Drying Kinetics and Effectiveness of Button Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) at Different Conditions of Sublimation Process

Drying Kinetics and Effectiveness of Button Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) at Different Conditions of Sublimation Process | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Drying Kinetics and Effectiveness of Button Mushrooms ( Agaricus bisporus ) at Different Conditions of Sublimation Process Sylwia Mierzejewska, Adam Kopeć, Joanna Piepiórka Stepuk, Jarosław Diakun, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4016907/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The drying process in the vacuum chamber included a fresh and pre-frozen button mushrooms. During the process, the pressure and the weight of the sample were recorded as well as the temperatures: inside the vacuum chamber, at the surface of the mushroom and in the center. The kinetics of the measured parameters are presented and their interdependence is shown The drying process under sublimation conditions for the pre-frozen mushroom was the shortest. This was an unexpected result, as the unfrozen mushroom it required less energy for water evaporation. The sublimation conditions of the pre-frozen mushrooms showed the best quality. Food Science & Technology Drying Sublimation Lyophilisation Button mushrooms Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1. Introduction The button mushroom is the most common cultivated fungus. It is an edible fungus acknowledged for its pleasant taste and fragrance [ 1 , 2 ]. It is a product mostly sold fresh with a short shell life [ 3 ]. One of the methods of processing the mushroom into a stable product is drying. The dried mushroom can be a commercial product with high durability. It is used as an ingredient of soups and sauces in the form of food concentrates. In terms of marketable quality or as a component of complex products, and in use by the consumer, an important indicator of the quality of the mushroom is its appearance and rehydration potential [4 − 8, 9]. Drying as a method of preserving products such as fruit, vegetables and fungi is one of the methods of prolonging their shelf life. They are products with a natural high content of water and their drying results in a decrease of their quality in relation to the fresh product. Methods which allow the losses in quality to be minimised are being sought. In terms of quality, freeze-drying (in a vacuum) of a frozen product (lyophilisation) is a beneficial preservation method [ 5 , 6 ]. Lyophilization is used to obtain selected ingredients, for example from soy [ 9 ], including waste materials for example dairy industry effluents [ 10 ]. This method is used in pharmaceuticals because of hygienic aspects [ 11 ]. Freeze-drying is a long-lasting process. The problem is shortening the drying time and the method of the issues is supplying the energy required in the process of phase transition of the water from a frozen state (ice) to steam [ 4 , 12 – 16 ]. 2. Materials and Methods Tests of drying a fresh and pre-frozen mushroom in a vacuum chamber were performed. The source of the energy necessary for drying optionally: included either infrared lamps, or the freeze-drying was performed without infrared lamps, instead using natural ambient energy and the enthalpy of the product. The aim was to examine the course of the process and the impact of the examined conditions of dehydration on the quality of the product under visual inspection, and also through measurement of the degree of rehydration. Convective drying was performed for comparison. 2.1. Mushrooms preparation for research Button mushrooms ( Agaricus Bisporus ) was the study material. Only its pileus (diameter: 50 ÷ 60 mm), divided into four parts (Fig. 1 ), was used for the performed research. The moisture content of the fresh mushroom was 94.0% ±1.6%. 2.2. Drying method Mushrooms were dried under sublimation vacuum conditions and, for comparison, convection drying was carried out. Convective drying was performed in a chamber with a forced flow of air in which a temperature of 50 ± 5°C was maintained during the drying. The input mass for convection drying was 223 g. During the drying, the sample of the dried fungi was weighed every 15 minutes. The goal was to determine the end time of the drying process, which was determined by the stabilization of the sample mass. Freeze-drying was performed in a vacuum chamber (diameter − 300 mm and volume − 18 liters) of a laboratory test bench (Fig. 2 ). During the drying, the pressure in the chamber, the mass of the sample and the temperature in the chamber on the surface of the sample and inside the sample were continuously measured. The mass was measured with a measuring system based on a piezoelectric force sensor - an IL 0.2 type weighing module, manufactured by the Mensor company. The temperature was measured with a type K thermocouple (NiCr-NiAl), connected with a type PCLD-8710 temperature compensator. The ends of the thermocouples were placed on the surface and the inside of a single mushroom and within the space of the drying chamber. Signals from mass and temperature measuring circuits were sent through a type PCI-1710,9 measurement card where they were recorded and processed with the MAT-Lab software. The vacuum drying was performed in three variants: • a fresh mushroom without additional sources of energy, • a fresh mushroom with a supply of energy from 2x50W infrared heaters placed in a vacuum chamber, • a mushroom pre-frozen to a temperature of -20°C and with a supply of energy during the drying, as above. The drying was performed until the mass of the sample stabilised. After the drying process, the appearance of the mushroom was evaluated and the water content was measured (on a WPS 110S, MAC50 moisture analyser manufactured by the RADWAG company) and it was subjected to rehydration for a period of 5 hours. The moisture content measurements were repeated five times. 3. Results and discussion The research stand created by us enables continuous measurement and recording: mass of sample, temperature in the sample as well as temperature and pressure in the vacuum chamber. During the convective drying, the mass of the sample stabilised after 12 hours of drying, achieving a moisture content of 11.4 ± 0.6%. The results of the measurements of the changes in parameters during the freeze-drying is presented in Figs. 3 , 4 and 5 . Taking into account the course of the changes in the parameters, characteristic points and stages of the process can be distinguished. These stages were pointed in the figures by numbers 1,2,3,4. After a vacuum pump was activated during the drying of a fresh mushroom without an additional source of energy, a vacuum level of 240 Pa was quickly reached (point 1 on the Fig. 3 ). In the beginning, the temperature of the mushroom, both on the surface and internally, decreased to approximately 0°C. Inside the mushroom, the temperature gradually decreased, causing freezing of the sample. This means that in the initial stage the water evaporates and then the ice sublimates (lyophilization process). The course of the temperature change indicates that the energy needed to evaporate the water (phase change water – steam) comes from cooling the mass of the sample and then freezing it (water-ice phase transformation). Only after 21 hours (point 2) a significant increase in temperature occurred. On the surface, after a short period of temperature decrease, it began to gradually increase. The temperature in the chamber slightly decreased in the beginning and then increased to room temperature level (20°C). After 25 hours (point 3 in Fig. 3 ), the temperatures of the sample equalised with the level of the temperature of the chamber. The changes in the temperatures are evidence of energy processes. The energy required for the evaporation and sublimation of water from mushrooms caused, in the initial stage, a decrease of the temperature of the mushroom, until it froze. A decrease of the temperature in the chamber is also observed. At the final stage, the temperatures equalised, which means that the intensity of sublimation decreased and then ceased altogether. The drying effect is illustrated by the line of decreasing sample mass. A near-linear decrease of the mass of the sample was observed until point 3. The mass of the sample stabilised after 29 hours (point 4 in Fig. 3 ). This moment was accepted as the end of the drying process. The moisture content measured on the moisture analyser was 9.6 ± 1.2%. During the sublimation, the pressure gradually decreased to the level of approximately 100 Pa in point 4 marked as the end of the drying (stabilisation of the mass). The further decrease of the pressure resulted from technical capabilities of the pump. The change in the parameters of the drying of the fresh mushroom in the vacuum chamber with the supply of energy from infrared heaters is presented in Fig. 4 . The impact of the heaters increased the temperature in the chamber to approximately 30°C within the first hour, and then to the level of 55°C at the end of the sublimation process. Despite the supply of energy from the heaters, the internal and surface temperatures of the mushrooms dropped below 0°C. This means that the evaporation process and then the sublimation process was so intense that it led to freezing. Energy for the phase transformation of water into vapor causes a decrease in temperature and then freezing of the sample, despite the operation of radiators. The increase of the temperature of the mushroom occurred only at the end of drying (point 2), after 8 hours on the surface and after 10 hours internally, respectively, and the temperatures equalised after 12 hours. The mass of the sample stabilised (point 4) after 13 hours (end of drying), reaching a moisture content of 8.1 ± 2.1%. The intensity of evaporation and sublimation caused the pressure to be kept at a relatively high level 400 to 500 Pa (but below the pressure of 640 Pa, conditioning the sublimation process). The course of changes in parameters of lyophilisation of the mushroom pre-cooled to the temperature of -20°C, with a supply of energy from heaters, is presented in Fig. 5 . The temperature in the chamber changed as in the case of drying and sublimation of a fresh mushroom. Temperatures internally and on the surface of the mushroom differ slightly. The initial increase in temperature resulted from the stabilisation of the system after placing thermocouples in the samples. The mass of the sample stabilised (point 4) after 10.6 hours (end of drying), achieving a moisture content level of 7.0 ± 0.4%. During the sublimation, the pressure maintained the level of 400 Pa. After this period, it decreased to the level (270 Pa) resulting from the thermal parameters of the chamber and technical parameters of the pump. A summary of the duration of drying and the achieved humidity levels in the researched conditions is presented in Fig. 6 . The drying in a vacuum chamber without a special supply of heat and with the use of ambient energy and product enthalpy took the longest, which causes lowering of the temperature and freezing of the product. The duration of convective drying and freeze-drying with a supply of energy from infrared heaters was comparable. The freeze-drying of a pre-cooled mushroom had the shortest duration. It is an unexpected result. It was expected that in a vacuum chamber a fresh mushroom would be dehydrated faster than a pre-cooled mushroom. In the case of a pre-frozen mushroom, energy should be supplied to increase the temperature from − 20°C, and then carrying out the sublimation process (sublimation phase change energy − 2595 kJ/kg). However, when dewatering from the liquid form, is necessary for the water-steam phase transition (energy 2260 kJ/kg). It was expected then that the mushroom that wasn’t pre-frozen would be dried faster. On the one hand, the mushrooms that were not pre-frozen reached a temperature below 0°C during the sublimation, which means that some of their water content froze. On the other hand, though, the energy of cooling (phase change energy recovery) and defrosting (energy should be supplied for phase transformation) balances out (levels to zero). The experiment shows that, in a vacuum, frozen water is removed from a mushroom faster than liquid water. It can be explained by the fact that, as a result of the sublimation of a fresh mushroom, its porous structure shrinks and this results in impeding the movement of water. Meanwhile, pre-freezing a mushroom allows its porous structure to be maintained during dehydration (easier water movement) [ 17 , 18 ]. It is also confirmed by the form of the mushrooms after drying (Fig. 7 ). It may be also assumed that it is one of the thermal and energetic paradoxes of water’s behaviour, which is inverse to the “Mpemba paradox” (quicker freezing of water is observed when it is heated). Meanwhile, in the observed experiment, frozen water evaporates faster than liquid water. While drying a pre-frozen mushroom, the lowest level of moisture content and the highest uniformity in terms of humidity were reached. The highest heterogeneity of moisture content occurred during the drying of a fresh mushroom in a vacuum chamber with radiant heating (largest statistical spread of moisture measurement results - Fig. 6 ). This means that this scenario presented the most heterogeneous conditions of dehydration. Photos of the mushrooms after drying are presented in Fig. 7 . The quarters of mushrooms dried with convective drying are the most deformed. The mushrooms frozen before drying exhibit the lowest degree of deformation. The results of rehydration are presented in Fig. 8 . The highest level of water absorption was achieved in mushrooms dried in a vacuum chamber without radiant heating and for the freeze-drying process of a pre-frozen mushroom. Results of rehydration are consistent with the degree of deformation as a result of post-drying shrinkage. Post-drying shrinkage causes a deformation of the product, and at the microscopic scale it causes the closing of the pores of the material, which decreases its water absorption potential during rehydration. The drying of a frozen mushroom maintains its geometrical structure and preserves the porosity of its microscopic tissue structure after the removal of water, and such a structure is easily rehydrates. Similar results of comparison, drying time and the degree of rehydration, for convective drying and freeze drying of frozen carrot slices were received by Ando et al [ 19 ]. 4. Conclusions 1. The analysis kinetics of the changes of the mass and temperature samples, the pressure and the atmosphere during drying in a vacuum chamber allowed the flow of energy and the intensity of sublimation dehydration to be analysed. 2. A comparable duration of convective drying and freeze-drying with a supply of energy from infrared heaters was achieved, while the duration of vacuum drying without using radiators, with the use of natural ambient heat and the decrease of enthalpy of dried mushrooms was significantly longer. 3. Pre-frozen mushrooms were dried the fastest. It is an unexpected result, because it was expected that the freeze-drying of a fresh mushroom would take the shortest time, which requires less energy in the drying process. 4. The highest quality, evaluated as minimal deformation after drying, the lowest level of humidity and the maximal degree of dehydration, was achieved in a freeze-dried, pre-frozen mushroom. 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Dry Technol 2:1119–1125. doi.org/10.1081/DRT-200059145 Subramaniam S, Wen XY, Zhang ZT, Jing P (2020) Changes in the morphometric, textural, and aromatic characteristics of shiitake mushrooms during combined humid-convective drying. Dry Technol 5. doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2020.1760878 Ando Y, Hagiwara S, Nabetani H, Sotome I, Tagaw A (2019) Improvements of drying rate and structural quality of microwave - vacum dried carrot by freeze-thaw pretreatment. LWT 100(2):294–299 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4016907","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":276495134,"identity":"19d784b1-a228-4ade-b708-efa3f7be61ff","order_by":0,"name":"Sylwia Mierzejewska","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5225-6540","institution":"Koszalin University of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering Division of Food Industry Processes and Facilities","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sylwia","middleName":"","lastName":"Mierzejewska","suffix":""},{"id":276495135,"identity":"44e7e15b-709b-44f7-b743-1002fc947594","order_by":1,"name":"Adam Kopeć","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Koszalin University of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering Division of Food Industry Processes and Facilities","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adam","middleName":"","lastName":"Kopeć","suffix":""},{"id":276495136,"identity":"3347953e-9d0f-4671-8668-960559d17390","order_by":2,"name":"Joanna Piepiórka Stepuk","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5615-3343","institution":"Koszalin University of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering Division of Food Industry Processes and Facilities","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joanna","middleName":"Piepiórka","lastName":"Stepuk","suffix":""},{"id":276495137,"identity":"b253408a-e780-4345-9c49-2097c0c42b5b","order_by":3,"name":"Jarosław Diakun","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3649-4976","institution":"Koszalin University of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering Division of Food Industry Processes and Facilities","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jarosław","middleName":"","lastName":"Diakun","suffix":""},{"id":276495138,"identity":"427fbab5-8f97-48d3-8472-c6e1f804196e","order_by":4,"name":"Zdzisław Domiszewski","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9695-0665","institution":"Koszalin University of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering Division of Food Industry Processes and Facilities","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zdzisław","middleName":"","lastName":"Domiszewski","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-05 11:48:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4016907/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4016907/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":52072726,"identity":"132832f0-a875-4e3c-8758-8f20aedfcd6c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 08:39:56","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":106144,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe pileus of the button mushrooms - \u003cem\u003eAgaricus Bisporus\u003c/em\u003e (diameter: 50 ÷ 60 mm) divided into four\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eparts\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4016907/v1/99d9a5981c37fc90c064f1aa.jpg"},{"id":52072724,"identity":"d68a78be-20a1-4e4f-8886-b049e09f0d8b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 08:39:56","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":83065,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVacuum chamber: a - Laboratory stand; b - Scheme of research stand: 1 – vacuum chamber, 2 – BL-15 vacuum pump, 3 – steam generator, 4 – pump valve, 5 – steam generator valve, 6 – air inlet valve, 7 – heating mantle\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4016907/v1/f1c069f6f752ac3885bc29ff.jpg"},{"id":52072731,"identity":"e26044e4-9ee9-4b4f-8caf-8a5ec492296a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 08:39:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":373474,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph presenting the parameters of the freeze-drying of a fresh mushroom without an additional source of energy (the description of markings 1, 2, 3, 4 - in the text)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4016907/v1/db99c2177644f0a77283862e.jpg"},{"id":52072725,"identity":"27d58817-d665-410d-a9ca-73031b167fa3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 08:39:56","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":323202,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph presenting the parameters of the freeze-drying of a fresh mushroom with the use of infrared heaters (the description of markings 2, 4 - in the text)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4016907/v1/fc7838dc5d10b1988c17cbc8.jpg"},{"id":52072729,"identity":"e6d8f69a-fdf6-4d8f-b3a7-9f44b0188ada","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 08:39:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":355474,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph presenting the parameters of the freeze-drying of a pre-frozen mushroom with the use of infrared heaters (the description of marking 4 - in the text)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4016907/v1/31b9d57e57a441147258bea2.jpg"},{"id":52072727,"identity":"d7f65c30-bcae-4e28-96c2-10c9ce116e9f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 08:39:56","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":199632,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe duration of drying (t - [h]) and the moisture content of the mushrooms after the drying (w - [%]) for the following conditions: 1- convective drying, 2 - freeze-drying of a fresh mushroom without heating, 3 - freeze-drying of a fresh mushroom with heating, 4 - freeze-drying of a pre-frozen mushroom with heating\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4016907/v1/ebc2207fbaa8da9ce80333c8.jpg"},{"id":52072728,"identity":"253445d1-be0d-423d-a09b-afb113da92bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 08:39:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":172478,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe view of mushrooms after drying: 1 - convective drying, 2 - freeze-drying without heaters, a fresh mushroom, 3 - freeze-drying with the use of heaters, a fresh mushroom, 4 - freeze-drying with the use of heaters, a pre-frozen mushroom\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4016907/v1/911bbb5f8a1dc524762b87bd.jpg"},{"id":52072730,"identity":"a70e834c-104c-4f24-87b4-55f1dba27eb6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 08:39:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":182758,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe moisture content of a mushroom [%] after the process of dehydration, dried: 1 - convective drying, 2 - freeze-drying without heaters, a fresh mushroom, 3 - freeze-drying with the use of heaters, a fresh mushroom, 4 - freeze-drying with the use of heaters, a pre-frozen mushroom\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4016907/v1/1d94102e689c89d59fc91b9a.jpg"},{"id":52073371,"identity":"5bc6175b-a199-4868-a16d-0153502bbdd0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 08:47:56","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":853109,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4016907/v1/bab407a8-e447-46e6-a7e0-f583abde4a5c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eDrying Kinetics and Effectiveness of Button Mushrooms (\u003cem\u003eAgaricus bisporus\u003c/em\u003e) at Different Conditions of Sublimation Process\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe button mushroom is the most common cultivated fungus. It is an edible fungus acknowledged for its pleasant taste and fragrance [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. It is a product mostly sold fresh with a short shell life [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. One of the methods of processing the mushroom into a stable product is drying. The dried mushroom can be a commercial product with high durability. It is used as an ingredient of soups and sauces in the form of food concentrates. In terms of marketable quality or as a component of complex products, and in use by the consumer, an important indicator of the quality of the mushroom is its appearance and rehydration potential [4 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8, 9].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDrying as a method of preserving products such as fruit, vegetables and fungi is one of the methods of prolonging their shelf life. They are products with a natural high content of water and their drying results in a decrease of their quality in relation to the fresh product. Methods which allow the losses in quality to be minimised are being sought. In terms of quality, freeze-drying (in a vacuum) of a frozen product (lyophilisation) is a beneficial preservation method [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Lyophilization is used to obtain selected ingredients, for example from soy [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], including waste materials for example dairy industry effluents [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. This method is used in pharmaceuticals because of hygienic aspects [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFreeze-drying is a long-lasting process. The problem is shortening the drying time and the method of the issues is supplying the energy required in the process of phase transition of the water from a frozen state (ice) to steam [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTests of drying a fresh and pre-frozen mushroom in a vacuum chamber were performed. The source of the energy necessary for drying optionally: included either infrared lamps, or the freeze-drying was performed without infrared lamps, instead using natural ambient energy and the enthalpy of the product. The aim was to examine the course of the process and the impact of the examined conditions of dehydration on the quality of the product under visual inspection, and also through measurement of the degree of rehydration. Convective drying was performed for comparison.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Mushrooms preparation for research\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eButton mushrooms (\u003cem\u003eAgaricus Bisporus\u003c/em\u003e) was the study material. Only its pileus (diameter: 50\u0026thinsp;\u0026divide;\u0026thinsp;60 mm), divided into four parts (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), was used for the performed research. The moisture content of the fresh mushroom was 94.0% \u0026plusmn;1.6%.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Drying method\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMushrooms were dried under sublimation vacuum conditions and, for comparison, convection drying was carried out. Convective drying was performed in a chamber with a forced flow of air in which a temperature of 50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026deg;C was maintained during the drying. The input mass for convection drying was 223 g. During the drying, the sample of the dried fungi was weighed every 15 minutes. The goal was to determine the end time of the drying process, which was determined by the stabilization of the sample mass.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFreeze-drying was performed in a vacuum chamber (diameter \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;300 mm and volume \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;18 liters) of a laboratory test bench (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). During the drying, the pressure in the chamber, the mass of the sample and the temperature in the chamber on the surface of the sample and inside the sample were continuously measured. The mass was measured with a measuring system based on a piezoelectric force sensor - an IL 0.2 type weighing module, manufactured by the Mensor company. The temperature was measured with a type K thermocouple (NiCr-NiAl), connected with a type PCLD-8710 temperature compensator. The ends of the thermocouples were placed on the surface and the inside of a single mushroom and within the space of the drying chamber. Signals from mass and temperature measuring circuits were sent through a type PCI-1710,9 measurement card where they were recorded and processed with the MAT-Lab software.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe vacuum drying was performed in three variants:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; a fresh mushroom without additional sources of energy,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; a fresh mushroom with a supply of energy from 2x50W infrared heaters placed in a vacuum chamber,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; a mushroom pre-frozen to a temperature of -20\u0026deg;C and with a supply of energy during the drying, as above.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe drying was performed until the mass of the sample stabilised.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter the drying process, the appearance of the mushroom was evaluated and the water content was measured (on a WPS 110S, MAC50 moisture analyser manufactured by the RADWAG company) and it was subjected to rehydration for a period of 5 hours. The moisture content measurements were repeated five times.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe research stand created by us enables continuous measurement and recording: mass of sample, temperature in the sample as well as temperature and pressure in the vacuum chamber.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuring the convective drying, the mass of the sample stabilised after 12 hours of drying, achieving a moisture content of 11.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6%. The results of the measurements of the changes in parameters during the freeze-drying is presented in Figs. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Taking into account the course of the changes in the parameters, characteristic points and stages of the process can be distinguished. These stages were pointed in the figures by numbers 1,2,3,4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter a vacuum pump was activated during the drying of a fresh mushroom without an additional source of energy, a vacuum level of 240 Pa was quickly reached (point 1 on the Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). In the beginning, the temperature of the mushroom, both on the surface and internally, decreased to approximately 0\u0026deg;C. Inside the mushroom, the temperature gradually decreased, causing freezing of the sample. This means that in the initial stage the water evaporates and then the ice sublimates (lyophilization process). The course of the temperature change indicates that the energy needed to evaporate the water (phase change water \u0026ndash; steam) comes from cooling the mass of the sample and then freezing it (water-ice phase transformation). Only after 21 hours (point 2) a significant increase in temperature occurred. On the surface, after a short period of temperature decrease, it began to gradually increase. The temperature in the chamber slightly decreased in the beginning and then increased to room temperature level (20\u0026deg;C). After 25 hours (point 3 in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), the temperatures of the sample equalised with the level of the temperature of the chamber. The changes in the temperatures are evidence of energy processes. The energy required for the evaporation and sublimation of water from mushrooms caused, in the initial stage, a decrease of the temperature of the mushroom, until it froze. A decrease of the temperature in the chamber is also observed. At the final stage, the temperatures equalised, which means that the intensity of sublimation decreased and then ceased altogether. The drying effect is illustrated by the line of decreasing sample mass. A near-linear decrease of the mass of the sample was observed until point 3. The mass of the sample stabilised after 29 hours (point 4 in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This moment was accepted as the end of the drying process. The moisture content measured on the moisture analyser was 9.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2%. During the sublimation, the pressure gradually decreased to the level of approximately 100 Pa in point 4 marked as the end of the drying (stabilisation of the mass). The further decrease of the pressure resulted from technical capabilities of the pump.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe change in the parameters of the drying of the fresh mushroom in the vacuum chamber with the supply of energy from infrared heaters is presented in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The impact of the heaters increased the temperature in the chamber to approximately 30\u0026deg;C within the first hour, and then to the level of 55\u0026deg;C at the end of the sublimation process. Despite the supply of energy from the heaters, the internal and surface temperatures of the mushrooms dropped below 0\u0026deg;C. This means that the evaporation process and then the sublimation process was so intense that it led to freezing. Energy for the phase transformation of water into vapor causes a decrease in temperature and then freezing of the sample, despite the operation of radiators. The increase of the temperature of the mushroom occurred only at the end of drying (point 2), after 8 hours on the surface and after 10 hours internally, respectively, and the temperatures equalised after 12 hours. The mass of the sample stabilised (point 4) after 13 hours (end of drying), reaching a moisture content of 8.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.1%. The intensity of evaporation and sublimation caused the pressure to be kept at a relatively high level 400 to 500 Pa (but below the pressure of 640 Pa, conditioning the sublimation process).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe course of changes in parameters of lyophilisation of the mushroom pre-cooled to the temperature of -20\u0026deg;C, with a supply of energy from heaters, is presented in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The temperature in the chamber changed as in the case of drying and sublimation of a fresh mushroom. Temperatures internally and on the surface of the mushroom differ slightly. The initial increase in temperature resulted from the stabilisation of the system after placing thermocouples in the samples. The mass of the sample stabilised (point 4) after 10.6 hours (end of drying), achieving a moisture content level of 7.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4%. During the sublimation, the pressure maintained the level of 400 Pa. After this period, it decreased to the level (270 Pa) resulting from the thermal parameters of the chamber and technical parameters of the pump.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA summary of the duration of drying and the achieved humidity levels in the researched conditions is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. The drying in a vacuum chamber without a special supply of heat and with the use of ambient energy and product enthalpy took the longest, which causes lowering of the temperature and freezing of the product. The duration of convective drying and freeze-drying with a supply of energy from infrared heaters was comparable. The freeze-drying of a pre-cooled mushroom had the shortest duration. It is an unexpected result. It was expected that in a vacuum chamber a fresh mushroom would be dehydrated faster than a pre-cooled mushroom. In the case of a pre-frozen mushroom, energy should be supplied to increase the temperature from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20\u0026deg;C, and then carrying out the sublimation process (sublimation phase change energy \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2595 kJ/kg). However, when dewatering from the liquid form, is necessary for the water-steam phase transition (energy 2260 kJ/kg). It was expected then that the mushroom that wasn\u0026rsquo;t pre-frozen would be dried faster. On the one hand, the mushrooms that were not pre-frozen reached a temperature below 0\u0026deg;C during the sublimation, which means that some of their water content froze. On the other hand, though, the energy of cooling (phase change energy recovery) and defrosting (energy should be supplied for phase transformation) balances out (levels to zero).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe experiment shows that, in a vacuum, frozen water is removed from a mushroom faster than liquid water. It can be explained by the fact that, as a result of the sublimation of a fresh mushroom, its porous structure shrinks and this results in impeding the movement of water. Meanwhile, pre-freezing a mushroom allows its porous structure to be maintained during dehydration (easier water movement) [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. It is also confirmed by the form of the mushrooms after drying (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). It may be also assumed that it is one of the thermal and energetic paradoxes of water\u0026rsquo;s behaviour, which is inverse to the \u0026ldquo;Mpemba paradox\u0026rdquo; (quicker freezing of water is observed when it is heated). Meanwhile, in the observed experiment, frozen water evaporates faster than liquid water. While drying a pre-frozen mushroom, the lowest level of moisture content and the highest uniformity in terms of humidity were reached. The highest heterogeneity of moisture content occurred during the drying of a fresh mushroom in a vacuum chamber with radiant heating (largest statistical spread of moisture measurement results - Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). This means that this scenario presented the most heterogeneous conditions of dehydration.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhotos of the mushrooms after drying are presented in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. The quarters of mushrooms dried with convective drying are the most deformed. The mushrooms frozen before drying exhibit the lowest degree of deformation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe results of rehydration are presented in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e. The highest level of water absorption was achieved in mushrooms dried in a vacuum chamber without radiant heating and for the freeze-drying process of a pre-frozen mushroom. Results of rehydration are consistent with the degree of deformation as a result of post-drying shrinkage. Post-drying shrinkage causes a deformation of the product, and at the microscopic scale it causes the closing of the pores of the material, which decreases its water absorption potential during rehydration. The drying of a frozen mushroom maintains its geometrical structure and preserves the porosity of its microscopic tissue structure after the removal of water, and such a structure is easily rehydrates. Similar results of comparison, drying time and the degree of rehydration, for convective drying and freeze drying of frozen carrot slices were received by Ando et al [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003e1. The analysis kinetics of the changes of the mass and temperature samples, the pressure and the atmosphere during drying in a vacuum chamber allowed the flow of energy and the intensity of sublimation dehydration to be analysed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2. A comparable duration of convective drying and freeze-drying with a supply of energy from infrared heaters was achieved, while the duration of vacuum drying without using radiators, with the use of natural ambient heat and the decrease of enthalpy of dried mushrooms was significantly longer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3. Pre-frozen mushrooms were dried the fastest. It is an unexpected result, because it was expected that the freeze-drying of a fresh mushroom would take the shortest time, which requires less energy in the drying process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4. The highest quality, evaluated as minimal deformation after drying, the lowest level of humidity and the maximal degree of dehydration, was achieved in a freeze-dried, pre-frozen mushroom.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGapiński M, Woźniak W, Pieczarka (1999) Mushroom, the technology of cultivation and processing. \u003cem\u003eState Agricultural and Forest Publishing House\u003c/em\u003e, Poznań. (PL)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMuszyńska B, Kała K, Rojowski J, Grzywacz A, Opoka W Composition and Biological Properties of Agaricus bisporus Fruiting Bodies- a Review. 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LWT 100(2):294\u0026ndash;299\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Koszalin University of Technology","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Drying, Sublimation, Lyophilisation, Button mushrooms","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4016907/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4016907/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe drying process in the vacuum chamber included a fresh and pre-frozen button mushrooms. During the process, the pressure and the weight of the sample were recorded as well as the temperatures: inside the vacuum chamber, at the surface of the mushroom and in the center. The kinetics of the measured parameters are presented and their interdependence is shown The drying process under sublimation conditions for the pre-frozen mushroom was the shortest. This was an unexpected result, as the unfrozen mushroom it required less energy for water evaporation. The sublimation conditions of the pre-frozen mushrooms showed the best quality.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Drying Kinetics and Effectiveness of Button Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) at Different Conditions of Sublimation Process","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-03-06 08:39:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4016907/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"edff4ff2-b6e8-4d78-ad39-f67396963e8a","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 6th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":29142437,"name":"Food Science \u0026 Technology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-03-06T08:39:51+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-03-06 08:39:51","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4016907","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4016907","identity":"rs-4016907","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}