 13% v/v probable alcoholic strength. The harvest was normally carried out between 22 September and 6 October for all vintages. At harvest, in each plot, the number of clusters per vine and yield (total harvest weight ha − 1 ) were recorded to calculate the average bunch weight per vine (kg vine − 1 ). Finally, at postharvest (end-November or beginning-December) 20 vines were randomly chosen in each plot, and wood pruning weight (g) and shoot number were determined to calculate average shoot weight (g). Grape sampling and analytical parameters of must Just before starting the harvest, random samples of 600 berries were collected. Six clusters were collected from 20 grapevines distributed randomly throughout each experimental plot; and five berries (two on opposite sides from the top of the cluster, two on opposite sides from the middle, and one at the tip of the cluster) were picked from each cluster. In the laboratory, 200 berries were separated, counted, and weighed to obtain the average berry weight (g). These 200 berries were then crushed using a masticator (IUL Instruments GmbH, Königswinter, Germany) to obtain must. Probable alcohol, pH, total acidity, malic acid, and K of the must were determined according to OIV methods (OIV, 2014). Tartaric acid was determined by the Rebelein method (Lipka and Tanner, 1974 ). An additional 200 berries were treated with HCl 1% heated at 40 ºC for 30 min. In this extract, anthocyanin content in berry skins was determined by the method of Ribéreau-Gayon and Stonestreet ( 1965 ) and the Total Polyphenol Index (TPI) in the berry skin extract was determined by spectroscopy, measuring ultraviolet absorption at 280 nm (Ribéreau-Gayon et al. 1972). Finally, colour intensity (CI), was determined after measuring absorption at 420, 520 and 620 nm in a UV-V spectrophotometer, according to the European Community Official Methods (Commission Regulation 1990). Vinification Microvinification was conducted identically for all plots. At harvest, for every plot, 30 to 45 kg of grapes were taken for vinification. First, the grape hand-harvested by plot was weighed, then crushed and stems were removed. Later, it was selected and 3.5 kg of paste from each plot was weighed out and placed in a glass vessel adapted for winemaking. Alcoholic and malolactic fermentation were performed by selected yeast strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and a selected bacteria strain of Oenococus oeni , respectively. The wines were made following the protocol established by Sampaio et al. ( 2007 ). Wine analysis Oenological parameters such as alcohol, pH, total acidity, malic and lactic acids, potassium and colour intensity were measured according to OIV methods (OIV, 2014). Tartaric acid was determined by the Rebelein method (Lipka and Tanner 1974 ), and the total polyphenol index (TPI) was determined by measuring the absorbance at 280 nm after conventional dilution of samples. Statistical Analysis Correlations between soil parameters and vine, must and wine data were calculated using the SPSS program for Windows (Chicago, IL, USA). Results Table 3 shows the main physical-chemical characteristics of the soils described in the twelve selected plots. Their Ap horizons are characterised as having a basic pH, low organic matter content and a silt-loam texture. The range of available water-holding capacity (AWC), estimated from the control section of each profile, was from 56 to 146 mm. Figure 1 represents the correlations between the AWC of the soil profile with the nutritional parameters, vigour and yield of the vine studied: the % of N and K of the petioles at veraison, the mean shoots weight and the mean bunches weight in the five years studied (2010–2014). The AWC of soils correlated positively with the % of N of the petioles in 2010, 2011, 2013 and 2014. Similarly, the content of K in the petioles correlated positively with the soil AWC in all of the years studied. The vines vigour, shoots weigh parameter and the component of the bunch weight also correlated positively with the AWC in the years 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 and 2011, 2012 and 2014, respectively. In the Fig. 2 , the correlations between the AWC and the parameters analysed in the musts are shown for each of the five vintages studied: malic acid, K, polyphenols and anthocyanins. Thus, the AWC correlated positively with the malic acid content in the five years analysed, as well as with the K content in the musts in 2010 and 2013 seasons. In the case of TPI in the musts, the correlation with the AWC was negative for the years 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2014. Similarly, in 2011, 2012 and 2014, the correlation between the AWC in the soil and the content of anthocyanins of the musts was negative. Regarding the effects of the AWC on the properties of the wines, Fig. 3 shows the correlations of the AWC with parameters of the wines such as the colour intensity, K, TPI and anthocyanins over the years of the study (2010–2014). Thus, it can be observed that the wines colour intensity correlated negatively with the AWC in 2010, 2011 and 2012. Similarly, the TPI of wines correlated negatively with the AWC in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2014, as did the anthocyanins content for the years 2010, 2011 and 2012. As for potassium, the content of K in the wines correlated positively with the AWC in 2010, 2011 and 2013 seasons. The correlations between the N-NO 3 - (kg ha -1 ) present in the 0–45 cm deep layer of the soil of each plot and the % N and % K parameters in the petioles, and the weights of the shoots and bunches in the years 2010–2014, are shown in Fig. 4 . The content of N in the petioles correlated positively with the N-NO 3 - in the soil in 2010, 2011, 2013 and 2014 seasons, and also with the content of K in the petioles in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. Moreover, the shoots weight correlated positively with the N-NO 3 - in the soil in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. Regarding the clusters weight component, this correlated positively with the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil in the 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2014 seasons. As for the effect of the N-NO 3 - available in the soil on the characteristics of the musts, Fig. 5 shows the correlations of the N-NO 3 - available at a depth of 0–45 cm in the soil with the content in malic acid, K, TPI and anthocyanins of the musts in the years 2010 to 2014. Regarding the musts malic acid content, this correlated positively with the N-NO 3 - in the soils in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. In the same way, the correlation was positive between the content of K in the musts and N-NO 3 - in the soils in 2010, 2011 and 2013. In turn, the values of TPI of the musts correlated negatively with the content of N-NO 3 - in all the years under study, with similar behaviour for the anthocyanins content in the musts in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. Figure 6 shows the correlations between the N-NO 3 - available at a depth of 0–45 cm in the soils and the following wine parameters: colour intensity, K, TPI and anthocyanins over the period 2010–2014. In this context, the colour intensity showed a negative correlation with the soil N-NO 3 - in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. As for K, the wines correlated positively with the soil N-NO 3 - for the years 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. On the other hand, the wines TPI values correlated negatively with the soil N-NO 3 - in the years 2010, 2011 and 2012, in the same way as the content of anthocyanins in the wines in 2011 and 2012. These results agree with the negative correlations observed between the N-NO 3 - available in the soil and the total polyphenols and anthocyanins of the musts. Figure 7 shows the correlations of the K which can be extracted from the Ap horizon (0–15 cm) of the soil and the content of the K in the leaf petioles at veraison, the content of K in the musts and in the wines. Thus, the content of K in the superficial horizon of the soil correlated positively with the levels of K in the petioles in the vintages 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013, and with the K in the musts in 2010, 2012, 2013 and 2014. This correlation was maintained with the K in the wines, so that there are positive correlations between the K content in the wines and the K in the soil surface in the years 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. Discussion It can be said that, with regard to the soils of the vineyards selected, located in the Rioja Alta sub vine-growing area, these show characteristics with a high degree of similarity to those described previously in a study of 123 vineyard soils in the D.O.Ca. Rioja (Peregrina et al.,2010). Therefore, the soils in the study can be considered representative of this sub zone of the D.O.Ca. Rioja. The AWC values of the soils of the plots fall within the range for AWC for vine growing soils (30–200 mm) in Bordeaux, reported by Van Leuween (2018). Regarding the vines, the absorption of nutrients in ionic form from the solution of the soil by the roots and their conversion into organic compounds consume a lot of the energy generated during respiration (Keller 2010 ). In the case of the N-NO 3 - , the vine needs high respiratory levels, since the roots absorb the N-NO 3 - in active form through proton/nitrate cotransport, with an ATP pump (Crawford and Glass 1998 ). As a result, the more suitable the moisture content of the vine, the greater its capacity to produce the energy necessary for the absorption of N-NO 3 - . Such a consideration would explain the correlations found, in our conditions, between the AWC and the % leaf N in vines (Fig. 1 ). In consonance with our results, Rühl et al. ( 1992 ) studying the fertilisation of N, P and K in vines of the Riesling, Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon varieties, established that a water deficit could reduce the mineral absorption due to less root activity and radicular development. Furthermore, King et al. ( 2014 ) in a study on a Cabernet Sauvignon vineyard in New Zealand found a greater N-NO 3 - content in petioles of the vines with greater vigour, which developed in the zones of the vineyard in which the soil profile had greater reserves of moisture. The positive correlations found between AWC and vine foliar K content would be related to the fact that potassium is a nutrient of particular importance in the balance/moisture condition of the vine (Keller 2010 ), and that its assimilation is reduced when there is a situation of limited moisture (Dundon and Smart 1984; Esteban et al. 1999 ). A similar relationship was found by King et al. ( 2014 ), so that vines from zones with more moisture reserves in the soil showed greater foliar K content. In La Rioja (Spain), it has been observed that foliar K was greater as the availability of moisture increased with irrigation, in vineyards of the cv. Tempranillo (Zaballa et al. 1997). In vineyards in Israel with the Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot varieties, this positive relationship was also observed (Klein et al. 2000). In our study, the positive correlations found between AWC and K in the musts (Fig. 2 ), would be due to greater K levels in the vegetative tissues causing an increase in K levels in the berries, since they represent an important sink for K (Mpelasoka et al. 2003 ). In those years for which this correlation was not significant, values followed the same trend as the years in which they were significant, this would indicate that the effect of AWC on the K content of the must was repeated in all the cycles. This increase of K in the musts, related with greater AWC, was sufficiently important for it to be transmitted to the wine after microvinification, and in this way, provided positive correlations between AWC and the K content in the wines (Fig. 3 ). The grapevine is a crop in which a greater availability of moisture leads to a significant response in the growth and vegetative development of the vine (Conradie et al. 2001; Keller, 2010 ). In our conditions, this response was reflected in the positive correlations observed between AWC and the average weight of the branches (Fig. 1 ). A similar result, with increases in the length of vines planted in soils with higher AWC, were found by Tramontini et al. (2013), in Bordeaux vineyards. In our trial, 2013 was the year with the highest level of precipitation, which led to good vegetative development and a greater accumulation of reserves in the living tissues of the plants. This could be one of the possible caused to explain why in 2014 the AWC did not correlate significantly with the weight of the branch, as the differences in vigour of the vines grown in soils with different AWC would have reduced. Another aspect of the vegetative expression of the vines that may be affected by the availability of moisture is the development and size of the berry. The water content in the soil in the first stages of growth of the berry until pre-veraison has a strong influence on berry size, and therefore on the final weight of the clusters (Esteban et al. 1999 ; Ollat et al. 2020). This response would explain the positive correlations found between AWC and the mean clusters weight (Fig. 1 ), since higher AWC allows the moisture levels needed for the growth of the berry are maintained in the soil for longer. Similar results, with a positive correlation between the AWC in the soil and the weight of the clusters are provided by Echeverría et al. ( 2017 ) in vineyards in Uruguay, Tramontini et al. (2013) in vineyards in Bordeaux and Constantini et al. (1996) in vineyards in the region of Siena (Italy). In La Rioja, it was also observed that the size of the berries correlated positively with water available in the soil (Ramos and Martínez de Toda 2019 ). The lack of correlation between AWC and clusters weight in 2013 could be due to the high volume of precipitation recorded, which was 60% higher in the period from January to May and 20.1% higher in the period from April to October (Table 1 ). This increase in precipitation would mean that, prior to the growth period of the berries, the soils maintained sufficient levels of moisture which would mitigate the influence of the different levels of AWC between soils. The content of malic acid in the musts proved very sensitive to the vegetative development of the vines, so that, with greater vegetative development, there was a greater content of malic acid. To some extent, this behaviour is linked to the fact that the presence of malic acid in the grapes is controlled very closely by the temperature (Hale 1977 ). That being the case, the increase in vigour, canopy development, and consequently the leaf surface, may favour the shading of the clusters, reducing the temperature, which means that the breakdown of the malic acid is less. Therefore, the positive correlations for malic acid with the AWC found in our conditions (Fig. 2 ) would be due to a greater availability of soil moisture causing greater vegetative development and vigour (as was pointed out earlier), and this greater vegetative development will create a microclimate at cluster level which is unfavourable for the breakdown of the malic acid by combustion and by the effect of the temperature. Similar results, with higher levels of malic acid in musts from vines cultivated in soils with more reserves of moisture, were found by Van Leeuwen et al. ( 2004 ) in Bordeaux and Constantini et al. (1996) in the region of Siena (Italy). This response of the malic acid to the increase in vines vigour and to a lower temperature at clusters level, is also shown in our results since the contentns of malic acid were higher in all the vineyards studied in 2013, compared with the rest of the years studied. It is more than likely that the response observed would be related to the greater recorded rainfall (42% increase compared to the mean annual precipitation) and with 4% lower mean annual temperature (Table 1 ). Regarding the polyphenols and anthocyanins content of the musts, the results showed how the higher AWC correlated negatively with the values recorded for these two grape quality parameters (Fig. 2 ). This decrease in the polyphenols and anthocyanins content would be associated with the increase in the vines vigour and canopy development caused by the higher AWC (as previously mentioned). In this sense, this increase in vines vigour would cause a competition between reproductive and vegetative sinks (Koundouras et al. 1999 ), and would also interfere with the secondary metabolic routes of compounds such as the anthocyanins and polyphenols (Bravdo and Hepner 1987 ). Similar results, with a negative correlation between AWC and musts polyphenols content, were found in vineyards growing the cv. Tennat in Uruguay (Echevarría et al. 2017). Moreover, higher polyphenols content was obtained in the musts of Cabernet Sauvignon vines grown in a soil with higher AWC in the Conca de Barberá zone (Spain), (Ubalde et al. 2010 ). Regarding the anthocyanins, lower levels were observed in the musts from vines grown in a soil with higher AWC in the Conca de Barberá (Spain) with the cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (Ubalde et al. 2010 ), in Siena (Italy) with the cv. Sangiovese (Bucelli et al. 2010 ), and in Veneto (Italy), with cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (Tomasi et al. 2005). In our study, the increased precipitation recorded in 2013 compared to the other studied years, reduced the influence of the AWC in the development of the berries, and consequently, the AWC would show less effect on their polyphenols and anthocyanins content. The correlations between AWC and polyphenols and anthocyanins content of the wines (Fig. 3 ), agree with the negative correlations observed between the AWC and the polyphenols and anthocyanins content of the musts (Fig. 2 ). Therefore, the reduction in the compounds which, mainly, contribute to the musts colour (polyphenols and anthocyanins), caused by the higher AWC, proved sufficiently important to be transferred to the wines, after microvinification. Ubalde et al. ( 2010 ), in vineyards in the Conca de Barberá zone (Spain), obtained similar results, with a decrease in colour intensity and polyphenols in the wines as a consequence of a greater availability of moisture for the vines. Regarding the nutritional status of N in the vines, the positive correlations found between the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soils and the level of N in the leaf petioles (Fig. 4 ), would confirm that the greater availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil would allow a greater assimilation of this nutrient by the vines. Flowering is the critical period for the assimilation of N by the vine (Löhnertz 1991 ; Perret 1993 ). Thus, our results also show that the determination of N-NO 3 - in the 0-45cm deep layer of the soil at the phenological moment of flowering is related with the N that the vine will assimilate. These results also were found in Germany by Linsenmeier et al. ( 2008 ), who observed that higher levels of NO 3 - in the soil provided vines with a higher content of foliar N. In the same way, in the D.O.Ca. Rioja appellation (Spain) with the cv. Tempranillo, Pérez-Álvarez et al. ( 2013 ) reported a positive correlation between the N in both, blades and petioles leaf tissues, and the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil, determined at the vine flowering stage. Furthermore, the correlations found between N-NO 3 - in the soils and the content of K in the petioles (Fig. 4 ), indicate that an increase in the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil would cause an increase in assimilation of K by the plants. To account for these results, the studies revised by Zhang et al. ( 2010 ), which show that the assimilation of nitrate stimulates the net assimilation of K in various crops can be remarked. This process would be due to the fact that K is a cation which mainly accompanies the anion NO 3 - , as it is absorbed at root level (Ivashikina and Feyziev 1998 ). Thus, this higher nutritional level of K in vines, induced by the availability of N-NO 3 - , will lead to a greater content of K in the berries, as they are important sinks for this nutrient (Mpelasoka et al. 2003 ). In this regard, our results showed positive correlations between the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil and the K in the musts (Fig. 5 ) and the wines (Fig. 6 ). Results that confirm this process of synergy between the N in the soil and the K content of the berries were described by Brunetto et al. ( 2009 ), in Brazil, with the cv. Cabernet Sauvignon. They reported that by increasing the dose of nitrogen fertiliser, the K content of the berries increased. This has also been observed by Assimakopoulou and Tsougrianis ( 2012 ), who in Greece with the cv. Agiorgitiko found a correlation between the foliar N and the K in the musts. The great ability of N to stimulate canopy development has been noted by several authors, such as Conradie et al. (2001) and Pérez-Álvarez et al. ( 2015 ). The positive correlations found in our study between the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soils and the shoots weight (Fig. 4 ) would confirm this capacity to increase vegetative development in such circumstances. This effect of the N-NO 3 - content in the soil on the shoots growth matched with that reported by other authors such as Linsenmeier et al. ( 2008 ) in Germany, Balachandra et al. ( 2009 ) in New Zealand and Pérez-Álvarez et al. ( 2013 ) in La Rioja (Spain). The stimulation of vegetative growth due to the N-NO 3 - drawn from the soil would also produce an increase in berries size, which in turn would mean an increase in clusters weight (Choné et al. 2001 ; Thomidis et al. 2016 ). In our results, this occurrence is seen through the correlations between the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil and clusters weight (Fig. 4 ). Similar increases in grape production with greater amounts of soil NO 3 - have been described by Linsenmeier et al. ( 2008 ) in Germany and Pérez-Álvarez et al. ( 2013 ) in La Rioja (Spain). As far as the content of malic acid in the musts is concerned, and in the same way as the AWC described previously, the increased vines vigour and vegetative development stimulated by the greater availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil, would cause microclimatic conditions from the shading of the clusters which are more unfavourable for the metabolic breakdown of the malic acid. This situation would explain the positive correlations found in our study between the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil and the malic acid in the musts (Fig. 5 ). Similar results, with increases in malic acid content in musts when the dose of N fertiliser is increased have been found by other authors such as Keller et al ( 1999 ) in cv. Pinot Noir, and Hilbert et al. ( 2003 ) in cv. Merlot. The effect of the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil also affects other compounds which determine the quality of the musts. Thus, in our study, the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil correlated negatively with the polyphenols and anthocyanins content in musts (Fig. 5 ). These results would be due to a greater availability of N causing greater vines vegetative development which competes with the accumulation of sugar and pigments in the grapes (Bravdo and Hepner 1987 ). This greater vines vegetative growth would also interfere with the metabolic pathways of compounds such as the anthocyanins and polyphenols, ultimately reducing their presence in the grapes (Bravdo and Hepner 1987 ). This effect is widely described in the literature. Thus, in La Rioja region, and with the cv. Tempranillo, Pérez-Álvarez et al. ( 2013 ) found a negative correlation between NO 3 - in the soil and the musts anthocyanins and polyphenols content. In the same way, this negative correlation between the N-NO 3 - in the soil and the polyphenols content was found in a vineyard of Tempranillo in La Rioja with three different ways of soil management: tillage, barley and clover cover crops (Pérez-Álvarez et al. 2015 ). Moreover, the intake of N by the vines inhibited the synthesis of anthocyanins in the cv. Merlot (Hilbert et al. 2003 ), in cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (Keller and Hrazdina,1998), and in cv. Pinot Noir vines (Keller et al. 1999 ). In addition, Delgado et al. ( 2004 ) showed that the N intake reduced the accumulation of phenolic compounds in the skins of the grapes in the cv. Tempranillo. Finally, it should be noted that, considering different vineyard soils, a low nutritional status of N in the vines induced a high content of anthocyanins and polyphenols in the berries of cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (Choné et al. 2001 ) and cv. Merlot (Tregoat et al., 2002 ) in the Bordeaux region (France). In the 2013 season, a significant correlation was observed between musts polyphenols and anthocyanins and the N-NO 3 - available in the soil (Fig. 5 ) but no correlation was established between the AWC and the musts polyphenols and anthocyanins content (Fig. 2 ). These results would indicate that in the case of seasons which are wetter than normal, which in turn generate higher levels of moisture in the soil, the main factor which affects the polyphenols and anthocyanins content in the grapes, would be the availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil. Similarly, when correlations exist between AWC and N-NO 3 - with the polyphenols and anthocyanins compounds in the same year, it would indicate that the two factors act simultaneously and in synergy, due to the AWC being able to increase both the vegetative development and the assimilation of N-NO 3 - . In addition, the greater availability of N-NO 3 - in the soil would allow the vines to assimilate more N and therefore enable it to stimulate vines vegetative growth. In both cases, the greater vines vegetative development would lead to a lower content of anthocyanins and polyphenols in musts. As for the effect on the wines, the negative correlation observed in the musts between the polyphenols and anthocyanins content and the N-NO 3 - in the soil, was also noted between the N-NO 3 - and the colour intensity, the polyphenols and anthocyanins content in the wines (Fig. 6 ). Therefore, the reduction in the content of the components which provide colour (polyphenols and anthocyanins) in the musts, caused by the greater availability of N-NO 3 - , were of sufficient magnitude to be transmitted into the contents of polyphenols and anthocyanins in the wines. To such an extent that the availability of the N-NO 3 - in the soil, would affect the colour of the wines and would therefore exert a major influence on the oenological potential of the vines. In the case of the K content able to be extracted from the soil, the positive correlations found between K extractable from the soil with foliar K, the K in the musts and the K in the wines (Fig. 7 ), confirmed that the availability of K exchange in the soil had a direct effect on the levels of K in the vines, since the absorption of K is a passive process (Keller 2010 ). This affinity for the assimilation of K may be related to the great mobility in the vines, due to the involvement of a large range of physiological processes (Leibar et al.,2017). As has been pointed out previously, the greater K content of the vines has repercussions on its accumulation in the berries (Mpelasoka et al. 2003 ). Similar results with correlations between the K exchangeable in soil and the foliar K and the K in the musts, were described by Assimakopoulou and Tsougrianis ( 2012 ) in Greece with the cv. Agiorgitiko. In Brazil, Tecchio et al. ( 2006 ) also observed it with the cv. Niágara Rosada, finding a relation between exchange of K and the K content of the petioles. In this way, the greater availability of K in the soil exchange complex increases the K content in the soil solution and in the absorption of K by the plant. This K enrichment in the vegetative parts will be transferred to the grape (Mpelasoka et al. 2003 ), and finally, to the wine. The fact that the relations between the K in the soil and the K in the wines are maintained, show the importance of the availability of K in the soil and its potential influence on the final quality of the wines. Conclusions In the soil and climate conditions of the winemaking region of the D.O.Ca. Rioja appellation (Spain), the determination of AWC may account for differences in vigour, yield and the must and wine composition between vineyards with different types of soils and in different seasons. An increase in AWC leads to increases in vines vigour and yield, as well as causing reductions in the polyphenols and anthocyanins content of musts and wines. This effect would not be significant in years with more abundant levels of precipitation, as was the case in 2013, with recorded rainfall above the recent historical mean. Moreover, the AWC has a synergy effect on the assimilation of N and K, two of the most important nutrients for the vine plant. Therefore, for the study of the N and K fertility in the soil and its effect on the vines, it would be necessary also to know the AWC in the soil, so as to be able to consider correctly the effect of these two nutrients. In turn, the determination of the soil N-NO 3 - content during flowering can explain the levels of N in the vines in different vintages, despite changes in the levels of soil N-NO 3 - from year to year, by the different climate conditions. Thus, the content of soil N-NO 3 - correlates positively with the vines vigour and yield and negatively with the content of polyphenols and anthocyanins in musts and wines. In this respect, it has been observed how the increases in the content of soil N-NO 3 - leads to increases in vines vigour and yield and decreases in the content of polyphenols and anthocyanins in musts and wines. Therefore, for managing vineyards in which the aim is to obtain the highest quality of musts and wines, it is important to keep the levels of N-NO 3 - in the soil under control, in such a way that they allow balanced vines growth, production and quality of musts and wines. The K exchange content of the A horizon soil surface (0–15 cm) also allows the evaluation of the effect of the K in the soil on the vineyard, as this correlates positively with the content of K in the vines, musts and wines. Finally, the relationship of these soil parameters with the final composition of the wines from these plots has been observed, which underlines the effects of these soil parameters. Since the vinification process can reduce the differences between musts, the results obtained shown the great effects that these soil parameters under study had on the composition of the wines. Therefore, it would be recommended to use them in the agronomic management of the vineyard, from the planning of new plantations (in the case of AWC) to the management of fertilisation (in the case of N-NO 3 - and K extractable). Declarations Funding This work is part of a Project financed by the Government of La Rioja (Spain). Eva Pilar Pérez-Álvarez also acknowledges the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (MCIU) for her postdoctoral grant Competing Interests All Authors declare they have no financial interests. Author contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by J.Mª Martínez-Vidaurre, E.P. Pérez-Álvarez, and F. Peregrina. The first draft of the manuscript was written by F. Peregrina and J.M. Martínez-Vidaurre and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements Authors thank Zinio Wineries from Uruñuela (La Rioja), to assign the plots to carry out the trial. References Arrobas M, Ferreira IQ, Freitas S, Verdial J, Rodrigues MÂ (2014) Guidelines for fertilizer use in vineyards based on nutrient content of grapevine parts. 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Am J Enol Vitic 58:534–539 Saxton KE, Rawls WJ (2006) Soil water characteristic estimates by texture and organic matter for hydrologic solutions. Soil Sci Soc Am J 70:1569 – 1578. Saxton KE, Willey PH (2006) The SPAW model for agricultural field and pond hydrologic simulation. In Singh VP, Frevert DK (ed.) Watershed models. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl. pp. 401 – 435. Seguin G (1970) Les sols viticoles du Haut-Médoc, influence sur l'alimentation en eau de la vigne et sur la maturation du raisin. Thèse ès sciences, Université de Bordeaux, 150 p. Seguin G (1986) ‘Terroirs’ and pedology of wine growing. Experientia 42: 861–873. Schreiner RP, Osborne J, Skinkis PA (2018) Nitrogen requirements of Pinot noir based on growth parameters, must composition, and fermentation behavior. Am J Enol Viticul 69 (1): 45-58. https://doi.org/10.5344/ajev.2017.17043 Smart RE (1974) Aspects of water relations of the grapevine ( Vitis vinifera ). Am J Enol Vitic 25: 84-91. Spayd S, Wample R, Evans R, Stevens R, Seymour B, Nagel C (1994) Nitrogen fertilization of white Riesling grapes in Washington. Must and wine com- position. Am J Enol Viticul 45: 34-41. Tecchio MA, Pires EJP. Terra MM, Grassi Filho H, Corrêa JC, de Vieira CRY (2006) Correlação entre a produtividade e os resultados de analise foliar e de sol oem vinhedos de Niagara Rosada. Ciênc Agrotec 30(6), 1056-1064 Thomidis T, Zioziou E. Koundouras CK, Navrozidis I, Nikolaou N (2016) Effects of nitrogen and irrigation on the quality of grapes and the susceptibility to Botrytis bunch rot. Sci Hortic 212: 60-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2016.09.036 Tomasi D, Battista F, Gaiotti F, Mosetti D, Bragato G (2015). Influence of soil on root distribution: Implications for quality of tocai friulano berries and wine. Am J Enol Viticul 66(3): 363–372. https://doi.org/10.5344/ajev.2015.14077 Tregoat O, Van Leeuwen C, Choné X, Gaudillère JP (2002) The assessment of vine water and nitrogen uptake by means of physiological indicators influence on vine development and berry potential ( Vitis vinifera L. cv Merlot, 2000, Bordeaux). J Int Sc Vigne Vin 36 : 133-142 Tramontin, S, Van Leeuwen C, Domec JC, Destrac-Irvine A, Basteau C, Vitali M, Mosbach-Schulz O, Lovisolo C (2013) Impact of soil texture and water availability on the hydraulic control of plant and grape-berry development. Plant Soil 368(1–2): 215–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-012-1507-x Ubalde JM, Sort X, Zayas A, Rosa MP (2010) Effects of soil and climatic conditions on grape ripening and wine quality of Cabernet Sauvignon. J Wine Res 21(1): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571264.2010.495851 Verdenal T, Dienes-Nagy A, Zufferey V, Spring JL, Viret O, Marin-Carbonne J, Van Leeuwen C (2021) Understanding and managing nitrogen nutrition in grapevine: a review. OENO One 1:1 – 44 Yu R, Brillante L, Martínez-Lüscher J, Kurtural SK (2020) Spatial Variability of Soil and Plant Water Status and Their Cascading Effects on Grapevine Physiology Are Linked to Berry and Wine Chemistry. Front Plant Sci 11: 790. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00790 Wang M, Zheng Q, Shen Q, Guo S (2013) The critical role of potassium in plant stress response. Int J Molec Sci 14:7370–7390. https://10.3390/ijms14047370 Wang R, Sun Q, Chang Q (2015) Soil types effect on grape and wine composition in Helan Mountain area of Ningxia. Plos One 10(2): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116690 Van Leeuwen C, Friant P, Chone X, Tregoat O, Koundouras S, Dubourdieu D (2004) Influence of climate, soil, and cultivar on terroir. Am J Enol Vitic 55: 207–217. Van Leeuwen C, Roby JP, de Rességuier L (2018) Soil-related terroir factors: A review. Oeno One 52(2) : 173-188 Van Leeuwen C, Seguin G (1994) Incidences de l’alimentation en eau de la vigne, appréciée par l’état hydrique du feuillage, sur le développement de l’appareil végétatif et la maturation du raisin ( Vitis vinifera variété Cabernet franc, Saint-Emilion, 1990). J Int Sci Vigne Vin 28:81–110 Van Leeuwen, C. and Seguin, G. (2006). The concept of terroir in viticulture. Journal of Wine Research, 17(1) , 1-10. Zaballa O, García-Escudero E, Lahoz I (1998) Maîtrise du rendement et irrigation localisée dans des vignobles de la D.O. Ca. Rioja. In GESCO : Groupe d' Etudes des Sytèmes de Conduite de la Vigne: 10èmes Journées, Changings-Suisse, 26-28 mai 1998, pp. 185-190 Zaballa O, García-Escudero E (1997) Ensayos de riego en viñedos de la D.O.Ca Rioja 1984-1994. In: Reuniones del grupo de trabajo de experimentación en viticultura y enología : La Rioja, 14, 15 y 16 de marzo de 1995., ISBN 84-491-0286-3, pp. 56-94 Zhang H, Kariuki S, Shroder J, Payton M, Focht C (2009). Inter-laboratory validation of the Mehlich 3 for extraction of plant-available phosphorus. J. AOAC International 92 (1): 91-102. Zhang F, Niu J, Zhang W, Chen X, Li C, Yuan L, Xie J (2010) Potassium nutrition of crops under varied regimes of nitrogen supply. Plant Soil 335: 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0323-4 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-1723498","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":113549486,"identity":"642a496a-3c3c-4867-bd30-15a045304d3b","order_by":0,"name":"José María Martínez-Vidaurre","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"José","middleName":"María","lastName":"Martínez-Vidaurre","suffix":""},{"id":113549487,"identity":"42c516a1-e9b0-4634-9199-3561b1605883","order_by":1,"name":"Eva Pilar Pérez-Álvarez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eva","middleName":"Pilar","lastName":"Pérez-Álvarez","suffix":""},{"id":113549488,"identity":"3d3c7bf7-08f5-42d2-86ff-832074738137","order_by":2,"name":"Enrique García-Escudero","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Enrique","middleName":"","lastName":"García-Escudero","suffix":""},{"id":113549489,"identity":"487b3ffe-710f-42ac-946b-ec1c0d77ce29","order_by":3,"name":"Fernando Peregrina","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7621-7455","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fernando","middleName":"","lastName":"Peregrina","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2022-06-03 17:04:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1723498/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1723498/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":22747139,"identity":"44a092d6-afbe-4f27-8a8a-d0e784f5a5ac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-06-16 21:22:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":489905,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Linear correlations between petiole N (%) and soil available water capacity (mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. b) Linear correlations between petiole K (%) and soil available water capacity (mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. c) Linear correlations between shoot weight(g) and soil available water capacity (mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. d) Linear correlations between bunch weight(kg) and soil available water capacity (mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.Symbols\u0026nbsp;* and ** means that the correlations are significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05, and p \u0026lt; 0.01, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1723498/v1/f956172a5e24bf679d31b664.jpeg"},{"id":22747304,"identity":"0ac9a007-9cee-4322-8253-c7d87c5c17d5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-06-16 21:27:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":422701,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Linear correlations between musts acid malic (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and soil available water capacity (mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. b) Linear correlations between K in musts (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and soil available water capacity\u0026nbsp;(mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. c) Linear correlations between total polyphenols index (TPI) in musts and soil available water capacity\u0026nbsp;(mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. d) Linear correlations between anthocyanins in musts\u0026nbsp;(mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and soil available water capacity\u0026nbsp;(mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. Symbols * ** and *** means that the correlations are significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05, p \u0026lt; 0.01 and p \u0026lt; 0.001, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1723498/v1/8c109c36f8fa1275da2f3397.jpeg"},{"id":22747303,"identity":"71e6c19c-b3ec-4020-83a4-adbda36ebd1f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-06-16 21:27:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2138595,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Linear correlations between malic acid content of wines and available water capacity (mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. b) Linear correlations between K in wine (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and available water capacity (mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. c) Linear correlations between total polyphenols index (TPI) in wines and available water capacity (mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. d) Linear correlations between anthocyanins\u0026nbsp;in wines (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and available water capacity (mm) for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. Symbols\u0026nbsp;*, ** and *** means that the correlations are significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05, p \u0026lt; 0.01 and p \u0026lt; 0.001, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1723498/v1/d5e41cab8dcbbc25454a27eb.jpeg"},{"id":22747137,"identity":"82f973ae-a46e-4397-ad01-5ea3e517f4fe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-06-16 21:22:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":448546,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Linear correlations between petiole N (%) and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. b) Linear correlations between petiole K (%) and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. c) Linear correlations between shoots weight (g) and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. d) Linear correlations between bunches weight (kg) and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. Symbols *, ** and *** means that the correlations are significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05, p \u0026lt; 0.01 and p \u0026lt; 0.001, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1723498/v1/385dd099534b11776d24bbb3.jpeg"},{"id":22747135,"identity":"95e829d0-0f87-499e-915b-e5006d4d542b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-06-16 21:22:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":430324,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Linear correlations between malic acid (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. b) Linear correlations between K in must (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. c) Linear correlations between total polyphenols index (TPI) in musts and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. d) Linear correlations between anthocyanins\u0026nbsp;in musts (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. Symbols *, and ** means that the correlations are significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05, and p \u0026lt; 0.01, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1723498/v1/07990763340fc750e0cd4f04.jpeg"},{"id":22747140,"identity":"a361818f-e6c1-49cf-ad6e-6d51b49fd7f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-06-16 21:22:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":444450,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Linear correlations between colour intensity of wines and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. b) Linear correlations between K in wines (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. c) Linear correlations between total polyphenols index (TPI) in wines and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. d) Linear correlations between anthocyanins in wines (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) content in 0-45 cm soil depth for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.Symbols *, and ** means that the correlations are significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05, and p \u0026lt; 0.01, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1723498/v1/6bbc50c48a5966a5d995c3d9.jpeg"},{"id":22747305,"identity":"51223fcf-9cbd-48fa-ab6d-94fa5b8b4844","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-06-16 21:27:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":300670,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Linear correlations between petioles K (%) and K extractable in soil Ap horizon\u0026nbsp;for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. b) Linear correlations between K in musts (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and K extractable in soil Ap horizon for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014 c) Linear correlations between K in wine (mg l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and K extractable in soil Ap horizon for each year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. Symbols *, and ** means that the correlations are significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05, and p \u0026lt; 0.01, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1723498/v1/1a6e207cb1e1b481e8692e2d.jpeg"},{"id":24255120,"identity":"9f4f71bb-75a7-475c-a3ba-26ea3654b4ba","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-24 20:43:53","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1544817,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1723498/v1/4c2fbca0-9dc4-4521-857f-c129dc9ab066.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eRelationships between available-holding water capacity, N-NO3- and K in the soil with parameters of nutritional status, vigour, yield, must and wine composition in the cv. Tempranillo\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe key variable factors of vine cultivation and quality grape production are climate, soil, and plant material. These, together with the topography and agronomic practices, constitute a unique ecosystem known as the terroir (Seguin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Van Leeuwen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Van Leeuwen and Seguin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Van Leeuwen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effect of climate is the greatest on most vine parameters, followed by soil and cultivar. In fact, climate characteristics have a strong influence on berry growth and composition (Tomasi et al. 2013). Regarding the climatic parameters, sunshine hours and temperature do not have a decisive impact on the quality of the vintage, in contrast to what happens with rainfall and its distribution throughout the vines growing cycle, especially in summer. For that reason, the effects of climate and soil on vine development and grape composition can be explained to a large degree by their influence on vine water status (Van Leeuwen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). In regions with a Mediterranean climate, rainfall varies greatly from year to year, so that the availability of water for the vineyard can vary substantially between vintages (Catarino et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Grainger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Lima et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and the interactions of the soil with the vine plant can also be affected by this inter- and intra- annual climatic variability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe soil in which vines grow influences both the quality and the style of a wine (Reynolds, 2010). Soil characteristics may directly influence the water availability for plants, which will eventually determine the grapevines physiological performance (Brillante et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, 2016). The resultant variations in whole plant physiology are associated to grape flavonoid composition (Yu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), affecting wine quality. Ideally, vineyards should be established in areas where soil temperature (relative to air temperature), soil water-holding capacity (relative to rainfall and potential evapotranspiration) and soil nitrogen availability are optimum for the type of wine to be produced (Van Leeuwen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is well known that the effect of the soil on vine behaviour is mediated through varying water content levels and their effects on vine water status (Seguin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e; Seguin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Van Leeuwen and Seguin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). The available water in the root zone is one of the factors that affects plant growth, yield, bunch rot and berry composition (Echeverria et al. 2017). In addition, mild water deficits are known to have positive effects on reducing berry size (Smart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e; Intrigliolo and Castel \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Intrigliolo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and on berry skin anthocyanins and tannins content in red grape varieties (Matthews and Anderson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Van Leeuwen and Seguin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Koundouras et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, Garc\u0026iacute;a-Esparza et al. 2018; P\u0026eacute;rez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Lizama et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, determining the capacity of moisture retention of the complete profile of the soil can serve for considering the water available for the cultivation of the vine in each type of soil and, therefore, for assessing the effect of the vineyard development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the availability of mineral soil nutrients is vital for the vines development, due to their impact on growth and the ripening process, as well as on the vigour and yield (Keller \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). However, Seguin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) has found no relationship between soil minerals and wine quality, except for nitrogen (N). Both N deficiency and N excess have negative impacts on grapevine development and grape composition (Verdenal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). There is a little evidence that soil minerals are major drivers of terroir expression (Van Leeuwen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). It has been shown that nitrogen fertilization increases vigour and yield (Kliewer and Cook \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e; Spayd et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Verdenal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), extends the vegetative growth period (competing with and delaying grape ripening), increases grape sensitivity to fungal diseases (Thomidis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and can also decrease the polyphenols and anthocyanins content (Hilbert et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Delgado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Schreiner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Without the addition of nitrogen fertilizer, the vine nitrogen status depends on organic matter content in the soil, its mineralization rate and the C/N ratio. Since nitrate (N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) is the main form of N that the vines can assimilate, its content in the soil at the point of maximum growth of the vine (flowering) may be related to the vine nutritional level of N, its vigour and the content of polyphenols and anthocyanins in the grape (P\u0026eacute;rez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, it would be necessary to look more deeply into the determination of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e levels in vine growing soils in order to know better their effect on the vine\u0026rsquo;s development and the quality of the grapes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith respect to potassium (K), the vine roots absorb this nutrient very easily, in the form of a monovalent cation, showing high mobility in the plant at intracellular level and at a long distance between organs, through the phloem and the xylem (Arrobas et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This element proves essential for the growth of shoots, resistance to water stress and to diseases, as well as for the transport and translocation of the assimilated substances (Mpelasoka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Indirectly, potassium benefits the synthesis of phenolic compounds during ripening, which is related to the presence of carbohydrates in the berries (Mohammed et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, to prevent a flat taste, wines from grapevines with an excess of K need the addition of acid (R\u0026uuml;hl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e) and these musts and wines are strongly susceptible to biological spoilage (Mpelasoka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA deficiency of K produces grapes with high acidity and lower anthocyanin content (Griesser et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). An excess of K may lead to a deficiency of Mg in the vine, producing musts with a higher pH and a considerable reduction in total acidity, accompanied by a loss of colour in red wines (Ramos et al. 2017). Due to all the aforementioned, the availability of K in the soil could be related to the vigour, yield and quality of the musts and the wines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor this reason, this study is based on the hypothesis that the edaphic parameters, moisture reserves and levels of K and N, have an important influence on the physiological processes of the vines by directly affecting the balance between their vegetative vigour and the production of the grapes (Van Leeuwen and Seguin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the literature, there are virtually no experiments that have studied, simultaneously, the link between the soil reserves of moisture and its available N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e and K with respect to the nutritional status, growth and yield of the vine, and which have also analysed the composition of the musts and the wines. In relation to providing some information on the role of the soil, as well as its possible interactions with climate, it is proposed to study available water reserves, soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e availability and extractable K, over five seasons in various cv. Tempranillo vineyards in the Najerilla Valley (D.O.Ca. Rioja) and to study the relationships with nutritional status, vigour, yield and musts and wines composition.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials And Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eArea of study description\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in the Uru\u0026ntilde;uela vine-growing area, in the Rioja Alta subzone of the Denominaci\u0026oacute;n de Origen Calificada (D.O.Ca.) Rioja, North of Spain. This area presents fluvial (terrace) and torrential (alluvial fan and glacis) quaternary deposits that cover Neogene sedimentary materials. The primary landforms are slopes and platforms, with altitudes ranging from 440 to 583 m above sea level, because of intense water modelling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn general, the climate in the area is Mediterranean according to the UNESCO aridity index, with a slight influence of the Atlantic or Oceanic climate. Annual average temperature, rainfall and evapotranspiration data were registered by an agro-climatic station of the Government of La Rioja (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://www.larioja.org/siar\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ewww.larioja.org/siar\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.larioja.org/siar\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) located in the same mesoclimate area as the experimental plots (Latitude: 42\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e27\u0026prime;43\u0026prime;\u0026prime;N; Longitude: 2\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e42\u0026prime;46\u0026prime;\u0026prime;W; altitude: 465 m above sea level).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe climatic parameters studied were: annual mean temperature (\u0026ordm;C), annual mean rainfall (mm), annual solar radiation (MJ m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e), annual potential evapotranspiration (ET\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e) calculated using the Penman-Monteith formula, as well as precipitation intervals (mm) during various phases of the vine cycle. The values of these climatic parameters have been registered for five seasons (2010\u0026ndash;2014) and are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Also the climate series from 2004\u0026ndash;2010 is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimatic data (annual mean temperature (\u0026ordm;C) and precipitation (mm), solar radiation (MJ m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e) and reference evapotranspiration (mm)) of years 2010 to 2014 in the study area and variation (%) respect to average value of the historical series 2004\u0026ndash;2018.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimatic data\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u0026ordf; m (\u0026ordm; C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6 (-7.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.8 (2.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5 (0.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.0 (-4.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1 (4.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual mean P (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e476\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e383.6 (-19.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345.4 (-27.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e455.8 (-4.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e677.6 (42.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e559.2 (17.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP Jan-May (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e227.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e152.2 (-33.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e172.8 (-24.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e179.0 (-21.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e380.8 (67.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e221.4 (-2.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP Apr-Oct (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e240.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e209.4 (-12.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176.8 (-26.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300.4 (20.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e314.0 (30.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e235.0 (-2.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP Sept-Oct (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.4 (9.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.4 (-50.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122.2 (82.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.8 (2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.8 (29.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolar Rad. (MJ.m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5089 (-2.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5262 (0.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5284 (1.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4909 (-5.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5177 (0.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETo (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e977\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e945 (-3.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e977 (0.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e998 (2.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e880 (-9.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e958 (-1.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e Complete climatic series (2004\u0026ndash;2018); T\u0026ordf; m: mean temperature; P: precipitation; Jan: January; Apr: April; Oct: October; Sept: September; Rad : Radiation; ETo: crop reference Evapotranspiration\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil mapping of this area, carried out previously, revealed a moderate to high variability, characterizing 24 cartographic units of soils in 1,000 hectares. The soils are formed from silt-sand parent materials with gravel, pebbles and stone materials. The main pedogenesis processes are a translocation of carbonates and clay illuviation (Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Vidaurre \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Vidaurre et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eExperimental design and description of vineyards plots\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was carried out during five seasons (2010 to 2014) in twelve vineyards of the cv. Tempranillo (\u003cem\u003eVitis vinifera\u003c/em\u003e L.) grafted on Richter-110 rootstock. The geographic coordinates of each plot selected are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. All the vineyards were located over platforms with field slopes lower than 2% and the twelve vineyards were less than one km apart, so that the climatic conditions are considered homogeneous between the vineyards for a given vintage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeographic coordinates (ETRS89 projection system) and average altitude (m) of each vineyard plot.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLongitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLatitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAltitude (m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;42\u0026acute;28\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;40\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e472\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;42\u0026acute;9\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;55\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e467\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;42\u0026acute;54\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;10\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e475\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;42\u0026acute;56\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;5\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e476\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;41\u0026acute;6\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;49\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e508\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;41\u0026acute;34\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;30\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e510\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;41\u0026acute;22\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;36\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e517\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;40\u0026acute;22\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;28\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e566\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;40\u0026acute;29\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;21\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e565\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;40\u0026acute;30\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;36\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e564\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;40\u0026acute;59\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;21\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e552\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ordm;41\u0026acute;15\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u0026ordm;27\u0026acute;18\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e558\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrapevines were in full production since the plant material was between 20 and 35 years old. Planting density was 2,900 to 3,100 grapevines per ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e with vines at, approximately, 1.20 x 2.70 m (vine and row spacing) in an East-West row orientation. Vine training systems are double cordon and goblet. Within each vineyard, three adjacent rows of 50 vines were selected (plots) for taking samples and measurements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical weed control was achieved beneath the vines. Also, soil tillage, to eliminate competitive sward, was carried out in the inter-row every 4 to 6 weeks during the growing season (February to August) using a cultivator. The vines were not irrigated, and N fertilization rates ranged between 12 to 24 kg N ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. .\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil description and soil analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn each vineyard plot, two trial pits were dug (May 2010) for determination of effective soil depth, description of soil horizons, and determination of the percentage in volume of coarse elements in each horizon. Horizons were sampled, and soil samples were air dried, and the ground soil sieved to 2 mm. The soil samples were analysed to determine pH and electrical conductivity in water with a soil/solution ratio of 1:5, organic matter by dichromate oxidation (Nelson and Sommers \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e), soil texture by laser diffraction particle size (Diffractometer LSTM 13 320, Beckman Coulter), carbonate total by infrared (EQUILAB CO-202), Besides, soil K extractable content was determined by the Mehlich 3 method (Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach year at the flowering phenological stage (12 to 21 June), in each vineyard, four sub-samples were collected by auger, randomly in the inter-row, at three depths: 0 to 15, 15 to 30 and 30 to 45 cm and bulked to give a composite sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe soil samples were air dried, ground and passed through 2-mm sieves. N-nitrate (N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) was extracted from soil samples with 2 mol l\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e KCl and determined by colorimetry at 550 and 660 nm, using a SEAL AutoAnalyzer 3HR (Seal Analytical, Hamburg, Germany), based on segmented flow. To express nitrogen as N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e and in kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, the percentage of coarse fragments (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 mm) and the soil bulk density, recorded using the core method, were also determined in each sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe total soil available water-holding capacity for each plot was calculated by adding up the soil available water-holding capacity of each horizon. The soil water-holding capacity for each described horizon was calculated according to the equations defined by Saxton and Rawls (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), which use electrical conductivity, organic matter content, particle size distribution and the percentage in volume of coarse elements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe soil classification (USDA, 2006) and the main soil physical-chemical characteristics of each vineyard plot are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil classification and main soil physicochemical characteristics of each vineyard plot.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil classification\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(USDA, 2006)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH (H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE.C.\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(dS/m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO.M\u0026Dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClay\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilt\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAvailable water capacity (AWC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAp horizon (0\u0026ndash;15 cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl section\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalcic Haploxeralf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalcic Haploxeralf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFluventic Haploxerept\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e128.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFluventic Haploxerept\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e146.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTypic Calcixerept\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalcic Palexeralfs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalcic Palexeralfs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetrocalcic Palexeralf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetrocalcic Palexeralf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTypic Calcixerept\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetrocalcic Palexerolls\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetrocalcic Palexerolls\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e E.C.: Electric conductivity,\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003eO.M.: Organic matter\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGrapevine nutritional status\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn each plot at the veraison stage (23 August 2010, 24 August 2011, 16 August 2012, 28 August 2013 and 19 August 2014), 60 leaves were sampled on leaves opposite to the second cluster (Romero et al., 2010). In each leaf, petioles were separated, washed with tap water, and rinsed with distilled water. Plant material samples were dried at 60 \u0026ordm;C in a forced-air oven for 72 hours, and ground through a 0.5 mm sieve with an ultra centrifugal mill (Retsch ZM1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNitrogen content in leaf blades and petioles was determined with an CNS elemental analyser (TruSpec CN, LECO). Contents were expressed on a dry weight basis as g 100 g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. Potassium content was determined in petiole tissue by microwave hydrogen peroxide digestion and ICP\u0026ndash;optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-3300 DV, Perkin Elmer)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGrapevine agronomic performance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll the vineyard plots were hand harvested when berries reached the optimum technical maturity for the cv. \u0026ldquo;Tempranillo\u0026rdquo; in Rioja, which occurred when berries presented, approximately, 13% v/v probable alcoholic strength. The harvest was normally carried out between 22 September and 6 October for all vintages. At harvest, in each plot, the number of clusters per vine and yield (total harvest weight ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) were recorded to calculate the average bunch weight per vine (kg vine\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, at postharvest (end-November or beginning-December) 20 vines were randomly chosen in each plot, and wood pruning weight (g) and shoot number were determined to calculate average shoot weight (g).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGrape sampling and analytical parameters of must\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eJust before starting the harvest, random samples of 600 berries were collected. Six clusters were collected from 20 grapevines distributed randomly throughout each experimental plot; and five berries (two on opposite sides from the top of the cluster, two on opposite sides from the middle, and one at the tip of the cluster) were picked from each cluster. In the laboratory, 200 berries were separated, counted, and weighed to obtain the average berry weight (g). These 200 berries were then crushed using a masticator (IUL Instruments GmbH, K\u0026ouml;nigswinter, Germany) to obtain must. Probable alcohol, pH, total acidity, malic acid, and K of the must were determined according to OIV methods (OIV, 2014). Tartaric acid was determined by the Rebelein method (Lipka and Tanner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn additional 200 berries were treated with HCl 1% heated at 40 \u0026ordm;C for 30 min. In this extract, anthocyanin content in berry skins was determined by the method of Rib\u0026eacute;reau-Gayon and Stonestreet (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e) and the Total Polyphenol Index (TPI) in the berry skin extract was determined by spectroscopy, measuring ultraviolet absorption at 280 nm (Rib\u0026eacute;reau-Gayon et al. 1972). Finally, colour intensity (CI), was determined after measuring absorption at 420, 520 and 620 nm in a UV-V spectrophotometer, according to the European Community Official Methods (Commission Regulation 1990).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eVinification\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrovinification was conducted identically for all plots. At harvest, for every plot, 30 to 45 kg of grapes were taken for vinification. First, the grape hand-harvested by plot was weighed, then crushed and stems were removed. Later, it was selected and 3.5 kg of paste from each plot was weighed out and placed in a glass vessel adapted for winemaking. Alcoholic and malolactic fermentation were performed by selected yeast strains of \u003cem\u003eSaccharomyces cerevisiae\u003c/em\u003e and a selected bacteria strain of \u003cem\u003eOenococus oeni\u003c/em\u003e, respectively. The wines were made following the protocol established by Sampaio et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWine analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOenological parameters such as alcohol, pH, total acidity, malic and lactic acids, potassium and colour intensity were measured according to OIV methods (OIV, 2014). Tartaric acid was determined by the Rebelein method (Lipka and Tanner \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e), and the total polyphenol index (TPI) was determined by measuring the absorbance at 280 nm after conventional dilution of samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelations between soil parameters and vine, must and wine data were calculated using the SPSS program for Windows (Chicago, IL, USA).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the main physical-chemical characteristics of the soils described in the twelve selected plots. Their Ap horizons are characterised as having a basic pH, low organic matter content and a silt-loam texture. The range of available water-holding capacity (AWC), estimated from the control section of each profile, was from 56 to 146 mm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e represents the correlations between the AWC of the soil profile with the nutritional parameters, vigour and yield of the vine studied: the % of N and K of the petioles at veraison, the mean shoots weight and the mean bunches weight in the five years studied (2010\u0026ndash;2014). The AWC of soils correlated positively with the % of N of the petioles in 2010, 2011, 2013 and 2014. Similarly, the content of K in the petioles correlated positively with the soil AWC in all of the years studied. The vines vigour, shoots weigh parameter and the component of the bunch weight also correlated positively with the AWC in the years 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 and 2011, 2012 and 2014, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the correlations between the AWC and the parameters analysed in the musts are shown for each of the five vintages studied: malic acid, K, polyphenols and anthocyanins. Thus, the AWC correlated positively with the malic acid content in the five years analysed, as well as with the K content in the musts in 2010 and 2013 seasons. In the case of TPI in the musts, the correlation with the AWC was negative for the years 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2014. Similarly, in 2011, 2012 and 2014, the correlation between the AWC in the soil and the content of anthocyanins of the musts was negative.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the effects of the AWC on the properties of the wines, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the correlations of the AWC with parameters of the wines such as the colour intensity, K, TPI and anthocyanins over the years of the study (2010\u0026ndash;2014). Thus, it can be observed that the wines colour intensity correlated negatively with the AWC in 2010, 2011 and 2012. Similarly, the TPI of wines correlated negatively with the AWC in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2014, as did the anthocyanins content for the years 2010, 2011 and 2012. As for potassium, the content of K in the wines correlated positively with the AWC in 2010, 2011 and 2013 seasons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe correlations between the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) present in the 0\u0026ndash;45 cm deep layer of the soil of each plot and the % N and % K parameters in the petioles, and the weights of the shoots and bunches in the years 2010\u0026ndash;2014, are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The content of N in the petioles correlated positively with the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil in 2010, 2011, 2013 and 2014 seasons, and also with the content of K in the petioles in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. Moreover, the shoots weight correlated positively with the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. Regarding the clusters weight component, this correlated positively with the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil in the 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2014 seasons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs for the effect of the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e available in the soil on the characteristics of the musts, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the correlations of the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e available at a depth of 0\u0026ndash;45 cm in the soil with the content in malic acid, K, TPI and anthocyanins of the musts in the years 2010 to 2014. Regarding the musts malic acid content, this correlated positively with the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soils in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. In the same way, the correlation was positive between the content of K in the musts and N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soils in 2010, 2011 and 2013. In turn, the values of TPI of the musts correlated negatively with the content of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in all the years under study, with similar behaviour for the anthocyanins content in the musts in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e shows the correlations between the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e available at a depth of 0\u0026ndash;45 cm in the soils and the following wine parameters: colour intensity, K, TPI and anthocyanins over the period 2010\u0026ndash;2014. In this context, the colour intensity showed a negative correlation with the soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. As for K, the wines correlated positively with the soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e for the years 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. On the other hand, the wines TPI values correlated negatively with the soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the years 2010, 2011 and 2012, in the same way as the content of anthocyanins in the wines in 2011 and 2012. These results agree with the negative correlations observed between the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e available in the soil and the total polyphenols and anthocyanins of the musts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows the correlations of the K which can be extracted from the Ap horizon (0\u0026ndash;15 cm) of the soil and the content of the K in the leaf petioles at veraison, the content of K in the musts and in the wines. Thus, the content of K in the superficial horizon of the soil correlated positively with the levels of K in the petioles in the vintages 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013, and with the K in the musts in 2010, 2012, 2013 and 2014. This correlation was maintained with the K in the wines, so that there are positive correlations between the K content in the wines and the K in the soil surface in the years 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIt can be said that, with regard to the soils of the vineyards selected, located in the Rioja Alta sub vine-growing area, these show characteristics with a high degree of similarity to those described previously in a study of 123 vineyard soils in the D.O.Ca. Rioja (Peregrina et al.,2010). Therefore, the soils in the study can be considered representative of this sub zone of the D.O.Ca. Rioja. The AWC values of the soils of the plots fall within the range for AWC for vine growing soils (30\u0026ndash;200 mm) in Bordeaux, reported by Van Leuween (2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the vines, the absorption of nutrients in ionic form from the solution of the soil by the roots and their conversion into organic compounds consume a lot of the energy generated during respiration (Keller \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). In the case of the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e, the vine needs high respiratory levels, since the roots absorb the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in active form through proton/nitrate cotransport, with an ATP pump (Crawford and Glass \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, the more suitable the moisture content of the vine, the greater its capacity to produce the energy necessary for the absorption of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e. Such a consideration would explain the correlations found, in our conditions, between the AWC and the % leaf N in vines (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). In consonance with our results, R\u0026uuml;hl et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e) studying the fertilisation of N, P and K in vines of the Riesling, Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon varieties, established that a water deficit could reduce the mineral absorption due to less root activity and radicular development. Furthermore, King et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) in a study on a Cabernet Sauvignon vineyard in New Zealand found a greater N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e content in petioles of the vines with greater vigour, which developed in the zones of the vineyard in which the soil profile had greater reserves of moisture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe positive correlations found between AWC and vine foliar K content would be related to the fact that potassium is a nutrient of particular importance in the balance/moisture condition of the vine (Keller \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), and that its assimilation is reduced when there is a situation of limited moisture (Dundon and Smart 1984; Esteban et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). A similar relationship was found by King et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), so that vines from zones with more moisture reserves in the soil showed greater foliar K content. In La Rioja (Spain), it has been observed that foliar K was greater as the availability of moisture increased with irrigation, in vineyards of the cv. Tempranillo (Zaballa et al. 1997). In vineyards in Israel with the Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot varieties, this positive relationship was also observed (Klein et al. 2000).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn our study, the positive correlations found between AWC and K in the musts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), would be due to greater K levels in the vegetative tissues causing an increase in K levels in the berries, since they represent an important sink for K (Mpelasoka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). In those years for which this correlation was not significant, values followed the same trend as the years in which they were significant, this would indicate that the effect of AWC on the K content of the must was repeated in all the cycles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis increase of K in the musts, related with greater AWC, was sufficiently important for it to be transmitted to the wine after microvinification, and in this way, provided positive correlations between AWC and the K content in the wines (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe grapevine is a crop in which a greater availability of moisture leads to a significant response in the growth and vegetative development of the vine (Conradie et al. 2001; Keller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). In our conditions, this response was reflected in the positive correlations observed between AWC and the average weight of the branches (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). A similar result, with increases in the length of vines planted in soils with higher AWC, were found by Tramontini et al. (2013), in Bordeaux vineyards. In our trial, 2013 was the year with the highest level of precipitation, which led to good vegetative development and a greater accumulation of reserves in the living tissues of the plants. This could be one of the possible caused to explain why in 2014 the AWC did not correlate significantly with the weight of the branch, as the differences in vigour of the vines grown in soils with different AWC would have reduced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother aspect of the vegetative expression of the vines that may be affected by the availability of moisture is the development and size of the berry. The water content in the soil in the first stages of growth of the berry until pre-veraison has a strong influence on berry size, and therefore on the final weight of the clusters (Esteban et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Ollat et al. 2020). This response would explain the positive correlations found between AWC and the mean clusters weight (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), since higher AWC allows the moisture levels needed for the growth of the berry are maintained in the soil for longer. Similar results, with a positive correlation between the AWC in the soil and the weight of the clusters are provided by Echeverr\u0026iacute;a et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) in vineyards in Uruguay, Tramontini et al. (2013) in vineyards in Bordeaux and Constantini et al. (1996) in vineyards in the region of Siena (Italy). In La Rioja, it was also observed that the size of the berries correlated positively with water available in the soil (Ramos and Mart\u0026iacute;nez de Toda \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The lack of correlation between AWC and clusters weight in 2013 could be due to the high volume of precipitation recorded, which was 60% higher in the period from January to May and 20.1% higher in the period from April to October (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This increase in precipitation would mean that, prior to the growth period of the berries, the soils maintained sufficient levels of moisture which would mitigate the influence of the different levels of AWC between soils.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe content of malic acid in the musts proved very sensitive to the vegetative development of the vines, so that, with greater vegetative development, there was a greater content of malic acid. To some extent, this behaviour is linked to the fact that the presence of malic acid in the grapes is controlled very closely by the temperature (Hale \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e). That being the case, the increase in vigour, canopy development, and consequently the leaf surface, may favour the shading of the clusters, reducing the temperature, which means that the breakdown of the malic acid is less. Therefore, the positive correlations for malic acid with the AWC found in our conditions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) would be due to a greater availability of soil moisture causing greater vegetative development and vigour (as was pointed out earlier), and this greater vegetative development will create a microclimate at cluster level which is unfavourable for the breakdown of the malic acid by combustion and by the effect of the temperature. Similar results, with higher levels of malic acid in musts from vines cultivated in soils with more reserves of moisture, were found by Van Leeuwen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) in Bordeaux and Constantini et al. (1996) in the region of Siena (Italy). This response of the malic acid to the increase in vines vigour and to a lower temperature at clusters level, is also shown in our results since the contentns of malic acid were higher in all the vineyards studied in 2013, compared with the rest of the years studied. It is more than likely that the response observed would be related to the greater recorded rainfall (42% increase compared to the mean annual precipitation) and with 4% lower mean annual temperature (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the polyphenols and anthocyanins content of the musts, the results showed how the higher AWC correlated negatively with the values recorded for these two grape quality parameters (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This decrease in the polyphenols and anthocyanins content would be associated with the increase in the vines vigour and canopy development caused by the higher AWC (as previously mentioned). In this sense, this increase in vines vigour would cause a competition between reproductive and vegetative sinks (Koundouras et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), and would also interfere with the secondary metabolic routes of compounds such as the anthocyanins and polyphenols (Bravdo and Hepner \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). Similar results, with a negative correlation between AWC and musts polyphenols content, were found in vineyards growing the cv. Tennat in Uruguay (Echevarr\u0026iacute;a et al. 2017). Moreover, higher polyphenols content was obtained in the musts of Cabernet Sauvignon vines grown in a soil with higher AWC in the Conca de Barber\u0026aacute; zone (Spain), (Ubalde et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Regarding the anthocyanins, lower levels were observed in the musts from vines grown in a soil with higher AWC in the Conca de Barber\u0026aacute; (Spain) with the cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (Ubalde et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), in Siena (Italy) with the cv. Sangiovese (Bucelli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), and in Veneto (Italy), with cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (Tomasi et al. 2005). In our study, the increased precipitation recorded in 2013 compared to the other studied years, reduced the influence of the AWC in the development of the berries, and consequently, the AWC would show less effect on their polyphenols and anthocyanins content.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe correlations between AWC and polyphenols and anthocyanins content of the wines (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), agree with the negative correlations observed between the AWC and the polyphenols and anthocyanins content of the musts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the reduction in the compounds which, mainly, contribute to the musts colour (polyphenols and anthocyanins), caused by the higher AWC, proved sufficiently important to be transferred to the wines, after microvinification. Ubalde et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), in vineyards in the Conca de Barber\u0026aacute; zone (Spain), obtained similar results, with a decrease in colour intensity and polyphenols in the wines as a consequence of a greater availability of moisture for the vines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the nutritional status of N in the vines, the positive correlations found between the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soils and the level of N in the leaf petioles (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), would confirm that the greater availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil would allow a greater assimilation of this nutrient by the vines. Flowering is the critical period for the assimilation of N by the vine (L\u0026ouml;hnertz \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Perret \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, our results also show that the determination of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the 0-45cm deep layer of the soil at the phenological moment of flowering is related with the N that the vine will assimilate. These results also were found in Germany by Linsenmeier et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), who observed that higher levels of NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil provided vines with a higher content of foliar N. In the same way, in the D.O.Ca. Rioja appellation (Spain) with the cv. Tempranillo, P\u0026eacute;rez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) reported a positive correlation between the N in both, blades and petioles leaf tissues, and the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil, determined at the vine flowering stage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the correlations found between N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soils and the content of K in the petioles (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), indicate that an increase in the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil would cause an increase in assimilation of K by the plants. To account for these results, the studies revised by Zhang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), which show that the assimilation of nitrate stimulates the net assimilation of K in various crops can be remarked. This process would be due to the fact that K is a cation which mainly accompanies the anion NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e, as it is absorbed at root level (Ivashikina and Feyziev \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, this higher nutritional level of K in vines, induced by the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e, will lead to a greater content of K in the berries, as they are important sinks for this nutrient (Mpelasoka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). In this regard, our results showed positive correlations between the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil and the K in the musts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) and the wines (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Results that confirm this process of synergy between the N in the soil and the K content of the berries were described by Brunetto et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), in Brazil, with the cv. Cabernet Sauvignon. They reported that by increasing the dose of nitrogen fertiliser, the K content of the berries increased. This has also been observed by Assimakopoulou and Tsougrianis (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), who in Greece with the cv. Agiorgitiko found a correlation between the foliar N and the K in the musts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe great ability of N to stimulate canopy development has been noted by several authors, such as Conradie et al. (2001) and P\u0026eacute;rez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The positive correlations found in our study between the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soils and the shoots weight (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) would confirm this capacity to increase vegetative development in such circumstances. This effect of the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e content in the soil on the shoots growth matched with that reported by other authors such as Linsenmeier et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) in Germany, Balachandra et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) in New Zealand and P\u0026eacute;rez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) in La Rioja (Spain).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe stimulation of vegetative growth due to the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e drawn from the soil would also produce an increase in berries size, which in turn would mean an increase in clusters weight (Chon\u0026eacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Thomidis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In our results, this occurrence is seen through the correlations between the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil and clusters weight (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Similar increases in grape production with greater amounts of soil NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e have been described by Linsenmeier et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) in Germany and P\u0026eacute;rez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) in La Rioja (Spain).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs far as the content of malic acid in the musts is concerned, and in the same way as the AWC described previously, the increased vines vigour and vegetative development stimulated by the greater availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil, would cause microclimatic conditions from the shading of the clusters which are more unfavourable for the metabolic breakdown of the malic acid. This situation would explain the positive correlations found in our study between the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil and the malic acid in the musts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Similar results, with increases in malic acid content in musts when the dose of N fertiliser is increased have been found by other authors such as Keller et al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) in cv. Pinot Noir, and Hilbert et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) in cv. Merlot.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effect of the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil also affects other compounds which determine the quality of the musts. Thus, in our study, the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil correlated negatively with the polyphenols and anthocyanins content in musts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). These results would be due to a greater availability of N causing greater vines vegetative development which competes with the accumulation of sugar and pigments in the grapes (Bravdo and Hepner \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). This greater vines vegetative growth would also interfere with the metabolic pathways of compounds such as the anthocyanins and polyphenols, ultimately reducing their presence in the grapes (Bravdo and Hepner \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis effect is widely described in the literature. Thus, in La Rioja region, and with the cv. Tempranillo, P\u0026eacute;rez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) found a negative correlation between NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil and the musts anthocyanins and polyphenols content. In the same way, this negative correlation between the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil and the polyphenols content was found in a vineyard of Tempranillo in La Rioja with three different ways of soil management: tillage, barley and clover cover crops (P\u0026eacute;rez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the intake of N by the vines inhibited the synthesis of anthocyanins in the cv. Merlot (Hilbert et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), in cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (Keller and Hrazdina,1998), and in cv. Pinot Noir vines (Keller et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, Delgado et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) showed that the N intake reduced the accumulation of phenolic compounds in the skins of the grapes in the cv. Tempranillo. Finally, it should be noted that, considering different vineyard soils, a low nutritional status of N in the vines induced a high content of anthocyanins and polyphenols in the berries of cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (Chon\u0026eacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) and cv. Merlot (Tregoat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) in the Bordeaux region (France).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the 2013 season, a significant correlation was observed between musts polyphenols and anthocyanins and the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e available in the soil (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) but no correlation was established between the AWC and the musts polyphenols and anthocyanins content (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). These results would indicate that in the case of seasons which are wetter than normal, which in turn generate higher levels of moisture in the soil, the main factor which affects the polyphenols and anthocyanins content in the grapes, would be the availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil. Similarly, when correlations exist between AWC and N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e with the polyphenols and anthocyanins compounds in the same year, it would indicate that the two factors act simultaneously and in synergy, due to the AWC being able to increase both the vegetative development and the assimilation of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, the greater availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil would allow the vines to assimilate more N and therefore enable it to stimulate vines vegetative growth. In both cases, the greater vines vegetative development would lead to a lower content of anthocyanins and polyphenols in musts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs for the effect on the wines, the negative correlation observed in the musts between the polyphenols and anthocyanins content and the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil, was also noted between the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e and the colour intensity, the polyphenols and anthocyanins content in the wines (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the reduction in the content of the components which provide colour (polyphenols and anthocyanins) in the musts, caused by the greater availability of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e, were of sufficient magnitude to be transmitted into the contents of polyphenols and anthocyanins in the wines. To such an extent that the availability of the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil, would affect the colour of the wines and would therefore exert a major influence on the oenological potential of the vines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the case of the K content able to be extracted from the soil, the positive correlations found between K extractable from the soil with foliar K, the K in the musts and the K in the wines (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), confirmed that the availability of K exchange in the soil had a direct effect on the levels of K in the vines, since the absorption of K is a passive process (Keller \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). This affinity for the assimilation of K may be related to the great mobility in the vines, due to the involvement of a large range of physiological processes (Leibar et al.,2017). As has been pointed out previously, the greater K content of the vines has repercussions on its accumulation in the berries (Mpelasoka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Similar results with correlations between the K exchangeable in soil and the foliar K and the K in the musts, were described by Assimakopoulou and Tsougrianis (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) in Greece with the cv. Agiorgitiko. In Brazil, Tecchio et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) also observed it with the cv. Ni\u0026aacute;gara Rosada, finding a relation between exchange of K and the K content of the petioles. In this way, the greater availability of K in the soil exchange complex increases the K content in the soil solution and in the absorption of K by the plant. This K enrichment in the vegetative parts will be transferred to the grape (Mpelasoka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), and finally, to the wine. The fact that the relations between the K in the soil and the K in the wines are maintained, show the importance of the availability of K in the soil and its potential influence on the final quality of the wines.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the soil and climate conditions of the winemaking region of the D.O.Ca. Rioja appellation (Spain), the determination of AWC may account for differences in vigour, yield and the must and wine composition between vineyards with different types of soils and in different seasons. An increase in AWC leads to increases in vines vigour and yield, as well as causing reductions in the polyphenols and anthocyanins content of musts and wines. This effect would not be significant in years with more abundant levels of precipitation, as was the case in 2013, with recorded rainfall above the recent historical mean. Moreover, the AWC has a synergy effect on the assimilation of N and K, two of the most important nutrients for the vine plant. Therefore, for the study of the N and K fertility in the soil and its effect on the vines, it would be necessary also to know the AWC in the soil, so as to be able to consider correctly the effect of these two nutrients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn turn, the determination of the soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e content during flowering can explain the levels of N in the vines in different vintages, despite changes in the levels of soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e from year to year, by the different climate conditions. Thus, the content of soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e correlates positively with the vines vigour and yield and negatively with the content of polyphenols and anthocyanins in musts and wines. In this respect, it has been observed how the increases in the content of soil N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e leads to increases in vines vigour and yield and decreases in the content of polyphenols and anthocyanins in musts and wines. Therefore, for managing vineyards in which the aim is to obtain the highest quality of musts and wines, it is important to keep the levels of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the soil under control, in such a way that they allow balanced vines growth, production and quality of musts and wines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe K exchange content of the A horizon soil surface (0\u0026ndash;15 cm) also allows the evaluation of the effect of the K in the soil on the vineyard, as this correlates positively with the content of K in the vines, musts and wines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the relationship of these soil parameters with the final composition of the wines from these plots has been observed, which underlines the effects of these soil parameters. Since the vinification process can reduce the differences between musts, the results obtained shown the great effects that these soil parameters under study had on the composition of the wines. Therefore, it would be recommended to use them in the agronomic management of the vineyard, from the planning of new plantations (in the case of AWC) to the management of fertilisation (in the case of N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e and K extractable).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work is part of a Project financed by the Government of La Rioja (Spain). Eva Pilar P\u0026eacute;rez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez also acknowledges the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (MCIU) for her postdoctoral grant\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll Authors declare they have no financial interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by J.M\u0026ordf; Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Vidaurre, E.P. P\u0026eacute;rez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez, and F. Peregrina. The first draft of the manuscript was written by F. Peregrina and J.M. Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Vidaurre\u0026nbsp; and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors thank Zinio Wineries from Uru\u0026ntilde;uela (La Rioja), to assign the plots to carry out the trial.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003cp\u003eArrobas M, Ferreira IQ, Freitas S, Verdial J, Rodrigues M\u0026Acirc; (2014) Guidelines for fertilizer use in vineyards based on nutrient content of grapevine parts. 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Plant Soil 335: 21\u0026ndash;34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0323-4\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"available water-holding capacity, must quality, soil available N-NO3-, soil K extractable, wine quality","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1723498/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1723498/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003ePurpose\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to assess the relationship between the available water-holding capacity (AWC), available N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e and K extractable content in the soil and the vine nutritional status, vigour, yield and quality of the musts and wines in D.O.Ca. Rioja vineyards over a period of five years (2010\u0026ndash;2014).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe AWC, available N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e and K extractable contents in the soil were analysed in twelve cv. Tempranillo plots. Vine yield and nutritional parameters were determined, as well as the K and polyphenols compounds in the musts and wines.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn general, both the AWC and the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e content correlated positively with the N and K content of the petiole, the shoot weight, and the bunch weight, but negatively with the polyphenols and anthocyanins content of the musts and wines. The K that can be extracted from the soil also correlated with the K content of the petiole, and with the K in the musts and wines.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe AWC, the N-NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e and the extractable K are soil parameters which have been linked to the growth and ripening of the vine plant, as well as to the composition of the must and wine. For D.O.Ca. Rioja wine-growing sector, these soil parameters would be a suitable tool in order to select soils that allow to obtain wines of better quality.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Relationships between available-holding water capacity, N-NO3- and K in the soil with parameters of nutritional status, vigour, yield, must and wine composition in the cv. Tempranillo","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-06-16 21:22:22","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1723498/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"efea3ef6-c46f-4b97-9442-61ed019a30c8","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 16th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2022-07-24T20:43:44+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-06-16 21:22:22","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-1723498","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-1723498","identity":"rs-1723498","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"WrCJVZZCHTDjtuVLN7oU0","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}