Molecular Detection of Human Metapneumovirus in Lagos, Nigeria

Molecular Detection of Human Metapneumovirus in Lagos, Nigeria | medRxiv /* */ /* */ <!-- <!-- /*! * yepnope1.5.4 * (c) WTFPL, GPLv2 */ (function(a,b,c){function d(a){return"[object Function]"==o.call(a)}function e(a){return"string"==typeof a}function f(){}function g(a){return!a||"loaded"==a||"complete"==a||"uninitialized"==a}function h(){var a=p.shift();q=1,a?a.t?m(function(){("c"==a.t?B.injectCss:B.injectJs)(a.s,0,a.a,a.x,a.e,1)},0):(a(),h()):q=0}function i(a,c,d,e,f,i,j){function k(b){if(!o&&g(l.readyState)&&(u.r=o=1,!q&&h(),l.onload=l.onreadystatechange=null,b)){"img"!=a&&m(function(){t.removeChild(l)},50);for(var d in y[c])y[c].hasOwnProperty(d)&&y[c][d].onload()}}var j=j||B.errorTimeout,l=b.createElement(a),o=0,r=0,u={t:d,s:c,e:f,a:i,x:j};1===y[c]&&(r=1,y[c]=[]),"object"==a?l.data=c:(l.src=c,l.type=a),l.width=l.height="0",l.onerror=l.onload=l.onreadystatechange=function(){k.call(this,r)},p.splice(e,0,u),"img"!=a&&(r||2===y[c]?(t.insertBefore(l,s?null:n),m(k,j)):y[c].push(l))}function j(a,b,c,d,f){return q=0,b=b||"j",e(a)?i("c"==b?v:u,a,b,this.i++,c,d,f):(p.splice(this.i++,0,a),1==p.length&&h()),this}function k(){var a=B;return a.loader={load:j,i:0},a}var l=b.documentElement,m=a.setTimeout,n=b.getElementsByTagName("script")[0],o={}.toString,p=[],q=0,r="MozAppearance"in l.style,s=r&&!!b.createRange().compareNode,t=s?l:n.parentNode,l=a.opera&&"[object Opera]"==o.call(a.opera),l=!!b.attachEvent&&!l,u=r?"object":l?"script":"img",v=l?"script":u,w=Array.isArray||function(a){return"[object Array]"==o.call(a)},x=[],y={},z={timeout:function(a,b){return b.length&&(a.timeout=b[0]),a}},A,B;B=function(a){function b(a){var a=a.split("!"),b=x.length,c=a.pop(),d=a.length,c={url:c,origUrl:c,prefixes:a},e,f,g;for(f=0;f<d;f++)g=a[f].split("="),(e=z[g.shift()])&&(c=e(c,g));for(f=0;f<b;f++)c=x[f](c);return c}function g(a,e,f,g,h){var i=b(a),j=i.autoCallback;i.url.split(".").pop().split("?").shift(),i.bypass||(e&&(e=d(e)?e:e[a]||e[g]||e[a.split("/").pop().split("?")[0]]),i.instead?i.instead(a,e,f,g,h):(y[i.url]?i.noexec=!0:y[i.url]=1,f.load(i.url,i.forceCSS||!i.forceJS&&"css"==i.url.split(".").pop().split("?").shift()?"c":c,i.noexec,i.attrs,i.timeout),(d(e)||d(j))&&f.load(function(){k(),e&&e(i.origUrl,h,g),j&&j(i.origUrl,h,g),y[i.url]=2})))}function h(a,b){function c(a,c){if(a){if(e(a))c||(j=function(){var a=[].slice.call(arguments);k.apply(this,a),l()}),g(a,j,b,0,h);else if(Object(a)===a)for(n in m=function(){var b=0,c;for(c in a)a.hasOwnProperty(c)&&b++;return b}(),a)a.hasOwnProperty(n)&&(!c&&!--m&&(d(j)?j=function(){var a=[].slice.call(arguments);k.apply(this,a),l()}:j[n]=function(a){return function(){var b=[].slice.call(arguments);a&&a.apply(this,b),l()}}(k[n])),g(a[n],j,b,n,h))}else!c&&l()}var h=!!a.test,i=a.load||a.both,j=a.callback||f,k=j,l=a.complete||f,m,n;c(h?a.yep:a.nope,!!i),i&&c(i)}var i,j,l=this.yepnope.loader;if(e(a))g(a,0,l,0);else if(w(a))for(i=0;i (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0];var j=d.createElement(s);var dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.src='//www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;j.type='text/javascript';j.async=true;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-P4HH5NV'); Skip to main content Home About Submit ALERTS / RSS Search for this keyword Advanced Search Molecular Detection of Human Metapneumovirus in Lagos, Nigeria View ORCID Profile Abdul-Azeez Adeyemi Anjorin , Haminat Oluwatoyosi Olaleye , Saburi Adekilekun Sayid , Tomisin Deborah Ajose , Grace Treasure Daniel , Kabir Olusegun Akinyemi doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.02.21.25322649 Abdul-Azeez Adeyemi Anjorin 1 Department of Microbiology, Lagos State University , Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria 2 African Centre of Excellence for Innovative & Transformative STEM Education (ACEITSE), Lagos State University. Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site ORCID record for Abdul-Azeez Adeyemi Anjorin For correspondence: abdul-azeez.anjorin{at}lasu.edu.ng Haminat Oluwatoyosi Olaleye 1 Department of Microbiology, Lagos State University , Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Saburi Adekilekun Sayid 1 Department of Microbiology, Lagos State University , Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Tomisin Deborah Ajose 1 Department of Microbiology, Lagos State University , Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Grace Treasure Daniel 1 Department of Microbiology, Lagos State University , Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Kabir Olusegun Akinyemi 1 Department of Microbiology, Lagos State University , Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Abstract Full Text Info/History Metrics Data/Code Preview PDF ABSTRACT Background Human metapneumovirus (HMPV) is an important respiratory pathogen worldwide. It is a leading cause of lower respiratory infection in infants, children, elderly and immunocompromised individuals. Methods This cross-sectional molecular epidemiological study examined HMPV among people with underlying conditions in different clinics in Lagos. Nasopharyngeal samples collected from 150 patients aged 1-88 years between May and June, 2022 were tested by Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction. Samples were extracted using Addbio extraction kit (Germany) while master-mix was prepared with primer designed targeting the F protein gene. Results A total of 15.3% (23/150) was positive for HMPV. The highest HMPV molecular prevalence of 34.8% (8/23) was recorded among the age group (>55 years) while the lowest prevalence of 4.3% (1/23) was recorded in the age group (12-22 years). Male predominance of 56.6% (13/23) was chronicled. Interestingly, HMPV molecular prevalence of 43.3% (10/23), 26.1% (6/23), 21.7% (5/23), 17.4%, (4/23), 13.3% (3/23) were found with co-infection/co-morbidity in malaria, high blood pressure, diabetes, tuberculosis, and pneumonia respectively. Based on location, the highest molecular prevalence was recorded in Badagry 39.1% (9/23), followed by Ojo 34.8% (8/23), while Alimosho recorded the lowest prevalence of 26.1% (6/23). Traders had the highest 39.1% (9/23) molecular prevalence while the lowest 4.3% (1/23) was recorded among patients that are civil servants, musicians, teachers and the unemployed. Conclusion The interaction between HMPV and other pathogens, such as malaria and respiratory viruses suggests that HMPV may exacerbate existing health conditions or that individuals with these conditions are more prone to HMPV infection. This highlights the need for comprehensive diagnostic approaches in clinical settings to identify and manage multiple infections effectively. The findings accentuates the importance of epidemiological surveillance especially among individuals having underlying diseases and protracted illnesses. 1. INTRODUCTION The most common disease in the world are the respiratory infections ( Monto et al ., 2002 ) and they are responsible for considerable morbidity and mortality especially in infants and elderly (Nicholas et al ., 2020). Human metapneumovirus (HMPV) is a major worldwide respiratory pathogen which can both be symptomatic and asymptomatic in infected host (Bruno et al ., 2009). It was first isolated in Netherlands from children with respiratory syncytial virus-like symptoms in previously virus-negative nasopharyngeal aspirates in the year 2001 (Hall, 2001; Van den Hoogen et al ., 2001 ; Hoogen 2002). Although, Owor et al . (2016) documented its antibodies in patient serum dating back to the 1950s, indicating that the virus has been circulating undetected in the human population for decades, HMPV has also been detected in specimens from adults, elderly and immunocompromised patients suffering from acute respiratory tract infections ( Boivin and Pelletier, 2002 ; Owor et al ., 2016 ). The transmission of HMPV is likely to occur by direct or indirect contact. It can be spread from an infected person to others through secretions from coughing and sneezing, close personal contacts, and touching the mouth, nose or eyes after touching objects or surfaces that have been contaminated with the virus. The incubation period is 3-6 days with a median duration of the illness that can vary depending upon severity (CDC, 2016). The clinical presentation usually erupts from common upper respiratory tract symptoms to severe pneumonia leading to diverse pathologies of the upper or lower respiratory tracts including laryngitis, rhinopharyngitis, pneumonia, croup, bronchiolitis or asthma (Biovin et al ., 2003; Boivin et al ., 2010). Although, the clinical course usually commences with an asymptomatic state that can last about seven (7) days post-exposure, trailed by a week symptoms of upper respiratory tract infection before the disease resolution. However, the clinical course can spread towards the lower respiratory tract resulting in the involvement of the lungs parenchymal and further complications (Boivin et al ., 2010). The ICTV 2021 classified HMPV under the realm Riboviria, kingdom Orthornavirae, and phylum known as Negarnaviricota. It belongs to the family Paramyxoviridae, sub family Pneumovirine, class Monjiviricetes, with the order Mononegavirales, and categorized as the first human member of the metapneumovirus genus. This family also contain measles, mumps, human parainfluenza viruses, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) (Haas et al ., 2013). In Africa, Human metapneumovirus associated acute respiratory tract infection (ARTI) has been reported in children (Divarathna et al ., 2019). Oketch et al . (2021) investigation in children within the age range of 5 years documented 39 incidences in Mali and Zambia. Another 22.2% incidences were reported from Algeria by Derrar et al., 2019 among 117 children by RT-PCR. A total of 13.8% incidence was reported among 295 children between 2-59 months after a multiplex RT-PCR in Madagascar (Hoffmann et al., 2012). Jroundi et al . (2016) documented 8.9% incidence among 683 children > 5 years in Morocco. In Nigeria, Akinloye (2011) documented 3.7% prevalence of HMPV among children in Oyo State. In St. Louis, Missouri, the predominant genotype of HMPV switched in consecutive years from genotype A to genotype B. Wang et al (2018) reported that HMPV was detected in 14.2 million ALRI cases, 643,000 hospital admissions, 7,700 in–hospital deaths, and 16,100 overall ALRI deaths among children under five years globally. Although, there have been many advances made over the years since its discovery, however there are supportive regiments that can be used. Yet there are still no approved antivirals or vaccines available to treat with the dangerous sporadic resultant outbreaks including previous and current spread of HMPV in Asia which if not properly manage may spread to other parts of the world, hence we therefore investigated and herein report our findings on the presence of Human metapneumovirus in the general population in different communities in Lagos, Nigeria. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS STUDY DESIGN AND LOCATION This study is a descriptive, cross sectional, hospital-based molecular epidemiological surveillance in three (3) communities of Alimosho, Badagry and Ojo in Lagos, Nigeria. Lagos State with a population of over 21 million (21,000,000) and a total area of 3,577 square meters is located in the Southwestern part of Nigeria along the Atlantic Ocean with an average temperature of 26.7°C and annual rainfall of 178.3mm/70.2 inch. Lagos State is bounded by the Ogun State to the north and east, and by the inlet of Benin to the south, and to the West by the Republic of Benin. Specifically, samples were collected from Alimosho general hospital located in Igando, Bola Ahmed Tinubu health center located in Egbeda and Ipinilere primary health center located in Akowonjo. The hospital and centers provide 24 hours in-patients and out-patients supports and care for an average of 30,000 patients monthly. Nasopharyngeal samples were collected from patients from the different clinics and hospitals by purposive sampling during the peak rainy period from June to July, 2022. Consent forms for the participants along with a pretested paper-interviewer questionnaires were appropriately administered by the research team members. INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA The inclusion criteria were patients with symptoms similar to HMPV including fever, cough, dyspnoea, sputum production, and wheezing especially in young children and aged adults. The exclusion criteria were patients who have had COVID and those who didn’t give their consents. ETHICAL APPROVAL AND PERMISSION Permission was sought after from the Heads of Health Centers where the samples were obtained while the ethical approval was obtained from LASUTH (Lagos State University Teaching Hospital) with the registration number NHREC04/04/2008 and reference number LREC/06/10/1272, respectively. DATA COLLECTION AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS The data were collected using a standard pretested questionnaire in which biodata (age, gender, occupation, educational level, marital status, place of origin) and clinical data (signs and symptoms) pathognomonic of HMPV such as fever, sore throat, cough, nausea, shortness of breath, wheezing, stuffed nose, tightness of chest were appropriately captured and documented ( Fig. 1 ). Data obtained were entered into a spreadsheet database prepared with Microsoft excel. They were compared and changed for wrongful entries. The data were then sorted, averaged and organized into table using descriptive statistical tools. Download figure Open in new tab Fig 1. Flow chart of inclusion criteria and distribution of clinical signs and symptoms. LABORATORY ANALYSIS The study laboratory analyses were carried out at the Virology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology Molecular Research Lab, Faculty of Science, Lagos State University, Ojo. SAMPLE COLLECTION AND TESTING A total of 150 nasopharyngeal samples were collected using Dracon swabs with flexible plastic shafts. The swab was inserted gently and slowly through the nostril parallel to the palate, rubbed and rolled to absorb secretions collected from both nostrils using the same swab. This was then transferred into a cryovial containing viral transport medium (VTM). Each cryovial was labelled with unique laboratory code number and were appropriately transported in cold chain to the laboratory for freezing at -30 until analysis. Extraction process Equal aliquots of three (3) human nasal samples were pooled into one cryovial tube to achieve the given 200µl needed for extraction. A total of 150 samples were pooled into 50 cyrovial tubes. Nucleic acid was extracted with AddPrep Total RNA extraction kit (Addbio, Sweden) following the manufacturer’s instructions. Accurately measured 200µl each of the sample aliquots was dispensed in a microcentrifuge tube followed by the addition of 350µl lysis buffer with pre-added beta-mercaptoethanol in order to neutralize ribonucleases released from the viral entity. This was followed by vortexing and incubation at room temperature for 10 minutes. A 150µl aliquot of isopropanol was added to obtain each sample lysate. Each lysate was vortexed and transferred into a spin column. The mixture was centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 1 minute while the flow-through was discarded and collection tube was blotted on sterile tissue paper. A 500µl of wash-1 buffer was then added to the spin column, centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 1 minute, then flow-through was also discarded and collection tube was blotted on sterile tissue paper. The same procedure was taken for wash-2 buffer. The spin column was centrifuged again at 13,000 rpm to remove the residual ethanol. The spin column was then placed into a new nuclease free microcentrifuge tube. Then 100µl elution buffer was added to the center of the column, it was incubated at room temperature for two minutes. Final centrifugation was carried out at 13,000 rpm for 1 minute to elute the RNA. The supernatant was separated and appropriately stored in Eppendorf tube before amplification the next day. Master-mixture and RT-qPCR Amplification Real-time PCR master mixture was performed using Luna Universal One-Step RT-qPCR kits (BioLabs, UK) following manufacturer’s instructions. A total of 0.8 µl forward and reverse primer (F-HMPV 5-GCC GTT AGC TTC AGT CAA TTC AA-3; and reverse-HMPV 5-TCC AGC ATT GTC TCT GAA AAT TGC-3) targeting the F protein gene was added to the aliquot, along with 5µl of nuclease-free water. PCR amplification was carried out in a Rotor gene thermocycler (Qiagen, Germany) following thermocycling conditions of reverse transcription at 55°C for 10 minutes (1 cycle), initial denaturation at 94°C for 10 minutes (1 cycle), denaturation at 94°C for 10 seconds (45 cycles), and final extension at 60°C for 30 seconds (45 cycles). 3. RESULTS A total of 15.3% (23/150) were positive for HMPV by RT-qPCR. The findings showed data with different epidemiological parameters including age, gender, location, occupation and clinical presentations ( Table 1 ). The highest HMPV prevalence of 34.8% (8/23) was recorded among the age group (>55 years) while the lowest prevalence 4.3% (1/23) was recorded in the age group (12-22 years). Based on gender distribution, males were examined to be more positive with a predominance of 56.6% (13/23). Interestingly, HMPV molecular prevalence of 43.3% (10/23), 26.1% (6/23), 21.7% (5/23), 17.4%, (4/23), and 13.3% (3/23) were found with co-infection/co-morbidity in malaria, high blood pressure, diabetes, tuberculosis, and pneumonia respectively. Based on location, the highest molecular prevalence was recorded in Badagry 39.1% (9/23), followed by Ojo 34.8% (8/23), while Alimosho recorded the lowest prevalence of 26.1% (6/23). Traders had the highest 39.1% (9/23) molecular prevalence while the lowest 4.3% (1/23) was recorded among patients that are civil servants, musicians, teachers and the unemployed. View this table: View inline View popup Download powerpoint Table 1: Epidemiological data of the general population with HMPV in Lagos, Nigeria Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 2: Distribution of HMPV molecular prevalence (%) among the general population in Lagos. View this table: View inline View popup Download powerpoint Table 2: Distribution of CT-values of HMPV positive patients 4. DISCUSSION The cross-sectional study conducted in Lagos provides an important insight into the prevalence and distribution of Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) among individuals with underlying conditions. The findings of this research contribute tremendously to our previous understanding of HMPV epidemiology and also have important implications for public health strategies. A major finding of this study is the overall HMPV molecular prevalence of 15.3% in the general population. This prevalence rate is similar to the study by Arshad et al . in Pakistan, where 16.5% of 127 children with respiratory symptoms tested positive for HMPV. Also, the study by Takayama et al . in Japan reported a similar prevalence of 16.05% among 380 patients with respiratory illnesses. Many studies have also recorded high prevalence (Souza, 2012, El Chaer, 2017 , Yan, 2017 , Taniguchi, 2019 , Zhao, 2020 ). This consistency in prevalence rates across geographically diverse populations indicates that HMPV is a globally significant pathogen with a steady presence in different regions. In contrary, the prevalence reported in this study is higher than that reported elsewhere. For instance, Hindupur, 2022 , and Shuaibu, 2018 found a prevalence of only 4% and 4.8% in children under 5 years old in India and Nigeria respectively. Likewise, Akinloye et al . (2011) reported a prevalence of 3.7% among children under five years in Lagos. A prevalence of 5.1% was also reported in Germany ( Huck et al, 2006 ) and 5% in Vietnam (Yoshida et al, 2008). The lower prevalence in these studies could be attributed to the younger age groups involved, as the current study suggests that HMPV prevalence increases with age, particularly among individuals over 55 years. This significant variation in prevalence rates across different geographical locations emphasizes the need for local epidemiological studies in understanding the burden of HMPV in specific populations. There is a significant age-related outcome in HMPV prevalence in this study, with the highest prevalence observed in the age group above 55 years (34.8%). This finding is however similar to the study by Wei et al . in Kuala Lumpur, where the majority of HMPV-positive cases were adults and elderly individuals. A study by Loubet in 2021 in France also recorded prevalence among adults of over 60 years who had chronic conditions, frequent respiratory and cardiac chronic diseases, and frequently presented complications. This finding also agrees with the studies of Falsey, 2003 , Hamelin, 2005 , Walsh, 2008 , Haas, 2012 , and Hasvold, 2016 where high prevalence was recorded in older adults. The increase in prevalence in older populations could be due to a combination of factors, including a weakened immune system and higher exposure to environments where respiratory infections are prevalent, such as healthcare settings. This finding also differs from many previous studies that targeted HMPV in pediatric populations. For example, studies in Taiwan by Wei, 2012, Bangladesh by Rahman, 2018 and many numerous studies have reported significant HMPV positivity rates among children ( Xepapadaki, 2004 , Greensil, 2003 , Richard, 2008 , Semple, 2005 , Foulongne, 2006 , König, 2004 , García-García, 2006 , Wolf, 2006 , Yan, 2016, Taniguchi, 2019 ). This shows the need for increased attention to HMPV in pediatric and geriatric care and indicates the importance of considering HMPV in differential diagnoses for respiratory infections in children and older adults. The male predominance reported in the Lagos study (56.6%) agrees with other research, such as the study by Yi et al . in China, where a higher number of HMPV cases were reported among males (65.8%). Scheuerman in 2016 recorded a male prevalence of 67% and El Chaer reported a male prevalence of 60% in 2017. The male predominance could be due to various socio-cultural factors, including occupational exposure, as seen in this study where traders, who are often male, have the highest prevalence. However this is in contrary to the findings of Wei et al where females 61.6% had the highest prevalence of HMPV. Studies by Paranhos-Baccalà, 2008 , Lenahan, 2017 Emont, 2019 , and Schwartz, 2020 also reported high prevalence in females. Interestingly, a study by Celebi in 2021 reported equal number of prevalence (6 each) from both males and females. In this study, the high prevalence of HMPV among patients with co-infections or comorbidity is worrisome. The most significant co-infection was with malaria, where 43.3% of the HMPV-positive cases also had malaria. This is a novel finding, as the interaction between HMPV and malaria has not been extensively documented in literature. Additionally, other co-morbid conditions such as high blood pressure (26.1%), diabetes (21.7%), tuberculosis (17.4%), and pneumonia (13.3%) were also significant. These reports align with global studies indicating a high prevalence of co-infections in HMPV-positive patients, although the types of co-infections vary across regions. For example, the study by Moe et al. in Norway reported, 47.3% of HMPV positive patients also had respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and 0.6% had both HMPV and RSV, indicating a significant overlap between these two respiratory viruses. This is similar to this study, where respiratory conditions such as pneumonia were common among HMPV-positive patients; this suggests that HMPV might often co-occur with other respiratory pathogens. Interestingly, no viral co-infections between members of the orthomyxoviruses (influenza) and the paramyxoviruses (parainfluenza, RSV, HMPV) were seen in a study by Franz, 2010 . Also, the study by Arnott et al . in Cambodia reported that a significant number of patients presented with hyperleukocytosis, suggestive of a potential bacterial co-infection. This pattern of viral co-infections agrees with the findings in this study, where patients with underlying conditions such as tuberculosis and pneumonia were found to have a high prevalence of HMPV. The presence of multiple pathogens could exacerbate respiratory symptoms, leading to more severe clinical outcomes. Association of HMPV with co infections was also reported by Yoshida et al . in Vietnam and Wei et al in Malaysia, as well as by Williams, 2005 , Egli, 2012 , Renaud, 2013 , Souza, 2013 , Scheuerman, 2016 , Yan, 2016, El Chaer, 2017 , Loubet, 2020, Jethani, 2021 . Our findings of high HMPV prevalence among patients with co-infections and comorbidities are consistent with global trends. The interaction between HMPV and other pathogens, such as malaria and respiratory viruses suggests that HMPV may exacerbate existing health conditions or that individuals with these conditions are more prone to HMPV infection. This highlights the need for comprehensive diagnostic approaches in clinical settings to identify and manage multiple infections effectively. The study also reveals significant geographical variation in HMPV prevalence across different regions in Lagos State with the highest prevalence recorded in Badagry (39.1%) and the lowest in Alimosho (26.1%). This variation could be influenced by factors such as population density, healthcare access, and environmental conditions, which are known to affect the transmission pattern of respiratory viruses. For instance, Badagry, being a border town has higher human traffic, which could contribute to the increased prevalence of HMPV. Occupationally, this study reports the highest prevalence of HMPV (39.1%) among traders, which could be due to their increased interaction with the public and possible exposure to the virus in crowded markets. The low prevalence among civil servants, musicians, teachers, and the unemployed (4.3%) suggests that these groups might have lower exposure risks, possibly due to their work environments or socio-economic factors that limit their contact with large groups of people. The high prevalence of HMPV reported in this study is closer to the reports in regions with similar socio-economic conditions and healthcare challenges, such as the study in Islamabad, Pakistan. In contrast, studies conducted in more developed regions or among populations with better healthcare access, such as Wei et al .’s study in Taiwan, generally reported lower prevalence rates. This suggests that socio-economic and healthcare-related factors play a significant role in the epidemiology of HMPV. However, part of the limitations of our current findings is the inability to characterize the circulating genotypes and establish the seasonality of HMPV in this part of the world. We therefore strongly recommend the genotyping of circulating strains and the need to understand the mechanisms of comorbidities with important aetiologies like Plasmodium spp . and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, as well as underlying conditions of hypertension and diabetes. Conclusion This study provides important insights into the molecular detection and epidemiology of HMPV in Lagos, Nigeria. The findings highlight the significant prevalence of HMPV, particularly among older adults and individuals with comorbid conditions. The overall 15.3% molecular detection of HMPV among children and adults from different communities in Lagos accentuates the importance of HMPV as a viral pathogen causing respiratory infections in the metropolis. Hence, the need for a continuous surveillance and genomic analysis of this viral aetiology especially among individuals with underlying diseases. The geographical and occupational variations in HMPV prevalence observed in this study propose the need for targeted public health interventions to curb the spread of HMPV, especially in high-risk groups. When compared with existing literature, the prevalence of HMPV in Lagos is relatively high, reflecting the unique socio-economic and healthcare dynamics of the region. Further research is needed to explore the relationship between HMPV and co-infections like malaria, as well as the impact of socio-demographic factors on HMPV transmission dynamics and outcomes. The findings highlight the need for increased awareness of HMPV among healthcare providers, especially when treating patients with co-morbidities such as malaria, hypertension, and diabetes. Future research should focus on longitudinal studies to understand the seasonal patterns of HMPV in the region, as well as investigations into the clinical outcomes and potential complications of HMPV infection in different risk groups in broader population. The results of this study have important implications for public health policy and clinical practice. They suggest the need for further surveillance systems for HMPV, particularly in regions with high prevalence. Inclusion of HMPV testing in routine diagnostic panels for respiratory infections, especially in high-risk groups, development of targeted prevention strategies for vulnerable populations, such as the elderly and those with specific co-morbidities and further research into potential vaccines or antiviral treatments for HMPV, given its significant prevalence and impact on vulnerable populations. Data Availability All data produced in the present study are available upon reasonable request to the authors. Conflict of interest None. Ethics Statement The study ethics permission was sought after from the Heads of Health Centers where the samples were obtained while the ethical approval was obtained from LASUTH (Lagos State University Teaching Hospital) with the registration number NHREC04/04/2008 and reference number LREC/06/10/1272, respectively. Funding Information This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author contributions AAA carried out conception, design of the work, acquisition, analysis, interpretation of data; drafted the work and revised it. HOO participated in acquisition, carried out analysis of the software used in the work, interpretation of data, participated in the initial draft of the work and substantively revised it. SAS, analysis, interpretation of data, and final draft. TDA participated in acquisition, analysis, interpretation of data, and initial draft. GTD participated in acquisition, analysis, interpretation of data, and initial draft. KOA participated in acquisition, interpretation of data and quality control. All authors approved the submitted version. Data Availability Statement The datasets used and/or analyzed to support the findings of this study are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author. Informed Consent Oral and written informed consents were obtained from all the participants and appropriately documented. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the Lagos State University management especially the Department of Microbiology and all the team members in the influenza and other respiratory tract virus (IORTV) Research, and the University teaching hospital ethical review board for their various support and for granting the approval to carry out this research. All the different participants are specifically acknowledged for agreeing to be part of this current research. References 1. Agapov , E. , Sumino , K.C. , Gaudreault-Keener , M. , Storch , G.A. and Holtzman , M.J ., 2006 . Genetic variability of human metapneumovirus infection: evidence of a shift in viral genotype without a change in illness . Journal of Infection , 193 , p. 396 . OpenUrl 2. ↵ Akinloye , O.M. , Rönkkö , E. , Savolainen-Kopra , C. , Ziegler , T. , Iwalokun , B.A. , Deji-Agboola , M.A. , Oluwadun , A. , Roivainen , M. , Adu , F.D. and Hovi , T ., 2011 . 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