Beyond One Size Fits All: A Cultural Informed Comparative Study of ICT Integration in Malaysian Elementary Schools

Beyond One Size Fits All: A Cultural Informed Comparative Study of ICT Integration in Malaysian Elementary Schools | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Beyond One Size Fits All: A Cultural Informed Comparative Study of ICT Integration in Malaysian Elementary Schools Nor Asiah Razak This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7960888/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract One National Type Chinese School and one National School are chosen as case studies to investigate the cultural influence of ICT integration in two high performing urban Malaysian elementary schools. Research aims to examine key contradictions and their resolutions in integrating ICT into teaching among teachers and to explore how governance structures are designed to support ICT integration success. A qualitative multiple case study design was adopted, primary data collection was semi structured interviews, and triangulated with non participant observations and document analysis involving 14 teachers. The analysis was guided by the Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) framework on the ICT integration implementation process in teaching and learning. Three common contradictions emerged across both schools: inadequate school ICT facilities due to financial limitations, non compliance due to workload and time constraints, and non compliance rooted in resistance to change. Despite these shared challenges, the schools adopted different strategies to manage tensions, particularly in how assisted performance was governed. The National Type Chinese School emphasised collaborative peer mentoring, while the National School relied on top down instructional guidance. Both were also influenced by their respective cultural and institutional contexts, demonstrated shared strategies of idea sharing and distributed leadership. This study reveals how cultural and structural differences shape both the problems and the solutions in digital pedagogical practices, and challenges the universality of ICT integration frameworks. It highlights the need for cultural responsive policies and teacher development models. Cultural Studies Information Theory Malaysian education cultural historical activity theory elementary schools comparative study school culture ICT integration Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1 Introduction The global COVID 19 pandemic catalysed radical transformations across various sectors. The education sector is also no exception, as one of the important shifts has been the accelerated, which is integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into teaching and learning practices. From a sociocultural perspective, ICT is a "tool mediation" rooted in Vygotsky’s ( 1997 ) cultural historical theory and Luria’s ( 1928 ) work, which refers to the use of cultural artifacts, such as ICT, as a medium to facilitate communication, collaboration, and knowledge construction within social environments, but it is not a collection of digital tools. ICT tools have been broaden studied in the world. For example, in developed countries, like Turkey, the implementation of Artificial Intelligence to detect language misconceptions using natural language processing (Kökver et al., 2024 ). Another example in European higher institutions, a study on the staff perception of learning analytics implementation (Kaveri et al., 2025 ). In developing countries, such as India and South Africa, for almost three years, immersive environments, such as AR/VR via MOOCs, have been implemented for effective assessment (Achuthan et al., 2017 ; Olugbara et al., 2020 ). These innovative instructional methods have opened new avenues for interaction and engagement (Luo et al., 2021 ; Razak et al., 2021 ). However, the presence of ICT tools alone does not guarantee pedagogical transformation; the integration of ICT in schools is often uneven and hindered by various contextual factors (Esfijani & Zamani, 2020 ; Karpliuk et al., 2024 ), despite substantial investments. Recent systematic literature review in developed countries, like Russia, and developing countries, like Malaysia, has shown that even utilising digital platforms for instruction, educators continue to adopt teacher centred approaches (Bizami et al., 2022 ; Mikheev et al., 2021 ). Another study in developing countries, such as Indonesia, by Sumardi ( 2020 ) revealed that the majority of educators (59.17%) depended on teacher centred methods despite delivering content online. A recent study conducted in advanced economies such as Australia byMahdum et al. ( 2019 ) suggests that the absence of school support programmes, led to negative influences on educators’ confidence in teaching within online and distance learning environments. In collective, these findings highlight that not all educators are promoting student-centered learning or supporting deeper student understanding, leveraging effective online learning platforms, such as DELIMa in Malaysia. In this sense, an urgent need to shift instructional approaches toward student centred pedagogies. In addition, prominent scholars of ICT in education, from Hong Kong, urge that even if infrastructure is in place, the disconnect between access to ICT and its pedagogical application points to a critical gap, and meaningful integration often depends on the school’s sociocultural environment and leadership commitment (Lim et al., 2020). Furthermore, for almost a decade, scholars have conducted empirical studies on the ICT integration challenges (Habibi et al., 2019 ; Qaddumi et al., 2020 ; Razzak, 2015 ). These scholars discovered that failure to or contradictions, such as limited infrastructure or resistance to change, continue to constrain the transformative potential of ICT in education. In response to these challenges, this study explores how sociocultural dynamics shape ICT integration practices in two urban Malaysian elementary schools case studies, namely, one National Type Chinese School and one National School. Both institutions have been recognised with 5 star ICT integration ratings by the Educational Technology Division of the Ministry of Education, Malaysia. This context provides a rich comparative basis for investigating how schools with similar performance benchmarks navigate internal tensions and adopt cultural informed solutions. Rooted in Engestrom’s ( 1987 , 2001 , 2015 ) Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT), this study employs a qualitative multiple case study design to analyse how roles, rules, tools, and the division of labor influence ICT integration at the school. In addition, using Activity Systems Analysis (ASA), the research identifies the contradictions and resolutions that emerge in each case and situates them within sociocultural contexts. Thus, the study addresses two research questions: (1) what are the key similarities in the contradictions and their resolutions regarding ICT integration in teaching across the two case studies? and (2) what are the differences in how sociocultural contexts shape the contradictions and their resolutions in ICT integration between the two case studies?. 2 Theoretical Framework Activity theory has emerged as one of the prominent theories to study ICT integration in to teaching due to its analytical depth and adaptability across educational contexts (Lim et al., 2020). The theory allows researchers to explore the surrounding sociocultural factors that shape and constrain human activity, not only the technological components of integration. As detailed explained by the main author’s previous publication (Razak et al., 2018 , 2021 ), Engestrom ( 1987 , 2001 , 2015 ) differentiated the evolution of the activity theory into three phases referred to as first, second, and third generations. These generational developments enhance the theory’s analytical scope. The first generation emphasises that the relationship between subject and tool is rooted in Vygotsky’s idea of mediated action. The second generation, built upon Leont’ev’s work, introduced the collective and hierarchical structure of activity. The third generation, developed by Engestrom, extends the theory to multiple interacting activity systems and the contradictions that arise between them, called CHAT. In the context of Malaysian national schools, this theoretical approach provides a robust framework to examine ICT integration as a social situated activity. In particular, the study applies CHAT to analyse the teaching practices that involve ICT integration, treating the activity system of “teaching with ICT” as the core unit of analysis. Six key principles by Cole and Engestrom ( 1993 ), Engestrom ( 1987 ), and Leont’ev ( 1981 ), guide the researcher of applying activity theory in this study as below: (1) distributed cognition refer to human cognition understood as distributed across people, tools, and context, which it is consistent with how ICT functions within a school ecosystem, (2) tool mediation whereby ICT is conceptualised as a mediating artifact that transforms both teaching practices and cognitive processes, (3) collective activity, in which the activity involve other participants or stakeholders beyond the individual subject, recognising the collective and nature of teaching, (4) object oriented systems, whereby, the activiy focus on object driven and institutionalised rather than isolated goal directed actions allows for holistic analysis, (5) historical and developmental perspective refer to ICT integration is viewed as an evolving process shaped by institutional history and developmental tensions, and (6) sociocultural orientation is on emphasising the sociocultural dimensions of activity, making it suitable for analysing ICT integration as a social situated practice. Vygotsky’s foundational assertion is that the individual cannot be separated from the social environment. These prominent scholars in the sociocultural context urged that “the individual and the social were conceived of as mutually constitutive elements of a single, interacting system; cognitive development was treated as a process of acquiring culture” (Cole, 1985 ). Thus, ICT integration must be analysed within its situated sociocultural context, and this approach is relevant as it has been studied for more than a decade (Hebibi et al., 2025 ; Lim et al., 2020; Tatnall, 2014 ). This study embraces that gap by situating ICT integration within school environments, acknowledging how institutional, pedagogical, and cultural factors influence the process. 2.1 Contradictions as Drivers of Change Contradiction is a central construct within CHAT, in particular to its third generation formulation. Moreover, activity systems are characterised by internal tensions or contradictions that generate change and development (Cole & Engestrom, 1993 ; Lim et al., 2020). Engestrom ( 2001 ) emphasised that these contradictions arise within and between components of an activity system (e.g., subject, tools, rules) and are developed. In addition, CHAT frames contradictions as potential catalysts for expansive learning and innovation, rather than viewing them as barriers or tensions. The tensions can appear in various forms, such as dilemmas, disturbances, or conflicts that influence whether the subject (e.g., a teacher) is empowered or obstructed in achieving the object (e.g., ICT integration in teaching). In the context of schools, a contradiction arises between the school’s expectations (rules) and the teacher’s capabilities (mediating artifacts) that can be manifested, for example, if a school mandates ICT integration but fails to provide relevant pedagogical training (Sagre et al., 2022 ). In this sense, this tension would generate pressure within the system, which might lead to resistance or frustration (Grimalt-Álvaro & Ametller, 2021 ; Pettersson, 2021 ). This study identifies contradictions across multiple interacting systems, namely, the classroom, department, and school, and serves as an analytical indicator of pressures or affordances. For example, as teachers are not supported in continuous ICT integration training, their ability to fulfill school ICT initiatives is compromised. This misalignment reveals a contradiction between the teacher’s activity system and the school, limiting the integration of ICT despite institutional needs. Thus, the study seeks to uncover both the constraints and enablers of ICT integration at the cultural distinct level of school environments. This analysis demonstrates how sociocultural tensions shape educational practice, and is visual supported using Activity Systems Diagrams as illustrated in Fig. 1 . 3 Methods This study employed a multiple case study with ASA, framing data collection to examine the contradictions and resolutions that emerge in each case and situates them within sociocultural contexts. Mayring’s ( 2014 ) qualitative content analysis approach with the inductive category formation technique was employed to analyse the qualitative data, as this technique is effective for comparative analysis across multiple cases and offers a systematic and rigorous procedure for coding qualitative data. In addition, this technique is similar to Grounded Theory’s open and axial coding strategies (Corbin & Strauss, 2015 ) but emphasises a structured and efficient coding process. In fact, Mayring’s approach facilitates economical yet conceptual rich categorisation, suitable for unpacking sociocultural variations in ICT integration rather than the line by line coding typical of Grounded Theory. Primary data collection is semi structured interviews, triangulated with non participant observations, and document analysis. This multi method of data collection enabled the researcher to capture both teachers’ experiences of ICT and observe their practices. In particular, the study focuses on institutions with demonstrated ICT integration efforts; thus, targeted schools awarded a 5 star ICT integration rating by the Educational Technology Division of Malaysia 3.1 Activity System as the Unit of Analysis In CHAT, the activity system is the core analytical unit, comprising interrelated components such as the subject, object, tools, rules, community, and division of labour (Engestrom, 1987 ). In the context of this study, teaching with ICT integration represents the main activity system. The subject is the teacher, while the object is the pedagogical goal of enhancing students’ access to knowledge through ICT. The tools refer to digital technologies such as internet access, educational software, courseware, and web based platforms. The community includes students, peers, ICT coordinators, and school administrators. Rules consist of formal and informal guidelines governing classroom and ICT usage, such as lab access policies and curriculum related ICT expectations (Lim et al., 2020). The division of labour outlines the distributed roles among teachers and students. For instance, teachers function as facilitators who scaffold learning, moderate discussions, and clarify content, while students independent explore, collaborate, and access digital resources. 3.1.1 Activity Settings The researcher identified three primary activity settings that reflected distinct institutional levels, namely, classroom, department, and school for contextualising the observed practices as Tharp and Gallimore ( 1988 ) defined activity settings are sociocultural bounded contexts where object oriented activities take place. These settings are across institutional, historical, and social dimensions relevant to the participants’ shared objectives, and not limited to physical locations (Yamagata-Lynch, 2010 ). The researcher follow four four guiding questions by Yamagata-Lynch ( 2010 , p. 90) to identify appropriate settings: “(1) what are the typical activities occurring in the setting?, (2) which of these activities align with the research questions?, (3) who are the participants engaged in these activities?, and (4) what documents or mediating artifacts are relevant?.” Each corresponds to a specific unit of analysis and was instrumental in examining the multi level contradictions and mediations that influence ICT integration. 3.2 Case Selection Case selection based on purposive sampling of a school awarded a 5 star rating for ICT integration by the Educational Technology Division of the Ministry of Education in Malaysia. This rating based on a Malaysian Smart School Qualification Standards (SSQS) instrument. Two public elementary schools were selected, comprising: (1) one National Type Chinese School (School P) and (2) one National School (School K). Even though both schools achieved a high ICT integration status, the schools would differ in terms of cultural context, language medium, governance structures, and community engagement. These differences provide a fundamental exploration of the diversity and typicality of ICT integration practices within a shared policy framework. 3.3 The Participant Selection The selection of participants included key educational stakeholders: the headmaster, ICT coordinator or media coordinator, head of unit, ICT teacher, and classroom teachers for each participating school. Purposive sampling was used to select participants, and also chosen according to their availability, willingness to participate, and alignment with criterion based sampling to ensure the inclusion of information rich participants relevant to the study’s objectives. Criterion based sampling started with predefined criteria of participants, who must be Malaysian educators with professional teaching experience ranging from two to twenty five years and possess a formal teaching credential in the form of a Diploma in Education. In addition, teacher specific criteria require those who have experience with ICT integration in their teaching for at least 3 years. These conditions can be indicated in Table 1 , representing the two selected case study schools and fourteen demographic participants’ profiles that meet predefined and specified criteria. Table 1 Demographic Profile of Study Participants School Participant's pseudonym Role No. of experience (Year) Specialisation Qualification School P Mr. Wong Headmaster 25 Science Degree P Mrs. Hon Media coordinator 20 IT Degree P Mr. Chee Head of unit (Mathematics) 18 Mathematics Degree P Miss Yee ICT teacher 14 IT Degree P Mrs. Dayah English teacher 11 English Diploma P Mr. Cheng Mathematics teacher 15 Mathematics Degree P Miss Bibi Bahasa Malaysia teacher 3 Geography Degree School K Mrs. Asiah Headmaster 16 Geography Master K Mr. Aimi ICT coordinator 15 IT Degree K Mrs. Lina Head of unit (Science) 20 Science Degree K Mr. Razak ICT teacher 20 Bahasa Malaysia Diploma K Mrs. Noba Science teacher 12 Science Degree K Miss Lina Bahasa Malaysia teacher 3 History Degree K Mr. Awie Mathematics teacher 15 Mathematics Degree 4 Findings and Discussions 4.1 Research Question 1: What are the key similarities in the contradictions and their resolutions regarding ICT integration in teaching across the two case studies, namely the National Type Chinese School and the National School? To address Research Question 1, in which to explores the key similarities in contradictions and their resolutions regarding ICT integration across two case studies: the National Type Chinese School and the National School, findings revealed three shared contradictions faced by educators in both settings: (1) inadequate School ICT facilities due to financial constraints, (2) non compliance due to workload and time constraints, and (3) non compliance rooted in resistance to change. These contradictions are presented in the context of the cross case analysis, highlighting key similarities between the two schools. According to Engeström (2001), contradictions represent tensions within and between activity systems that may lead to problems, disturbances, and conflicts. The contradictions discovered in this study align with the diverse studies from developed economies in the European continent to the Asia continent by Kaveri et al. ( 2025 ), who investigate the stakeholders’ role in higher institutions, and Tay and Lim ( 2016 ), who examined the role of distributive leadership in Singapore's elementary schools. In this sense, these empirical studies reflect that distributive leadership is a key dimension for leaders to empower their subordinates according to the roles of each respective stakeholder. 4.1.1 Inadequate School ICT Facilities Due to Financial Constraints The findings revealed that due to inadequate school ICT facilities, teachers at both School P and School K experienced "tensions" as they attempted to integrate ICT into teaching. For example, a conversation with the Teachers at School P and K reflects this contradiction as follows: Miss Yee : "Unfortunate, the equipment, like CPU, monitor lifecycle, only lasts five years and needs to be maintained or replaced." The Researcher : "I see, any problem with that?" Miss Yee : "Yes, it is. We don’t have a budget for that. It’s fine if it’s just repairs because we have a technician. But we can’t afford to buy new equipment since the government hasn’t provided the budget for purchasing ICT. In addition, we only have one technician, and he can’t repair all the equipment in a short period." (The ICT Teacher at School P) Mr. Awie : "Last time, I couldn’t book the computer lab for students once a week because it was full booked." The Researcher : "What do you mean by full booked?" Mr. Awie : "At that time, we only had one computer lab, no access center, and no computers in an open area. It failed to meet our needs for bringing students there once a week." (The Mathematic Teacher at School P) This finding demonstrates that hindering teachers' ability to integrate ICT into their teaching practices would hindered due to financial constraints was a key source of "tensions" within the activity systems. One of the primary roles of funding is to ensure the availability of basic ICT infrastructure. This aligns with Pettersson’s ( 2021 ) study of rural schools, as it led to the delay of the development of technology infrastructure and hindered long term access to personal laptops for teachers, which found that delays in government funding created tensions. Similar to researchers in Iran have found that primary schools often lack essential hardware and high quality teaching software due to limited financial support for ICT facilities (Lee et al., 2021; Rafiepour et al., 2022 ). 4.1.2 Non Compliance due to Workload and Time Constraints The findings indicate that non compliance with ICT related policies and practices in both School P and School K can be attributed to excessive workload and insufficient time for teachers and school leaders to fulfill their responsibilities. Both schools increased community involvement in school activities and expanded the commitments of departments, affecting ICT teachers and heads of units. In this sense, it demonstrated similar structural pressures. Top management emphasised the importance of commitment to institutional goals. However, the growing demands placed on educators resulted in their inability to consistent comply with ICT related directives. Teachers, ICT coordinators, and departmental heads expressed their feeling overwhelmed to being effective in teaching due to the lack of time. Some of the conversations as follows: The Researcher “How do you see the roles of ICT coordinator and heads of units?” Mrs. Dayah :“We felt pressured when the information we were supposed to receive didn’t reach us as ICT coordinator were occupied with other responsibilities. Our head of unit also busy. What Ican say is only about my department.” (The English Teacher at School P) The Researcher “How do you see the roles of ICT teachers?” Mrs. Lina “Teachers often complained that ICT teachers weren’t fulfilling their roles. They didn’t receive important updates on time. I raised this in a meeting, but the ICT teachers explained that they were busy with other tasks, causing delays in communication and ICT related activities.” (The Head of Science Unit at School K) These conversations reflect how time constraints and workload issues result in non compliance with ICT integration protocols. The activity systems within both schools revealed tensions as the structure did not support the engagement, wherein stakeholders failed to meet expectations. This is consistent with existing literature in developed and developing countries. For example, a study in Singapore have informed that time management has emerged as a critical factor influencing ICT integration for both high and middle income economies (Tay & Lim, 2016 ). While a study in Indonesia discovered that teachers have insufficient time for planning ICT supported instructions (Lim et al., 2020). Malaysian educators also mentioned time limitations as a major challenge to integrating digital tools into pedagogy (Razak et al., 2021 ). 4.1.3 Non Compliance Rooted in Resistance to Change A clear tension emerged between institutional rules and the object of ICT integration. For example, in School K, additional tensions were also observed between rules and the division of labour. These contradictions were explained by school stakeholders, a consistent pattern of non compliance with ICT related regulations by teachers. This ignorance is a common barrier in educational reform efforts, key attributed to resistance to change. A conversation with the headmaster can be reflected this contradiction situation of both School P and K as follows: The Researcher “What challenges have you encountered in your leadership role to encourage teacher use of ICT? Mr. Wong : “We received poor responses when we required teachers to attend ICT workshops, even when compulsory. They often claimed they were too busy or had prior engagements and would skip the sessions. This meant they would be missing out on essential training, such as how to use the booking system, operate the school's management platform, or apply various educational software and applications.” (The Headmaster at School P) The Researcher “What challenges have you encountered to encourage your teachers to follow with ICT related plans?” Mrs. Asiah : “The biggest issue is their reluctance to follow school regulations. Most of them said it’s difficult to integrate ICT into their teaching, but they have not tried. (The Headmaster at School K) These narratives highlight a deeper issue in stakeholders' resistance to change as a barrier to ICT integration, in which a misalignment within the schools’ activity systems disrupts the transformation process. Teachers’ resistance to change is not procedural but psychological, rooted in discomfort with altering established teaching practices. This finding is consistent with previous research by Grimalt-Álvaro and Ametller ( 2021 ) emphasise that resistance to change is a key tension that hinders ICT integration. Chieng and Tan (2021) further explain that teachers are hesitant to innovate in teaching due to insufficient time to develop ICT competencies. In addition, Fredriksen and Hadjerrouit ( 2020 ) urge that some educators who faced heavy administrative workloads and have limited leadership support perceive technological change as a burden or threat. Thus, this contradiction needs critical reflection from school leaders to play a proactive and strategic role in facilitating ICT integration. The leaders, in particular, the headmaster, must implement supportive structures and foster a culture that encourages experimentation, continuous learning, and professional growth. A visual summary of the emerging themes, subthemes, and the contradictions that hinder teachers’ ICT integration is presented in Fig. 2 . Despite these tensions, both schools demonstrated parallel strategies for resolving these contradictions. The study identified three shared resolution strategies: (1) assisted performance, (2) collaborative idea sharing, and (3) a distributed leadership approach. These commonalities suggest that, despite differences in school types and contexts, the underlying contradictions and their resolutions in ICT integration share meaningful similarities rooted in organizational culture and resource dynamics. They have been presented according to the cross case analysis and the key similarities between both schools as follows. Adopting the CHAT, this study also provided knowledge on contradictions as they do not only constitute ‘tensions’ but the struggles to resolve the ‘tensions’ within and between activity systems, producing cycles of change, each cycle producing new contradictions (Engestrom, 2001 ). Engestrom ( 2001 ) stated that “contradictions are a source of change and development” (p.137) as innovative attempts to change the activity. The explanation of the resolution of contradictions derived in this study has remarkable similarity with the explanation (Jocius et al., 2020 ), who examined educational innovation in the USA’s elementary schools. 4.1.4 Assisted Performance The findings from both School P and School K indicate that assisted performance is crucial to determining the success of teachers' ICT integration within schools. This form of assisted performance, which involves the school community within the activity system, played a vital role in overcoming the challenges posed by inadequate ICT facilities due to financial constraints. The PTA, alumni, technology developers, and local business owners, encompassed individuals both within and outside the school setting reflected the the school community’s involvement. For instance, the PTA and alumni helped to create a conducive learning environment, assisted with cocurricular activities, and supported underprivileged students by raising funds, and technology developers contributed by upgrading computer labs. Meanwhile, the school board and local business owners donated funds and equipment, such as solar panels, for income generation of the school. The community also contributed by using the school’s services and participating in cocurricular activities, indirect supporting the school’s financial needs. The following is an extract from one of the dialogues between the researcher and the headmaster of both School P and School K: The Researcher : "If I’m not mistaken, the government allocated a certain amount of money, but that money was not used for buying equipment since the government had already provided the equipment. How do you strategise when the school needs to purchase new equipment?" Mr. Wong : "Actually, we have the School Board, which plays a key role in helping the school." The Researcher : "How so?" Mr. Wong : "They installed solar panels at the school, and we sell energy to TNB (the energy company). The income generated from this is used to buy equipment and supplement the government’s budget. The Researcher : "What role does the PTA play in this?" Mr. Wong : "The PTA helps on donate money through our 'Charity Night'. Alumni and parents who are experts in various fields, such as banking, accounting, finance, sports, technology, and landscaping, provide valuable guidance and advice to teachers, and sharing session with students." (The Headmaster at School P) Mrs. Asiah : "To purchase technology, we used crowdfunding. Sometimes, we also ask technology developers to contribute their technologies. We have a win-win situation: our school serves as a showroom for their technology since we are seen as a role model for technology in education." The Researcher : "What is the role PTA plays on this issue?" Mrs. Asiah : "The PTA handles the donations from the crowd. Technology developers also transferred technologies to upgrade our computer labs." (The Headmaster at School K) The findings from this study highlight that assisted performance is a key mechanism within the activity system that influences teachers' ICT integration. However, these findings challenge prior studies that defined assisted performance as direct involving expert guidance. According to Tharp & Gallimore ( 1988 ), assisted performance refers to "what a novice can do with help, with the support of the environment, others, and self" (p. 30), based on Vygotsky’s concept of the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD), which involves assistance from experts or capable peers. While this study supports the notion that assistance is essential for ICT integrated teaching, it expands the definition of assisted performance beyond the expert novice relationship. In this context, assisted performance also encompasses support from non experts, such as donations, manpower, and equipment contributions. Therefore, assisted performance refers to the initiative of various stakeholders, regardless of their expertise, to assist schools, in particular teachers, in benefiting students. This support can come from experts, administrative teams, technical teams, peers who are IT savvy, or even non experts who are willing to contribute in any way. 4.1.5 Sharing Ideas The present study suggests that sharing ideas through web based platforms, such as Frog VLE and DELIMa, has played an important role in enhancing teachers' success in ICT integration. As a result, it improves teachers’ work life balance. Idea sharing occurs when stakeholders within the department’s activity system face challenges in committing to school regulations due to time constraints. However, these time constraints can be alleviated when the community collaborates to help achieve the school’s mission and vision. Examples of idea sharing practices from both School P and School K include the following: The Researcher : "Do you face any challenges in doing your job?" Mr. Cheng : "Yes, every job comes with its challenges. For me, the challenge arises when we cannot commit to supporting ICT teachers." The Researcher : "Why is that?" Mr. Cheng : "Workload. But it’s not frequent. Sometimes, the information is distributed late when I’m busy with examinations and other school activities." The Researcher : "How do you manage when time becomes an issue in completing your tasks?" Mr. Cheng : "This problem has improved since the school introduced the sharing concept among the school’s stakeholders through GEG and the Frog VLE platform." The Researcher : "How does that work?" Mr. Cheng : "GEG is a community that allows teachers from around the world to interact, try new ideas, and help each other improve teaching techniques in and out of the classroom. Sharing benefits everyone. Activities accomplished within GEG are shared via the Frog VLE platform, making them accessible to anyone." (The Head of the Mathematics Unit at School P) The Researcher : "How do you manage time when it becomes an issue in completing your tasks?" Mrs. Lina : "I encouraged ICT teachers to use Frog VLE as a platform to share information with other teachers. Initially, I handled it myself, but then I trained other teachers who became IT savvy to help share information online." The Researcher : "Can you provide another example?" Mrs. Lina : "We also upload and share the content we use in class on the platform. This allows teachers to reuse the content in their teaching, reducing the time spent creating new materials." (The Head of the Science Unit at School K) The findings of this study demonstrate that sharing ideas is a key mechanism within the activity systems that influences teachers' ICT integration in teaching. This supports Jocius et al. ( 2020 ), who emphasised the importance of peer support, noting that collaboration and knowledge sharing contribute to successful ICT integration by teachers. In addition, idea sharing also reduce teachers' workload as a study in Indonesia discovered teachers who were engage in sharing sessions in designing ICT based lessons led to low strees of teacher workload (Lim et al., 2020). Recent studies also confirm that information sharing and cooperation among teachers are major factors influencing teachers’ motivation to integrate ICT into their lessons (Karpliuk et al., 2024 ). 4.1.6 Distributed Leadership The distributive leadership qualities of the headmasters were demonstrated through their delegation of responsibilities to subordinates for managing various school activities. Distributed leadership became important when stakeholders in the school's activity system struggled to comply with the school’s regulations due to resistance to change. A critical element of distributed leadership observed in this study was the headmasters' efforts to train teachers to take on leadership roles. For instance, the headmaster assigned a teacher to manage the hall rental and sound system services. The headmasters fostered teamwork to ensure the smooth operation of school activities. Conversations with participants reflect this contradiction as follows: The Researcher : "How do you see the headmaster’s action in encouraging you to integrate ICT into teaching?" Mrs. Dayah : "What I see is the headmaster's concern for us. He prefers working in a team. The Researcher : "Why?" Mrs. Dayah : "He is very supportive and monitors all activities during the workshops. He doesn’t let our media coordinator handles things alone." The Researcher : "How do you feel about his leadership?" Mrs. Dayah : "Not sure, but I’m impressed with his efforts to help the school integrate ICT into teaching." (The English Teacher at School P) The Researcher : "How do you address problems as your subordinates are reluctant to integrate ICT into their teaching?" Mrs. Asiah : "We overcome these challenges through teamwork." The Researcher : "How?" Mrs. Asiah : "I plan and create flexible timetables with teachers that allow them to swap shifts if someone is unavailable or has an urgent matter. Regardless of whether I am direct involved, I always offer moral support during activities." The Researcher : "Is there anything else you do?" Mrs. Asiah : "I encouraged our teachers to upload and share the content they use in class via the Frog VLE platform. The content can be reused by other teachers in their teaching, saving their time in creating new materials. This peer sharing initiative helps reduce teachers' workload." The Researcher : "Are other teachers involved in managing the activities?" Mrs. Asiah : "Yes, certainly. I assigned a teacher to manage the hall rental and sound system services." The Researcher : "Why did you choose him?" Mrs. Asiah : "I asked him because he is an expert in event management." (The Headmaster of School K) Another contribution of this study is that distributed leadership plays a vital role in the successful integration of ICT. This finding found that to achieve maximum outcomes is in line with Heller & Firestone’s ( 1995 ) assertion that leadership can be distributed in various ways, both collaborative and in parallel. Tasks that elevate schools can be led by multiple leaders, including headmasters, ICT coordinators, and other teachers assuming leadership roles (Pettersson, 2021 ). This study supports the views of Lim et al. (2020) and Tay & Lim ( 2016 ), who argued that the success of ICT integration in schools depends not only on the headmaster but also on the active involvement of all leaders within the school’s activities. In this context, the concept of "distributed leadership," as proposed by Senge et al. ( 2000 ), defines distributed leadership as a way to assist the headmaster in managing demands by sharing responsibilities with middle managers, such as instructional program coordinators and ICT coordinators, especially during ICT integration. The definition of distributed leadership that influences ICT integration, as derived from this study, aligns with the definitions provided by Divaharan & Lim ( 2010 and Lim et al. (2020). This study also supports previous research indicating that distributed leadership is one of the most important catalysts for the successful integration of ICT (Bollen et al., 2022 ). A summary of the themes and subthemes related to the resolutions of contradictions hindering ICT integration in schools is presented in Fig. 3 . 4.2 Research Question 2: What are the differences in how sociocultural contexts shape the contradictions and their resolutions in ICT integration between the two case studies? To address the Research Question 2: key differences in how sociocultural contexts shape the contradictions and their resolutions in ICT integration between the two case studies, namely the National Type Chinese School and the National School. Findings revealed four differences in both settings: 1) ICT Integration Implementation, 2) Organization Structure, 3) Aspect of Cultural Historical, and 4) Strategies to Manage Tension through Assisted Performance. They have been presented according to the cross case analysis and the key differences between both schools as follows. 4.2.1 ICT Integration Implementation between School P and School K The second research question explored the differences between the two cases in which the schools employed different approaches in governing their schools. This section explores the aspect of assisted performance in the respective schools. Based on the interviewed and observed the participants, and reviewed the document, differences in ICT integration practices in School P (National Type Chinese School) and School K (National School), as in Table 2 . Table 2 Differences in ICT integration Implementation between School P and School K Category School P School K Digital Leadership Strong support from headmaster and senior leadership; ICT is prioritised in strategic planning and school activities. Moderate support; ICT initiatives depend on individual teachers rather than top down planning. ICT Infrastructure Advanced and consistent: multiple smartboards, laptops, desktops, WiFi access, and air conditioned labs. Basic to moderate: some projectors and computer labs; less consistent maintenance; limited devices for students. Teacher ICT Competency High: Most teachers are competent, with some serving as ICT champions; regular internal sharing sessions. Mixed: Some teachers are competent; others are resistant or lack confidence; limited peer training. Student Engagement High engagement: Students use ICT for research, presentations, and digital storytelling; BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) encouraged. Moderate engagement: Primary use of ICT for drill and practice and teacher centred. Pedagogical Use of ICT Integrative and student centered: ICT supports inquiry based and project based learning. Converversational teaching methods : ICT supplements lectures; limited innovative practices. Challenges Managing student screen time; ensuring equitable access at home; keeping up with tech advancements. Limited resources; teacher resistance; technical issues and lack of training. In conclusion, the findings revealed that effective ICT integration extends beyond infrastructure and recognition. The effective ICT integration should become from strong digital leadership, teacher competency, and student centred pedagogy, enabling meaningful use of technology in the classroom that benefited students. This situation was reflected from School P. While, School K faces challenges in sustaining teacher engagement and innovative ICT practices, contra to School P despite having a 5 star rating. These findings suggest that leadership vision, teacher support, and purposeful pedagogical integration are crucial for advancing ICT use in schools beyond policy compliance. 4.2.2 Organization Structure between School P and School K Organization Structure of School P Figure 4 shows that three entities are operating at the same level as the headmaster, which are the PTA, the school board, and the alumni. These entities collaborate with the headmaster to ensure the school’s vision is manifest, especially in building relationships between home and school, raising funds for infrastructure and facilities, and providing conducive environments to students and teachers in the school. The PTA is responsible as a middleman between the school and parents to ensure that parents participate in their children's activities in school, such as monitoring homework and the timetable. The alumni help the school in terms of transferring knowledge to the school through seminars, as some of them are experts in various fields such as banking, law, engineering, and entrepreneurship. The most important entity is the school board, which is the backbone of the school. The school board is taking charge to ensure the adequacy of the school’s ICT infrastructure and facilities. At the strategic level, the headmaster heads the school’s administration in operating the school. The vice-headmaster leads the curriculum and administration management, student affairs, and cocurriculum, which assist the headmaster and direct report to him. The curriculum manager is in charge of the academic affairs in the school, including the library, examinations, ICT, academic achievement, timetable, financial management, and asset acquisition management. The student affairs manager’s role is on the students’ welfare, discipline, scholarships, school’s canteen. The cocurriculum manager controls the non academic activities such as clubs, sports, and the school’s events. The guidance and counseling manager is responsible for students’ motivation, especially in supporting their learning. In the National Type Chinese School, the media coordinator coordinates two personnel: (1) the ICT coordinator and (2) the head of units. The media coordinator is also the head of the resource centre, who manages all resources, including resources in the library, computer labs, and classrooms for teaching and learning purposes. At the instructional programme level, the head of units took charge of each subject area. Each of them has an assistant among the subject teachers to assist them. There are 15 subject areas, including Chinese, English, Bahasa Malaysia, Mathematics, Science, History, Religious Studies, Music, ICT, Living Skills, Arts, Physical and Health, Moral and Citizenship. In School P, the ICT coordinator is at the same level as the head of units, and sometimes also assigned as the ICT teacher. There was also no formal department formed or members of staff who belonged to this department. The ICT coordinator works independent with the head of a unit to oversee the implementation of ICT in the school. Nevertheless, the media coordinator coordinates the ICT coordinator and the head of units at the operational level. In this sense, the ICT coordinator and head of units direct report to the media coordinator about any issue related to ICT integration. Figure 4 depicts that the ICT coordinator is at the same level as the head of the unit, as he/she is also the head of the ICT unit. The Organization Structure for the ICT Unit Figure 5 shows that the ICT unit is made up of four or five people in the school. They are the media coordinator, ICT coordinator, technician, and ICT teachers. The technician is hired, and part of the provisions are made by Malaysia’s MOE. The other position is recursive assigned by the headmaster, as the teachers are also involved in the administrative duties that are related to learning. The media coordinator plans with the ICT coordinator on the ICT implementation for a suitable approach for the school and discusses the plan with the top management, namely the headmaster and management, and curriculum manager. While the media coordinator looks into hardware provisions for the school and the infrastructure set up, the technician ensures that the computers in the school are well maintained. Even though the ICT resource acquisition process was based on the needs of the head of the unit, top management welcomed all the school’s stakeholders to get involved in the decision to avoid irrelevant investment. For example, if the media coordinator is intent on using any ICT software or resources, she will inform the head of the unit and the ICT coordinator to review the resource. Sometimes, the head of the unit consults the teachers of a particular subject area to review the software of the resource, and only then does the head of the unit inform the media coordinator to proceed. Similar to if the head of units and teachers come across any resource for the purpose of teaching and learning, they will approach the media coordinator to inform the benefits of the resources. The teachers are expected to take the initiative to ask the media coordinator if they have any queries regarding ICT integration, ICT facilities, Internet connection, and hardware related matters. This feedback helps the top management to take the necessary actions and make a reasonable investment for the school. The school does not have a formal dedicated ICT department and therefore is not part of the school’s organizational structure. Only a formal position of top management at the operational level had been created. Even though the school is a government school and the ICT vision and mission are fixed by Malaysia’s ETD, the school also has its vision and mission. In the school’s strategic ICT plan, the school's goal is to ensure that the head of units incorporates ICT as a tool of teaching within the curriculum for respective subjects to make the school known as a “School of the Future” (Document analysis). In proving that the school did take serious consideration to establish engagement with the head of unit and teachers, the media coordinator worked with the ICT coordinator and ICT teachers to provide the in house ICT training for the new ICT facilities introduced by the teachers. The in house ICT training includes product knowledge, technical skills, and pedagogical skills. Organizational Structure of School K Figure 6 depicts the organization chart that is different from School P for the hierarchical structure of an organization. The structure does not have the school board, while the ICT coordinator is placed and responds with a similar level and duty to the media coordinator. The ICT coordinator coordinates the ICT teachers, while the media coordinator organises the heads of units. Similar to School P, the media coordinator managed all the media, including media for teaching and learning purposes. The ICT coordinator is also known as the Smart Coordinator, acts as a single point of contact for the school. In this sense, the ICT coordinator is an administrator who updates the technology trends to ensure the objective of the Smart School is achieved. The roles of the PTA and alumni were similar to the school P. At the instructional programme level, the heads of multiple units were assigned to specific subject areas. Each has an assistant among the subject teachers to assist them in monitoring teachers under a respective unit. There is a separate department for the ICT coordinator working on her own, together with the ICT teachers and technicians. There is also a formal department formed of members of staff who belong to the ICT department. Even though the ICT coordinator has his head of unit, he responds to another head of unit. He responded to the media coordinator as he was the 'Smart school coordinator', who was also the representative and contact person for the school. The ICT coordinator coordinates the heads of units to facilitate the implementation of ICT for their respective subject. The Organization Structure for the ICT Unit The key players in the ICT unit organization structure are depicted in Fig. 7 in the ICT unit chart. Similar to School P, the ICT unit is made up of four or five people in the school. Within the ICT unit, the ICT coordinator worked with both the ICT teacher and the technician to ensure that their objectives were met. The ICT coordinator welcomes opinions from the head of units as well as the media coordinator for ICT planning before discussing the plan with the top management, namely the headmaster and management, and curriculum manager. The role of the ICT coordinator is to supervise all the activities on ICT integration, such as the ICT training, computer labs, the school’s information published on social media, ICT literacy, ICT facilities, and maintenance of ICT facilities and resources. These activities are assigned to ICT teachers, working with a technician for the implementation. The technician is not a teacher; they were hired by Malaysia’s MOE as part of the provisions, and they report to the ICT coordinator. Nevertheless, the ICT teachers can direct the technician if any problem occurs related to the maintenance issue. The procurement of ICT facilities is also proposed through this ICT unit. The teachers share and justify their views during the meeting with their heads of units. The head of units brought the suggestion during the ICT unit’s monthly meeting that their subject teachers can convince them of the benefits and usefulness of the ICT tools. This suggestion is then put up to the headmaster for purchasing approval. Sometimes, the ICT unit suggests ICT facilities to the head of units for their teachers to try out. If the head of units finds the ICT facilities beneficial for students, they provide feedback to the ICT unit, which looks into the procurement of the ICT facilities. Thus, the ICT facilities procurement is a two way process, with the review of the usefulness of the software being the head of unit’s responsibility. 4.2.3 Aspect of Cultural Historical between School P and School K Table 3 summarises the contrasting aspects of cultural historical activity structures that shaped the trajectory of ICT integration in both schools. This comparison reflect the importance of visionary leadership, structured organisational support, and empowered teaching communities in ensuring sustainable and meaningful ICT integration. Both schools reflect how strong internal capacity and stakeholder collaboration are critical enablers of ICT success in Malaysian elementary education despite differences in sociocultural contexts and implementation strategies Table 3 Differences in the Aspect of Cultural Historical between School P and School K Aspect School P School K School Type National Type Chinese School (SJKC) National School (SK) Year Established 1935 1956 Student Enrollment 1,682 students 1,187 students Student Demographics 90% Chinese 98% Malay Teaching Staff 110 teachers (94% Chinese, mostly female) 92 teachers (79% Malay, mostly female) ICT Implementation Start Since 2003 (Smart School initiatives) Since 2007 (Frog VLE, then DELIMa) ICT Vision & Mission To foster innovative, technology savvy students equipped for global challenges To achieve ICT excellence through a smart school model ICT Tools Used Google Workspace, Microsoft Office, AI apps, Quizziz, Kahoot, Canva, etc. Google Workspace, Microsoft tools, eRPH, DELIMa, Quizizz, Wordwall, Kahoot Facilities Smart TVs, laptops, printers, full WiFi, 4 computer labs Smart Classroom, elearning corner, full WiFi, LCD projectors Leadership Approach Headmaster driven innovation, strong PTA support, structured training Collaborative headmaster leadership, ICT innovation team, CPD and PLCs Teacher Training Microsoft, Google, AI tools, cross curricular STEM project integration In house, district/state CPD, DELIMa, Google Educator Certification Student ICT Involvement Participates in STEM & ICT competitions, project based learning Tech Leader student initiative, peer tutoring in ICT Community & PTA Role Active PTA funds ICT infrastructure and learning tools Moderate PTA involvement: leadership supports digital culture In conclusion, the comparative analysis between School P and School K reveals their approaches differ marked in terms of leadership, structure, and pedagogical depth, although both schools achieved 5 star SSQS ratings for ICT integration. School P exhibits a comprehensive and strategic embedded model of ICT integration, characterised by strong headmaster leadership, defined ICT organisational structure, and active teacher involvement. The school’s distributed leadership has fostered a culture of innovation and collaboration. Even though subject heads were less active involved than anchored by experienced media and ICT coordinators. In contrast, School K demonstrates a centralised model that is supported by adequate ICT facilities and Ministry led initiatives, which predominant relies on the ICT coordinator and exhibits less innovation and pedagogical diversification. 4.2.4 Strategies to Manage Tension through Assisted Performance between School P and School K The findings revealed clear differences between School P and School K in the area of assisted performance as a strategy to support teachers’ ICT integration in teaching. This concept aligns with the definition proposed by Tharp and Gallimore ( 1988 ), as assisted performance was explained in section 4.1.4 . In the context of this study, novice refers to teachers who require guidance and support from the school community for effective ICT integration into their instructional practices, as illustrated in Table 4 . Table 4 summarises the key differences in how assisted performance was enacted in each school setting. Table 4 Differences in the Aspect of Assisted Performance Strategies in Managing ICT Integration Tension between School P and School K Aspect School P School K Main Financial Support School Board – main financial backbone; no reliance on government provision. Government – major financial contributor due to Smart School pioneer status. Additional Income Sources PTA donation drives, Alumni contributions, School board fundraising PTA contributions, Co-curricular activities, Hall rental Community Support Active PTA and alumni network Alumni offer expert guidance in multiple fields Less active alumni, Tech developers offer seminars due to Smart School status ICT Facilities Support Main funded through school board and PTA/alumni efforts Funded through government and additional income streams Training Support In house training for teachers and students led by alumni experts Seminars and talks provided by external technology developers Leadership in ICT Integration Headmaster led: Headmaster is ICT savvy and personal drives ICT integration ICT Coordinator led: Experienced IT graduate manages ICT programmes Leadership Role Headmaster monitors all ICT integration, leveraging personal experience ICT Coordinator initiates programmes; Headmaster monitors and supports Recognition High ICT integration award (SSQS) High ICT integration award (SSQS) Assisted Performance Agent Headmaster as expert guiding teachers ICT Coordinator as expert supporting teachers In conclusion, the findings revealed that despite both schools achieved high levels of ICT integration, the road to success differed. For example, School P demostrated strong internal community support and proactive leadership, in particular from the headmaster, who provided expert guidance and strategic direction. Conversely, School K relied on the ICT coordinator, assuming him as the primary responsibility for implementation, and also relied on government provision and external partnerships. This contrast in leadership roles is highlighted by Tharp and Gallimore’s ( 1988 ) concept of assisted performance, which emphasises that successful practice, especially among less experienced individuals, depends on targeted support from knowledgeable others. In this context, assisted performance played a pivotal role in managing the tensions and contradictions inherent in ICT integration, whether that support came from school leadership or designated ICT specialists. 4.3 Belief and Motivation: An Emergent Factor in ICT Integration Although not initial anticipated, teachers’ beliefs and motivational orientations emerged as critical mediators in their ICT integration practices. Despite being internal, implicit, and unobservable psychological constructs, belief and motivation consistent surfaced during data analysis. These elements often complex affect on what individuals know and believe, ultimately influencing their actions. In this study, as the school context was equipped with ICT facilities and robust institutional support, teachers’ beliefs had a marked impact on their ICT integration practices. As teachers perceived stronger support from their schools, their motivation to integrate ICT increased accordingly. Teachers’ motivation also increased as they believed ICT had a positive influence on student learning outcomes. These findings are in line with Schunk (1990), who asserted that motivation increases as individuals believe their needs and expectations are met. Motivation is defined as the process by which goal directed behaviour is initiated and sustained (Schunk, 1990). Similar to Ames (1992) emphasised that motivation stems from an individual’s goal structures and beliefs about what is important and beneficial. Teachers in this study recognised the instructional benefits of ICT tools, including demonstrations, drill and practice activities, modelling, visual representation of complex concepts, collaborative learning, and project based work (Tondeur et al., 2024 ). Similar to a recent quantitative study in Chinese primary schools highlighted the role of teachers’ beliefs in fostering motivation, found constructivist beliefs had a positive impact on ICT usage in classrooms (Sang et al., 2011). In parallel,Karpliuk et al. ( 2024 ) observed that teachers were motivated to integrate ICT as schools provided sufficient technical infrastructure and administrative support. These findings are further reinforced by researchers whose study in Iran revealed that adequate administrative backing, technical assistance, and ICT training influenced teachers’ classroom ICT usage (Molla & Seyoum, 2022 ; Rafiepour et al., 2022 ). The findings suggest that school stakeholders collaborated to resolve these issues, demonstrating an awareness of their root causes, although tensions existed within and between the various activity systems. Effective ICT integration requires all stakeholders to clear understand and active fulfil their respective roles. For instance, collaboration among ICT teachers, technicians, and student IT representatives facilitated prompt responses to technical problems during classroom instruction. Leadership by school heads also played a crucial role in successful ICT integration. As noted that strong leadership, a clear ICT vision, and investment in capacity building measures such as training are essential for meaningful integration (Molla & Seyoum, 2022 ; Sagre et al., 2022 ). Overall, these emerging themes that were uncovered and discussed in the findings section of this article manifested even though tension existed within and between the activity systems; the school stakeholders worked together to resolve the tension as they were aware of the causes of the ‘tensions’. It is crucial for all the schools’ stakeholders to know their respective roles in working to integrate ICT in their schools successfully. The findings also uncovered that assisted performance, sharing ideas, and distributed leadership are the sources of resolutions of ‘contradictions’ within and among activity systems. The most influential leadership styles refer to the distributed leadership, which serves as a catalyst in influencing the teachers’ ICT integration towards attaining the success of ICT integration across schools. Good organisational practices can shape the activity to ensure that each stakeholder is effectively playing their roles in making “contradictions as the sources of change and development” (Engestrom, 2001 , p. 137). An organisation should also identify its ‘tensions’ and the causes of ‘tensions’ to ensure successful ICT integration from the grassroots. Without positive changes to organisational practice, no such culture can be formed. As Fullan (2002) stated: Leading in a culture of change means creating a culture (not just a structure) of change. It does not mean adopting innovations, one after another; it does mean producing the capacity to seek, critically assess, and selectively incorporate new ideas and practices - all the time, inside the organisation as well as outside it. (p. 7) Teachers’ ICT integration in teaching is not without its own set of ‘tensions’; wherever and whenever issues arise, instead of the belief and motivation of teachers, efforts from the school’s community, including the PTA, alumni, technology developers, and local business owners, can provide strong social and financial support. Figure 8 illustrates the conceptual framework for teachers’ ICT integration in the highest level of ICT integration schools. 5 Conclusion This comparative case study explores the integration of ICT in teaching across two Malaysian elementary schools, namely National Type Chinese School (School P) and National School (School K), which were recognized with a 5 star SSQS rating. Guided by CHAT and the ASA framework, the study examined key contradictions in ICT practices and how they were resolved within each school’s unique sociocultural context. By comparing the two case studies, this research revealed key similarities in how tensions, such as financial and time constraints, were resolved through shared community efforts, distributed leadership, and collaborative professional development. However, in terms of community support, leadership structure, and ICT infrastructure, shaped the nature and resolution of these contradictions, differences emerged in how each school’s sociocultural context. These findings address both research questions by illuminating how shared themes manifest across diverse settings while highlighting the contextual uniqueness in their implementation. In summary, successful ICT integration in both schools would be facilitated by dynamic, context sensitive solutions rooted in sociocultural understanding, stakeholder collaboration, and adaptive leadership. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of ICT practices in Malaysian elementary education, and would be exampler to offer implications for policy, teacher training, and community engagement strategies in similar settings. 5.1 Study Limitations In conjunction with other studies on contradiction for more than a decade, such as (e.g., Divaharan, 2007 ; Fredriksen & Hadjerrouit, 2020 ; Jocius et al., 2020 ; Sagre et al., 2022 ), the study is relevant due to emerging technology and the need to be evaluated three years after implementation (Fullan, 2006 ). The findings obtained from this study have provided empirical data that support how ICT integration in elementary schools can be successfull implemented. However, limitations exist that require further consideration, while the study findings provide several insights for future research. One limitation is the use of in depth interviews and document analysis. The study could have benefitted from prolonged observation at each school to better understand the schools’ culture and activities related to ICT integration (Angrosino & Perez, 2003 ). However, both in depth interviews and document analysis were considered adequate for achieving the study purpose. The study did not focus on the interaction between students and teachers in the classroom, but rather the interaction within and between the activity systems. Declarations A statement of ethics approval: Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the UPSI’s Research Ethics Committee (Approval Code: 2025-0643-01), ensuring compliance with all applicable ethical standards involving research with human participants. 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J Des Res 5(2):155–171. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139173698 Tondeur J, Howard S, Carvalho AA, Kral M, Petko D, Ganesh LT, Røkenes FM, Starkey L, Bower M, Redmond P, Andresen BB (2024) The DTALE Model: Designing Digital and Physical Spaces for Integrated Learning Environments. Technology, Knowledge and Learning , 0123456789 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-024-09784-9 Vygotsky LS (1997) Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press, US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-92784-6 Yamagata-Lynch LC (2010) Activity Systems Analysis Method: Understanding Complex Learning Environments. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6321-5 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7960888","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":535748644,"identity":"4d4f7ff8-1d12-4278-8b0c-8016016d8499","order_by":0,"name":"Nor Asiah Razak","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1108-9341","institution":"Sultan Idris Education University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nor","middleName":"Asiah","lastName":"Razak","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-10-27 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12:33:54","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":731134,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eContradictions and Causes of Contradictions that Hinder Teachers’ ICT Integration in Teaching in a Collective Context\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7960888/v1/665e2e93dd9de3bc0ddaed9b.png"},{"id":94666345,"identity":"f4f247c4-73e8-4154-baf6-926ef71e329e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 12:33:54","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":536809,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResolutions of Contradictions that Influenced Teachers’ ICT Integration in Teaching in a Collective Context\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7960888/v1/ff2d1ec81f1e4cd964ca57a6.png"},{"id":94666352,"identity":"4e580c3a-4724-4798-99b5-38743793a323","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 12:33:55","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":410049,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAdministration Organization Chart\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7960888/v1/9d815b70c7fa3d655da5672b.png"},{"id":94666341,"identity":"2ce718ea-2365-4b66-9fe9-6e74b5d6c086","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 12:33:54","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":42956,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eICT Unit Chart\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7960888/v1/24eb487543fc959983a10d6b.png"},{"id":94673401,"identity":"aae3af1a-a4c1-4a7b-bec5-9210c417be6f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:41:22","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":318930,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAdministration Organization Chart\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7960888/v1/7b647dbe646bade949dd51d1.png"},{"id":94673238,"identity":"480e804d-481c-43f6-8a1e-cf00b9e1437f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:41:18","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":82239,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eICT Unit Chart\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7960888/v1/3a711fdd0694b56fe9c03ebb.png"},{"id":94666359,"identity":"d969ff98-f79c-45e9-befc-b499290b93ce","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 12:33:55","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":814700,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual framework for teachers’ ICT integration in teaching\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7960888/v1/ed8f4050e5cdd9664b92f0dc.png"},{"id":94728067,"identity":"7489b531-0abe-4440-913c-5b198ce47675","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 07:02:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4524481,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7960888/v1/3f5e460e-c927-4608-a4ef-31834e92f1ed.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eBeyond One Size Fits All: A Cultural Informed Comparative Study of ICT Integration in Malaysian Elementary Schools\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe global COVID 19 pandemic catalysed radical transformations across various sectors. The education sector is also no exception, as one of the important shifts has been the accelerated, which is integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into teaching and learning practices. From a sociocultural perspective, ICT is a \"tool mediation\" rooted in Vygotsky\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) cultural historical theory and Luria\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1928\u003c/span\u003e) work, which refers to the use of cultural artifacts, such as ICT, as a medium to facilitate communication, collaboration, and knowledge construction within social environments, but it is not a collection of digital tools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT tools have been broaden studied in the world. For example, in developed countries, like Turkey, the implementation of Artificial Intelligence to detect language misconceptions using natural language processing (K\u0026ouml;kver et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Another example in European higher institutions, a study on the staff perception of learning analytics implementation (Kaveri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In developing countries, such as India and South Africa, for almost three years, immersive environments, such as AR/VR via MOOCs, have been implemented for effective assessment (Achuthan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Olugbara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These innovative instructional methods have opened new avenues for interaction and engagement (Luo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Razak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, the presence of ICT tools alone does not guarantee pedagogical transformation; the integration of ICT in schools is often uneven and hindered by various contextual factors (Esfijani \u0026amp; Zamani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Karpliuk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), despite substantial investments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecent systematic literature review in developed countries, like Russia, and developing countries, like Malaysia, has shown that even utilising digital platforms for instruction, educators continue to adopt teacher centred approaches (Bizami et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Mikheev et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Another study in developing countries, such as Indonesia, by Sumardi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that the majority of educators (59.17%) depended on teacher centred methods despite delivering content online. A recent study conducted in advanced economies such as Australia byMahdum et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) suggests that the absence of school support programmes, led to negative influences on educators\u0026rsquo; confidence in teaching within online and distance learning environments. In collective, these findings highlight that not all educators are promoting student-centered learning or supporting deeper student understanding, leveraging effective online learning platforms, such as DELIMa in Malaysia. In this sense, an urgent need to shift instructional approaches toward student centred pedagogies. In addition, prominent scholars of ICT in education, from Hong Kong, urge that even if infrastructure is in place, the disconnect between access to ICT and its pedagogical application points to a critical gap, and meaningful integration often depends on the school\u0026rsquo;s sociocultural environment and leadership commitment (Lim et al., 2020). Furthermore, for almost a decade, scholars have conducted empirical studies on the ICT integration challenges (Habibi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Qaddumi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Razzak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These scholars discovered that failure to or contradictions, such as limited infrastructure or resistance to change, continue to constrain the transformative potential of ICT in education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn response to these challenges, this study explores how sociocultural dynamics shape ICT integration practices in two urban Malaysian elementary schools case studies, namely, one National Type Chinese School and one National School. Both institutions have been recognised with 5 star ICT integration ratings by the Educational Technology Division of the Ministry of Education, Malaysia. This context provides a rich comparative basis for investigating how schools with similar performance benchmarks navigate internal tensions and adopt cultural informed solutions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRooted in Engestrom\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT), this study employs a qualitative multiple case study design to analyse how roles, rules, tools, and the division of labor influence ICT integration at the school. In addition, using Activity Systems Analysis (ASA), the research identifies the contradictions and resolutions that emerge in each case and situates them within sociocultural contexts. Thus, the study addresses two research questions: (1) what are the key similarities in the contradictions and their resolutions regarding ICT integration in teaching across the two case studies? and (2) what are the differences in how sociocultural contexts shape the contradictions and their resolutions in ICT integration between the two case studies?.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Theoretical Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eActivity theory has emerged as one of the prominent theories to study ICT integration in to teaching due to its analytical depth and adaptability across educational contexts (Lim et al., 2020). The theory allows researchers to explore the surrounding sociocultural factors that shape and constrain human activity, not only the technological components of integration. As detailed explained by the main author\u0026rsquo;s previous publication (Razak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), Engestrom (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) differentiated the evolution of the activity theory into three phases referred to as first, second, and third generations. These generational developments enhance the theory\u0026rsquo;s analytical scope. The first generation emphasises that the relationship between subject and tool is rooted in Vygotsky\u0026rsquo;s idea of mediated action. The second generation, built upon Leont\u0026rsquo;ev\u0026rsquo;s work, introduced the collective and hierarchical structure of activity. The third generation, developed by Engestrom, extends the theory to multiple interacting activity systems and the contradictions that arise between them, called CHAT.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the context of Malaysian national schools, this theoretical approach provides a robust framework to examine ICT integration as a social situated activity. In particular, the study applies CHAT to analyse the teaching practices that involve ICT integration, treating the activity system of \u0026ldquo;teaching with ICT\u0026rdquo; as the core unit of analysis. Six key principles by Cole and Engestrom (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e), Engestrom (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e), and Leont\u0026rsquo;ev (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e), guide the researcher of applying activity theory in this study as below: (1) distributed cognition refer to human cognition understood as distributed across people, tools, and context, which it is consistent with how ICT functions within a school ecosystem, (2) tool mediation whereby ICT is conceptualised as a mediating artifact that transforms both teaching practices and cognitive processes, (3) collective activity, in which the activity involve other participants or stakeholders beyond the individual subject, recognising the collective and nature of teaching, (4) object oriented systems, whereby, the activiy focus on object driven and institutionalised rather than isolated goal directed actions allows for holistic analysis, (5) historical and developmental perspective refer to ICT integration is viewed as an evolving process shaped by institutional history and developmental tensions, and (6) sociocultural orientation is on emphasising the sociocultural dimensions of activity, making it suitable for analysing ICT integration as a social situated practice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVygotsky\u0026rsquo;s foundational assertion is that the individual cannot be separated from the social environment. These prominent scholars in the sociocultural context urged that \u0026ldquo;the individual and the social were conceived of as mutually constitutive elements of a single, interacting system; cognitive development was treated as a process of acquiring culture\u0026rdquo; (Cole, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, ICT integration must be analysed within its situated sociocultural context, and this approach is relevant as it has been studied for more than a decade (Hebibi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Lim et al., 2020; Tatnall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This study embraces that gap by situating ICT integration within school environments, acknowledging how institutional, pedagogical, and cultural factors influence the process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Contradictions as Drivers of Change\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eContradiction is a central construct within CHAT, in particular to its third generation formulation. Moreover, activity systems are characterised by internal tensions or contradictions that generate change and development (Cole \u0026amp; Engestrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Lim et al., 2020). Engestrom (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) emphasised that these contradictions arise within and between components of an activity system (e.g., subject, tools, rules) and are developed. In addition, CHAT frames contradictions as potential catalysts for expansive learning and innovation, rather than viewing them as barriers or tensions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe tensions can appear in various forms, such as dilemmas, disturbances, or conflicts that influence whether the subject (e.g., a teacher) is empowered or obstructed in achieving the object (e.g., ICT integration in teaching). In the context of schools, a contradiction arises between the school\u0026rsquo;s expectations (rules) and the teacher\u0026rsquo;s capabilities (mediating artifacts) that can be manifested, for example, if a school mandates ICT integration but fails to provide relevant pedagogical training (Sagre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In this sense, this tension would generate pressure within the system, which might lead to resistance or frustration (Grimalt-\u0026Aacute;lvaro \u0026amp; Ametller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Pettersson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study identifies contradictions across multiple interacting systems, namely, the classroom, department, and school, and serves as an analytical indicator of pressures or affordances. For example, as teachers are not supported in continuous ICT integration training, their ability to fulfill school ICT initiatives is compromised. This misalignment reveals a contradiction between the teacher\u0026rsquo;s activity system and the school, limiting the integration of ICT despite institutional needs. Thus, the study seeks to uncover both the constraints and enablers of ICT integration at the cultural distinct level of school environments. This analysis demonstrates how sociocultural tensions shape educational practice, and is visual supported using Activity Systems Diagrams as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a multiple case study with ASA, framing data collection to examine the contradictions and resolutions that emerge in each case and situates them within sociocultural contexts. Mayring\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) qualitative content analysis approach with the inductive category formation technique was employed to analyse the qualitative data, as this technique is effective for comparative analysis across multiple cases and offers a systematic and rigorous procedure for coding qualitative data. In addition, this technique is similar to Grounded Theory\u0026rsquo;s open and axial coding strategies (Corbin \u0026amp; Strauss, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) but emphasises a structured and efficient coding process. In fact, Mayring\u0026rsquo;s approach facilitates economical yet conceptual rich categorisation, suitable for unpacking sociocultural variations in ICT integration rather than the line by line coding typical of Grounded Theory.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary data collection is semi structured interviews, triangulated with non participant observations, and document analysis. This multi method of data collection enabled the researcher to capture both teachers\u0026rsquo; experiences of ICT and observe their practices. In particular, the study focuses on institutions with demonstrated ICT integration efforts; thus, targeted schools awarded a 5 star ICT integration rating by the Educational Technology Division of Malaysia\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Activity System as the Unit of Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn CHAT, the activity system is the core analytical unit, comprising interrelated components such as the subject, object, tools, rules, community, and division of labour (Engestrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). In the context of this study, teaching with ICT integration represents the main activity system. The subject is the teacher, while the object is the pedagogical goal of enhancing students\u0026rsquo; access to knowledge through ICT. The tools refer to digital technologies such as internet access, educational software, courseware, and web based platforms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe community includes students, peers, ICT coordinators, and school administrators. Rules consist of formal and informal guidelines governing classroom and ICT usage, such as lab access policies and curriculum related ICT expectations (Lim et al., 2020). The division of labour outlines the distributed roles among teachers and students. For instance, teachers function as facilitators who scaffold learning, moderate discussions, and clarify content, while students independent explore, collaborate, and access digital resources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Activity Settings\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe researcher identified three primary activity settings that reflected distinct institutional levels, namely, classroom, department, and school for contextualising the observed practices as Tharp and Gallimore (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e) defined activity settings are sociocultural bounded contexts where object oriented activities take place. These settings are across institutional, historical, and social dimensions relevant to the participants\u0026rsquo; shared objectives, and not limited to physical locations (Yamagata-Lynch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The researcher follow four four guiding questions by Yamagata-Lynch (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, p. 90) to identify appropriate settings: \u0026ldquo;(1) what are the typical activities occurring in the setting?, (2) which of these activities align with the research questions?, (3) who are the participants engaged in these activities?, and (4) what documents or mediating artifacts are relevant?.\u0026rdquo; Each corresponds to a specific unit of analysis and was instrumental in examining the multi level contradictions and mediations that influence ICT integration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Case Selection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase selection based on purposive sampling of a school awarded a 5 star rating for ICT integration by the Educational Technology Division of the Ministry of Education in Malaysia. This rating based on a Malaysian Smart School Qualification Standards (SSQS) instrument. Two public elementary schools were selected, comprising: (1) one National Type Chinese School (School P) and (2) one National School (School K). Even though both schools achieved a high ICT integration status, the schools would differ in terms of cultural context, language medium, governance structures, and community engagement. These differences provide a fundamental exploration of the diversity and typicality of ICT integration practices within a shared policy framework.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 The Participant Selection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe selection of participants included key educational stakeholders: the headmaster, ICT coordinator or media coordinator, head of unit, ICT teacher, and classroom teachers for each participating school. Purposive sampling was used to select participants, and also chosen according to their availability, willingness to participate, and alignment with criterion based sampling to ensure the inclusion of information rich participants relevant to the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCriterion based sampling started with predefined criteria of participants, who must be Malaysian educators with professional teaching experience ranging from two to twenty five years and possess a formal teaching credential in the form of a Diploma in Education. In addition, teacher specific criteria require those who have experience with ICT integration in their teaching for at least 3 years. These conditions can be indicated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, representing the two selected case study schools and fourteen demographic participants\u0026rsquo; profiles that meet predefined and specified criteria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDemographic Profile of Study Participants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipant's pseudonym\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo. of experience (Year)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecialisation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQualification\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool P\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Wong\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeadmaster\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Hon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedia coordinator\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Chee\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHead of unit (Mathematics)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMathematics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiss Yee\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Dayah\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiploma\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Cheng\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMathematics teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMathematics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiss Bibi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBahasa Malaysia teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeography\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Asiah\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeadmaster\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeography\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaster\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Aimi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT coordinator\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Lina\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHead of unit (Science)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Razak\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBahasa Malaysia\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiploma\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Noba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScience teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiss Lina\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBahasa Malaysia teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHistory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Awie\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMathematics teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMathematics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Findings and Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.1 Research Question 1: What are the key similarities in the contradictions and their resolutions regarding ICT integration in teaching across the two case studies, namely the National Type Chinese School and the National School?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo address Research Question 1, in which to explores the key similarities in contradictions and their resolutions regarding ICT integration across two case studies: the National Type Chinese School and the National School, findings revealed three shared contradictions faced by educators in both settings: (1) inadequate School ICT facilities due to financial constraints, (2) non compliance due to workload and time constraints, and (3) non compliance rooted in resistance to change. These contradictions are presented in the context of the cross case analysis, highlighting key similarities between the two schools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Engestr\u0026ouml;m (2001), contradictions represent tensions within and between activity systems that may lead to problems, disturbances, and conflicts. The contradictions discovered in this study align with the diverse studies from developed economies in the European continent to the Asia continent by Kaveri et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), who investigate the stakeholders\u0026rsquo; role in higher institutions, and Tay and Lim (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who examined the role of distributive leadership in Singapore's elementary schools. In this sense, these empirical studies reflect that distributive leadership is a key dimension for leaders to empower their subordinates according to the roles of each respective stakeholder.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.1.1 Inadequate School ICT Facilities Due to Financial Constraints\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings revealed that due to inadequate school ICT facilities, teachers at both School P and School K experienced \"tensions\" as they attempted to integrate ICT into teaching. For example, a conversation with the Teachers at School P and K reflects this contradiction as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiss Yee : \"Unfortunate, the equipment, like CPU, monitor lifecycle, only lasts five years and needs to\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ebe maintained or replaced.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"I see, any problem with that?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiss Yee : \"Yes, it is. We don\u0026rsquo;t have a budget for that. It\u0026rsquo;s fine if it\u0026rsquo;s just repairs because we have a\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003etechnician. But we can\u0026rsquo;t afford to buy new equipment since the government hasn\u0026rsquo;t provided\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe budget for purchasing ICT. In addition, we only have one technician, and he can\u0026rsquo;t repair\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eall the equipment in a short period.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The ICT Teacher at School P)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Awie : \"Last time, I couldn\u0026rsquo;t book the computer lab for students once a week because it was full\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ebooked.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"What do you mean by full booked?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Awie : \"At that time, we only had one computer lab, no access center, and no computers in an open\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003earea. It failed to meet our needs for bringing students there once a week.\"\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The Mathematic Teacher at School P)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis finding demonstrates that hindering teachers' ability to integrate ICT into their teaching practices would hindered due to financial constraints was a key source of \"tensions\" within the activity systems. One of the primary roles of funding is to ensure the availability of basic ICT infrastructure. This aligns with Pettersson\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) study of rural schools, as it led to the delay of the development of technology infrastructure and hindered long term access to personal laptops for teachers, which found that delays in government funding created tensions. Similar to researchers in Iran have found that primary schools often lack essential hardware and high quality teaching software due to limited financial support for ICT facilities (Lee et al., 2021; Rafiepour et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.1.2 Non Compliance due to Workload and Time Constraints\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings indicate that non compliance with ICT related policies and practices in both School P and School K can be attributed to excessive workload and insufficient time for teachers and school leaders to fulfill their responsibilities. Both schools increased community involvement in school activities and expanded the commitments of departments, affecting ICT teachers and heads of units. In this sense, it demonstrated similar structural pressures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTop management emphasised the importance of commitment to institutional goals. However, the growing demands placed on educators resulted in their inability to consistent comply with ICT related directives. Teachers, ICT coordinators, and departmental heads expressed their feeling overwhelmed to being effective in teaching due to the lack of time. Some of the conversations as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Researcher\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;How do you see the roles of ICT coordinator and heads of units?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Dayah :\u0026ldquo;We felt pressured when the information we were supposed to receive didn\u0026rsquo;t reach us as ICT\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecoordinator were occupied with other responsibilities. Our head of unit also busy. What Ican\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003esay is only about my department.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The English Teacher at School P)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Researcher\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;How do you see the roles of ICT teachers?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMrs. Lina\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Teachers often complained that ICT teachers weren\u0026rsquo;t fulfilling their roles. They didn\u0026rsquo;t\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ereceive important updates on time. I raised this in a meeting, but the ICT teachers explained\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ethat they were busy with other tasks, causing delays in communication and ICT related\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eactivities.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The Head of Science Unit at School K)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese conversations reflect how time constraints and workload issues result in non compliance with ICT integration protocols. The activity systems within both schools revealed tensions as the structure did not support the engagement, wherein stakeholders failed to meet expectations. This is consistent with existing literature in developed and developing countries. For example, a study in Singapore have informed that time management has emerged as a critical factor influencing ICT integration for both high and middle income economies (Tay \u0026amp; Lim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). While a study in Indonesia discovered that teachers have insufficient time for planning ICT supported instructions (Lim et al., 2020). Malaysian educators also mentioned time limitations as a major challenge to integrating digital tools into pedagogy (Razak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.1.3 Non Compliance Rooted in Resistance to Change\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eA clear tension emerged between institutional rules and the object of ICT integration. For example, in School K, additional tensions were also observed between rules and the division of labour. These contradictions were explained by school stakeholders, a consistent pattern of non compliance with ICT related regulations by teachers. This ignorance is a common barrier in educational reform efforts, key attributed to resistance to change. A conversation with the headmaster can be reflected this contradiction situation of both School P and K as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Researcher\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;What challenges have you encountered in your leadership role to encourage teacher use of\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Wong : \u0026ldquo;We received poor responses when we required teachers to attend ICT workshops, even when\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecompulsory. They often claimed they were too busy or had prior engagements and would skip\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe sessions. This meant they would be missing out on essential training, such as how to use\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe booking system, operate the school's management platform, or apply various educational\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003esoftware and applications.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The Headmaster at School P)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Researcher\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;What challenges have you encountered to encourage your teachers to follow with ICT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003erelated plans?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Asiah : \u0026ldquo;The biggest issue is their reluctance to follow school regulations. Most of them said it\u0026rsquo;s\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003edifficult to integrate ICT into their teaching, but they have not tried.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The Headmaster at School K)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese narratives highlight a deeper issue in stakeholders' resistance to change as a barrier to ICT integration, in which a misalignment within the schools\u0026rsquo; activity systems disrupts the transformation process. Teachers\u0026rsquo; resistance to change is not procedural but psychological, rooted in discomfort with altering established teaching practices. This finding is consistent with previous research by Grimalt-\u0026Aacute;lvaro and Ametller (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) emphasise that resistance to change is a key tension that hinders ICT integration. Chieng and Tan (2021) further explain that teachers are hesitant to innovate in teaching due to insufficient time to develop ICT competencies. In addition, Fredriksen and Hadjerrouit (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) urge that some educators who faced heavy administrative workloads and have limited leadership support perceive technological change as a burden or threat. Thus, this contradiction needs critical reflection from school leaders to play a proactive and strategic role in facilitating ICT integration. The leaders, in particular, the headmaster, must implement supportive structures and foster a culture that encourages experimentation, continuous learning, and professional growth.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA visual summary of the emerging themes, subthemes, and the contradictions that hinder teachers\u0026rsquo; ICT integration is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these tensions, both schools demonstrated parallel strategies for resolving these contradictions. The study identified three shared resolution strategies: (1) assisted performance, (2) collaborative idea sharing, and (3) a distributed leadership approach. These commonalities suggest that, despite differences in school types and contexts, the underlying contradictions and their resolutions in ICT integration share meaningful similarities rooted in organizational culture and resource dynamics. They have been presented according to the cross case analysis and the key similarities between both schools as follows.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdopting the CHAT, this study also provided knowledge on contradictions as they do not only constitute \u0026lsquo;tensions\u0026rsquo; but the struggles to resolve the \u0026lsquo;tensions\u0026rsquo; within and between activity systems, producing cycles of change, each cycle producing new contradictions (Engestrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Engestrom (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) stated that \u0026ldquo;contradictions are a source of change and development\u0026rdquo; (p.137) as innovative attempts to change the activity. The explanation of the resolution of contradictions derived in this study has remarkable similarity with the explanation (Jocius et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who examined educational innovation in the USA\u0026rsquo;s elementary schools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.1.4 Assisted Performance\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings from both School P and School K indicate that assisted performance is crucial to determining the success of teachers' ICT integration within schools. This form of assisted performance, which involves the school community within the activity system, played a vital role in overcoming the challenges posed by inadequate ICT facilities due to financial constraints. The PTA, alumni, technology developers, and local business owners, encompassed individuals both within and outside the school setting reflected the the school community\u0026rsquo;s involvement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor instance, the PTA and alumni helped to create a conducive learning environment, assisted with cocurricular activities, and supported underprivileged students by raising funds, and technology developers contributed by upgrading computer labs. Meanwhile, the school board and local business owners donated funds and equipment, such as solar panels, for income generation of the school. The community also contributed by using the school\u0026rsquo;s services and participating in cocurricular activities, indirect supporting the school\u0026rsquo;s financial needs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe following is an extract from one of the dialogues between the researcher and the headmaster of both School P and School K:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"If I\u0026rsquo;m not mistaken, the government allocated a certain amount of money,\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ebut that money was not used for buying equipment since the government had already provided\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe equipment. How do you strategise when the school needs to purchase new equipment?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Wong : \"Actually, we have the School Board, which plays a key role in helping the school.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"How so?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Wong : \"They installed solar panels at the school, and we sell energy to TNB (the energy company).\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe income generated from this is used to buy equipment and supplement the government\u0026rsquo;s\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ebudget.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"What role does the PTA play in this?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Wong : \"The PTA helps on donate money through our 'Charity Night'. Alumni and parents who are\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eexperts in various fields, such as banking, accounting, finance, sports, technology, and landscaping, provide valuable guidance and advice to teachers, and sharing session with students.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The Headmaster at School P)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Asiah : \"To purchase technology, we used crowdfunding. Sometimes, we also ask technology\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003edevelopers to contribute their technologies. We have a win-win situation: our school serves as a showroom for their technology since we are seen as a role model for technology in education.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"What is the role PTA plays on this issue?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Asiah : \"The PTA handles the donations from the crowd. Technology developers also transferred\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003etechnologies to upgrade our computer labs.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The Headmaster at School K)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings from this study highlight that assisted performance is a key mechanism within the activity system that influences teachers' ICT integration. However, these findings challenge prior studies that defined assisted performance as direct involving expert guidance. According to Tharp \u0026amp; Gallimore (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e), assisted performance refers to \"what a novice can do with help, with the support of the environment, others, and self\" (p. 30), based on Vygotsky\u0026rsquo;s concept of the \"zone of proximal development\" (ZPD), which involves assistance from experts or capable peers. While this study supports the notion that assistance is essential for ICT integrated teaching, it expands the definition of assisted performance beyond the expert novice relationship. In this context, assisted performance also encompasses support from non experts, such as donations, manpower, and equipment contributions. Therefore, assisted performance refers to the initiative of various stakeholders, regardless of their expertise, to assist schools, in particular teachers, in benefiting students. This support can come from experts, administrative teams, technical teams, peers who are IT savvy, or even non experts who are willing to contribute in any way.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.1.5 Sharing Ideas\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study suggests that sharing ideas through web based platforms, such as Frog VLE and DELIMa, has played an important role in enhancing teachers' success in ICT integration. As a result, it improves teachers\u0026rsquo; work life balance. Idea sharing occurs when stakeholders within the department\u0026rsquo;s activity system face challenges in committing to school regulations due to time constraints. However, these time constraints can be alleviated when the community collaborates to help achieve the school\u0026rsquo;s mission and vision. Examples of idea sharing practices from both School P and School K include the following:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"Do you face any challenges in doing your job?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Cheng : \"Yes, every job comes with its challenges. For me, the challenge arises when we cannot\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecommit to supporting ICT teachers.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"Why is that?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Cheng : \"Workload. But it\u0026rsquo;s not frequent. Sometimes, the information is distributed late when I\u0026rsquo;m\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ebusy with examinations and other school activities.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"How do you manage when time becomes an issue in completing your tasks?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Cheng : \"This problem has improved since the school introduced the sharing concept among the\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eschool\u0026rsquo;s stakeholders through GEG and the Frog VLE platform.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"How does that work?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMr. Cheng : \"GEG is a community that allows teachers from around the world to interact, try new ideas,\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eand help each other improve teaching techniques in and out of the classroom. Sharing benefits everyone. Activities accomplished within GEG are shared via the Frog VLE platform, making them accessible to anyone.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The Head of the Mathematics Unit at School P)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"How do you manage time when it becomes an issue in completing your tasks?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Lina : \"I encouraged ICT teachers to use Frog VLE as a platform to share information with other\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eteachers. Initially, I handled it myself, but then I trained other teachers who became IT savvy to help share information online.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"Can you provide another example?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Lina : \"We also upload and share the content we use in class on the platform. This allows teachers\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eto reuse the content in their teaching, reducing the time spent creating new materials.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The Head of the Science Unit at School K)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study demonstrate that sharing ideas is a key mechanism within the activity systems that influences teachers' ICT integration in teaching. This supports Jocius et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who emphasised the importance of peer support, noting that collaboration and knowledge sharing contribute to successful ICT integration by teachers. In addition, idea sharing also reduce teachers' workload as a study in Indonesia discovered teachers who were engage in sharing sessions in designing ICT based lessons led to low strees of teacher workload (Lim et al., 2020). Recent studies also confirm that information sharing and cooperation among teachers are major factors influencing teachers\u0026rsquo; motivation to integrate ICT into their lessons (Karpliuk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.1.6 Distributed Leadership\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe distributive leadership qualities of the headmasters were demonstrated through their delegation of responsibilities to subordinates for managing various school activities. Distributed leadership became important when stakeholders in the school's activity system struggled to comply with the school\u0026rsquo;s regulations due to resistance to change. A critical element of distributed leadership observed in this study was the headmasters' efforts to train teachers to take on leadership roles. For instance, the headmaster assigned a teacher to manage the hall rental and sound system services. The headmasters fostered teamwork to ensure the smooth operation of school activities. Conversations with participants reflect this contradiction as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"How do you see the headmaster\u0026rsquo;s action in encouraging you to integrate ICT into\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eteaching?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Dayah : \"What I see is the headmaster's concern for us. He prefers working in a team.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"Why?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Dayah : \"He is very supportive and monitors all activities during the workshops. He doesn\u0026rsquo;t let our\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emedia coordinator handles things alone.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"How do you feel about his leadership?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Dayah : \"Not sure, but I\u0026rsquo;m impressed with his efforts to help the school integrate ICT into teaching.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The English Teacher at School P)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"How do you address problems as your subordinates are reluctant to integrate ICT into\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003etheir teaching?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Asiah : \"We overcome these challenges through teamwork.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"How?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Asiah : \"I plan and create flexible timetables with teachers that allow them to swap shifts if someone\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eis unavailable or has an urgent matter. Regardless of whether I am direct involved, I always\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eoffer moral support during activities.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"Is there anything else you do?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Asiah : \"I encouraged our teachers to upload and share the content they use in class via the Frog VLE\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eplatform. The content can be reused by other teachers in their teaching, saving their time in creating new materials. This peer sharing initiative helps reduce teachers' workload.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"Are other teachers involved in managing the activities?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Asiah : \"Yes, certainly. I assigned a teacher to manage the hall rental and sound system services.\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Researcher : \"Why did you choose him?\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMrs. Asiah : \"I asked him because he is an expert in event management.\"\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(The Headmaster of School K)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother contribution of this study is that distributed leadership plays a vital role in the successful integration of ICT. This finding found that to achieve maximum outcomes is in line with Heller \u0026amp; Firestone\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) assertion that leadership can be distributed in various ways, both collaborative and in parallel. Tasks that elevate schools can be led by multiple leaders, including headmasters, ICT coordinators, and other teachers assuming leadership roles (Pettersson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This study supports the views of Lim et al. (2020) and Tay \u0026amp; Lim (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who argued that the success of ICT integration in schools depends not only on the headmaster but also on the active involvement of all leaders within the school\u0026rsquo;s activities. In this context, the concept of \"distributed leadership,\" as proposed by Senge et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), defines distributed leadership as a way to assist the headmaster in managing demands by sharing responsibilities with middle managers, such as instructional program coordinators and ICT coordinators, especially during ICT integration. The definition of distributed leadership that influences ICT integration, as derived from this study, aligns with the definitions provided by Divaharan \u0026amp; Lim (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e and Lim et al. (2020). This study also supports previous research indicating that distributed leadership is one of the most important catalysts for the successful integration of ICT (Bollen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). A summary of the themes and subthemes related to the resolutions of contradictions hindering ICT integration in schools is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.2 Research Question 2: What are the differences in how sociocultural contexts shape the contradictions and their resolutions in ICT integration between the two case studies?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo address the Research Question 2: key differences in how sociocultural contexts shape the contradictions and their resolutions in ICT integration between the two case studies, namely the National Type Chinese School and the National School. Findings revealed four differences in both settings: 1) ICT Integration Implementation, 2) Organization Structure, 3) Aspect of Cultural Historical, and 4) Strategies to Manage Tension through Assisted Performance. They have been presented according to the cross case analysis and the key differences between both schools as follows.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.2.1 ICT Integration Implementation between School P and School K\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second research question explored the differences between the two cases in which the schools employed different approaches in governing their schools. This section explores the aspect of assisted performance in the respective schools. Based on the interviewed and observed the participants, and reviewed the document, differences in ICT integration practices in School P (National Type Chinese School) and School K (National School), as in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifferences in ICT integration Implementation between School P and School K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool P\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDigital Leadership\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrong support from headmaster and senior leadership; ICT is prioritised in strategic planning and school activities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerate support; ICT initiatives depend on individual teachers rather than top down planning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT Infrastructure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdvanced and consistent: multiple smartboards, laptops, desktops, WiFi access, and air conditioned labs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBasic to moderate: some projectors and computer labs; less consistent maintenance; limited devices for students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeacher ICT Competency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh: Most teachers are competent, with some serving as ICT champions; regular internal sharing sessions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMixed: Some teachers are competent; others are resistant or lack confidence; limited peer training.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent Engagement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh engagement: Students use ICT for research, presentations, and digital storytelling; BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) encouraged.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerate engagement: Primary use of ICT for drill and practice and teacher centred.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePedagogical Use of ICT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntegrative and student centered: ICT supports inquiry based and project based learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConverversational teaching methods : ICT supplements lectures; limited innovative practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChallenges\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManaging student screen time; ensuring equitable access at home; keeping up with tech advancements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLimited resources; teacher resistance; technical issues and lack of training.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the findings revealed that effective ICT integration extends beyond infrastructure and recognition. The effective ICT integration should become from strong digital leadership, teacher competency, and student centred pedagogy, enabling meaningful use of technology in the classroom that benefited students. This situation was reflected from School P. While, School K faces challenges in sustaining teacher engagement and innovative ICT practices, contra to School P despite having a 5 star rating. These findings suggest that leadership vision, teacher support, and purposeful pedagogical integration are crucial for advancing ICT use in schools beyond policy compliance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.2.2 Organization Structure between School P and School K\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOrganization Structure of School P\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows that three entities are operating at the same level as the headmaster, which are the PTA, the school board, and the alumni. These entities collaborate with the headmaster to ensure the school\u0026rsquo;s vision is manifest, especially in building relationships between home and school, raising funds for infrastructure and facilities, and providing conducive environments to students and teachers in the school. The PTA is responsible as a middleman between the school and parents to ensure that parents participate in their children's activities in school, such as monitoring homework and the timetable. The alumni help the school in terms of transferring knowledge to the school through seminars, as some of them are experts in various fields such as banking, law, engineering, and entrepreneurship. The most important entity is the school board, which is the backbone of the school. The school board is taking charge to ensure the adequacy of the school\u0026rsquo;s ICT infrastructure and facilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the strategic level, the headmaster heads the school\u0026rsquo;s administration in operating the school. The vice-headmaster leads the curriculum and administration management, student affairs, and cocurriculum, which assist the headmaster and direct report to him. The curriculum manager is in charge of the academic affairs in the school, including the library, examinations, ICT, academic achievement, timetable, financial management, and asset acquisition management. The student affairs manager\u0026rsquo;s role is on the students\u0026rsquo; welfare, discipline, scholarships, school\u0026rsquo;s canteen. The cocurriculum manager controls the non academic activities such as clubs, sports, and the school\u0026rsquo;s events. The guidance and counseling manager is responsible for students\u0026rsquo; motivation, especially in supporting their learning. In the National Type Chinese School, the media coordinator coordinates two personnel: (1) the ICT coordinator and (2) the head of units. The media coordinator is also the head of the resource centre, who manages all resources, including resources in the library, computer labs, and classrooms for teaching and learning purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the instructional programme level, the head of units took charge of each subject area. Each of them has an assistant among the subject teachers to assist them. There are 15 subject areas, including Chinese, English, Bahasa Malaysia, Mathematics, Science, History, Religious Studies, Music, ICT, Living Skills, Arts, Physical and Health, Moral and Citizenship. In School P, the ICT coordinator is at the same level as the head of units, and sometimes also assigned as the ICT teacher. There was also no formal department formed or members of staff who belonged to this department. The ICT coordinator works independent with the head of a unit to oversee the implementation of ICT in the school. Nevertheless, the media coordinator coordinates the ICT coordinator and the head of units at the operational level. In this sense, the ICT coordinator and head of units direct report to the media coordinator about any issue related to ICT integration. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e depicts that the ICT coordinator is at the same level as the head of the unit, as he/she is also the head of the ICT unit.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Organization Structure for the ICT Unit\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows that the ICT unit is made up of four or five people in the school. They are the media coordinator, ICT coordinator, technician, and ICT teachers. The technician is hired, and part of the provisions are made by Malaysia\u0026rsquo;s MOE. The other position is recursive assigned by the headmaster, as the teachers are also involved in the administrative duties that are related to learning. The media coordinator plans with the ICT coordinator on the ICT implementation for a suitable approach for the school and discusses the plan with the top management, namely the headmaster and management, and curriculum manager. While the media coordinator looks into hardware provisions for the school and the infrastructure set up, the technician ensures that the computers in the school are well maintained.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEven though the ICT resource acquisition process was based on the needs of the head of the unit, top management welcomed all the school\u0026rsquo;s stakeholders to get involved in the decision to avoid irrelevant investment. For example, if the media coordinator is intent on using any ICT software or resources, she will inform the head of the unit and the ICT coordinator to review the resource. Sometimes, the head of the unit consults the teachers of a particular subject area to review the software of the resource, and only then does the head of the unit inform the media coordinator to proceed. Similar to if the head of units and teachers come across any resource for the purpose of teaching and learning, they will approach the media coordinator to inform the benefits of the resources. The teachers are expected to take the initiative to ask the media coordinator if they have any queries regarding ICT integration, ICT facilities, Internet connection, and hardware related matters. This feedback helps the top management to take the necessary actions and make a reasonable investment for the school.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe school does not have a formal dedicated ICT department and therefore is not part of the school\u0026rsquo;s organizational structure. Only a formal position of top management at the operational level had been created. Even though the school is a government school and the ICT vision and mission are fixed by Malaysia\u0026rsquo;s ETD, the school also has its vision and mission. In the school\u0026rsquo;s strategic ICT plan, the school's goal is to ensure that the head of units incorporates ICT as a tool of teaching within the curriculum for respective subjects to make the school known as a \u0026ldquo;School of the Future\u0026rdquo; (Document analysis). In proving that the school did take serious consideration to establish engagement with the head of unit and teachers, the media coordinator worked with the ICT coordinator and ICT teachers to provide the in house ICT training for the new ICT facilities introduced by the teachers. The in house ICT training includes product knowledge, technical skills, and pedagogical skills.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOrganizational Structure of School K\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e depicts the organization chart that is different from School P for the hierarchical structure of an organization. The structure does not have the school board, while the ICT coordinator is placed and responds with a similar level and duty to the media coordinator. The ICT coordinator coordinates the ICT teachers, while the media coordinator organises the heads of units. Similar to School P, the media coordinator managed all the media, including media for teaching and learning purposes. The ICT coordinator is also known as the Smart Coordinator, acts as a single point of contact for the school. In this sense, the ICT coordinator is an administrator who updates the technology trends to ensure the objective of the Smart School is achieved. The roles of the PTA and alumni were similar to the school P.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the instructional programme level, the heads of multiple units were assigned to specific subject areas. Each has an assistant among the subject teachers to assist them in monitoring teachers under a respective unit. There is a separate department for the ICT coordinator working on her own, together with the ICT teachers and technicians. There is also a formal department formed of members of staff who belong to the ICT department. Even though the ICT coordinator has his head of unit, he responds to another head of unit. He responded to the media coordinator as he was the 'Smart school coordinator', who was also the representative and contact person for the school. The ICT coordinator coordinates the heads of units to facilitate the implementation of ICT for their respective subject.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Organization Structure for the ICT Unit\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe key players in the ICT unit organization structure are depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e in the ICT unit chart. Similar to School P, the ICT unit is made up of four or five people in the school. Within the ICT unit, the ICT coordinator worked with both the ICT teacher and the technician to ensure that their objectives were met. The ICT coordinator welcomes opinions from the head of units as well as the media coordinator for ICT planning before discussing the plan with the top management, namely the headmaster and management, and curriculum manager. The role of the ICT coordinator is to supervise all the activities on ICT integration, such as the ICT training, computer labs, the school\u0026rsquo;s information published on social media, ICT literacy, ICT facilities, and maintenance of ICT facilities and resources. These activities are assigned to ICT teachers, working with a technician for the implementation. The technician is not a teacher; they were hired by Malaysia\u0026rsquo;s MOE as part of the provisions, and they report to the ICT coordinator. Nevertheless, the ICT teachers can direct the technician if any problem occurs related to the maintenance issue.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe procurement of ICT facilities is also proposed through this ICT unit. The teachers share and justify their views during the meeting with their heads of units. The head of units brought the suggestion during the ICT unit\u0026rsquo;s monthly meeting that their subject teachers can convince them of the benefits and usefulness of the ICT tools. This suggestion is then put up to the headmaster for purchasing approval. Sometimes, the ICT unit suggests ICT facilities to the head of units for their teachers to try out. If the head of units finds the ICT facilities beneficial for students, they provide feedback to the ICT unit, which looks into the procurement of the ICT facilities. Thus, the ICT facilities procurement is a two way process, with the review of the usefulness of the software being the head of unit\u0026rsquo;s responsibility.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.2.3 Aspect of Cultural Historical between School P and School K\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e summarises the contrasting aspects of cultural historical activity structures that shaped the trajectory of ICT integration in both schools. This comparison reflect the importance of visionary leadership, structured organisational support, and empowered teaching communities in ensuring sustainable and meaningful ICT integration. Both schools reflect how strong internal capacity and stakeholder collaboration are critical enablers of ICT success in Malaysian elementary education despite differences in sociocultural contexts and implementation strategies\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifferences in the Aspect of Cultural Historical between School P and School K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAspect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool P\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNational Type Chinese School (SJKC)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNational School (SK)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear Established\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1935\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1956\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent Enrollment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,682 students\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,187 students\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent Demographics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90% Chinese\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98% Malay\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeaching Staff\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110 teachers (94% Chinese, mostly female)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92 teachers (79% Malay, mostly female)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT Implementation Start\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSince 2003 (Smart School initiatives)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSince 2007 (Frog VLE, then DELIMa)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT Vision \u0026amp; Mission\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo foster innovative, technology savvy students equipped for global challenges\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo achieve ICT excellence through a smart school model\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT Tools Used\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGoogle Workspace, Microsoft Office, AI apps, Quizziz, Kahoot, Canva, etc.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGoogle Workspace, Microsoft tools, eRPH, DELIMa, Quizizz, Wordwall, Kahoot\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFacilities\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSmart TVs, laptops, printers, full WiFi, 4 computer labs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSmart Classroom, elearning corner, full WiFi, LCD projectors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeadership Approach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeadmaster driven innovation, strong PTA support, structured training\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollaborative headmaster leadership, ICT innovation team, CPD and PLCs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeacher Training\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicrosoft, Google, AI tools, cross curricular STEM project integration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn house, district/state CPD, DELIMa, Google Educator Certification\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent ICT Involvement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipates in STEM \u0026amp; ICT competitions, project based learning\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTech Leader student initiative, peer tutoring in ICT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommunity \u0026amp; PTA Role\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActive PTA funds ICT infrastructure and learning tools\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerate PTA involvement: leadership supports digital culture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the comparative analysis between School P and School K reveals their approaches differ marked in terms of leadership, structure, and pedagogical depth, although both schools achieved 5 star SSQS ratings for ICT integration. School P exhibits a comprehensive and strategic embedded model of ICT integration, characterised by strong headmaster leadership, defined ICT organisational structure, and active teacher involvement. The school\u0026rsquo;s distributed leadership has fostered a culture of innovation and collaboration. Even though subject heads were less active involved than anchored by experienced media and ICT coordinators. In contrast, School K demonstrates a centralised model that is supported by adequate ICT facilities and Ministry led initiatives, which predominant relies on the ICT coordinator and exhibits less innovation and pedagogical diversification.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.2.4 Strategies to Manage Tension through Assisted Performance between School P and School K\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings revealed clear differences between School P and School K in the area of assisted performance as a strategy to support teachers\u0026rsquo; ICT integration in teaching. This concept aligns with the definition proposed by Tharp and Gallimore (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e), as assisted performance was explained in section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4.1.4\u003c/span\u003e. In the context of this study, novice refers to teachers who require guidance and support from the school community for effective ICT integration into their instructional practices, as illustrated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e summarises the key differences in how assisted performance was enacted in each school setting.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifferences in the Aspect of Assisted Performance Strategies in Managing ICT Integration Tension between School P and School K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAspect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool P\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain Financial Support\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool Board \u0026ndash; main financial backbone; no reliance on government provision.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGovernment \u0026ndash; major financial contributor due to Smart School pioneer status.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditional Income Sources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePTA donation drives, Alumni contributions, School board fundraising\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePTA contributions, Co-curricular activities, Hall rental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommunity Support\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActive PTA and alumni network Alumni offer expert guidance in multiple fields\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLess active alumni, Tech developers offer seminars due to Smart School status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT Facilities Support\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain funded through school board and PTA/alumni efforts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFunded through government and additional income streams\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTraining Support\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn house training for teachers and students led by alumni experts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeminars and talks provided by external technology developers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeadership in ICT Integration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeadmaster led: Headmaster is ICT savvy and personal drives ICT integration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT Coordinator led: Experienced IT graduate manages ICT programmes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeadership Role\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeadmaster monitors all ICT integration, leveraging personal experience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT Coordinator initiates programmes; Headmaster monitors and supports\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecognition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh ICT integration award (SSQS)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh ICT integration award (SSQS)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssisted Performance Agent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeadmaster as expert guiding teachers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICT Coordinator as expert supporting teachers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the findings revealed that despite both schools achieved high levels of ICT integration, the road to success differed. For example, School P demostrated strong internal community support and proactive leadership, in particular from the headmaster, who provided expert guidance and strategic direction. Conversely, School K relied on the ICT coordinator, assuming him as the primary responsibility for implementation, and also relied on government provision and external partnerships. This contrast in leadership roles is highlighted by Tharp and Gallimore\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e) concept of assisted performance, which emphasises that successful practice, especially among less experienced individuals, depends on targeted support from knowledgeable others. In this context, assisted performance played a pivotal role in managing the tensions and contradictions inherent in ICT integration, whether that support came from school leadership or designated ICT specialists.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Belief and Motivation: An Emergent Factor in ICT Integration\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough not initial anticipated, teachers\u0026rsquo; beliefs and motivational orientations emerged as critical mediators in their ICT integration practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite being internal, implicit, and unobservable psychological constructs, belief and motivation consistent surfaced during data analysis. These elements often complex affect on what individuals know and believe, ultimately influencing their actions. In this study, as the school context was equipped with ICT facilities and robust institutional support, teachers\u0026rsquo; beliefs had a marked impact on their ICT integration practices. As teachers perceived stronger support from their schools, their motivation to integrate ICT increased accordingly.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; motivation also increased as they believed ICT had a positive influence on student learning outcomes. These findings are in line with Schunk (1990), who asserted that motivation increases as individuals believe their needs and expectations are met. Motivation is defined as the process by which goal directed behaviour is initiated and sustained (Schunk, 1990). Similar to Ames (1992) emphasised that motivation stems from an individual\u0026rsquo;s goal structures and beliefs about what is important and beneficial. Teachers in this study recognised the instructional benefits of ICT tools, including demonstrations, drill and practice activities, modelling, visual representation of complex concepts, collaborative learning, and project based work (Tondeur et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar to a recent quantitative study in Chinese primary schools highlighted the role of teachers\u0026rsquo; beliefs in fostering motivation, found constructivist beliefs had a positive impact on ICT usage in classrooms (Sang et al., 2011). In parallel,Karpliuk et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) observed that teachers were motivated to integrate ICT as schools provided sufficient technical infrastructure and administrative support. These findings are further reinforced by researchers whose study in Iran revealed that adequate administrative backing, technical assistance, and ICT training influenced teachers\u0026rsquo; classroom ICT usage (Molla \u0026amp; Seyoum, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Rafiepour et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings suggest that school stakeholders collaborated to resolve these issues, demonstrating an awareness of their root causes, although tensions existed within and between the various activity systems. Effective ICT integration requires all stakeholders to clear understand and active fulfil their respective roles. For instance, collaboration among ICT teachers, technicians, and student IT representatives facilitated prompt responses to technical problems during classroom instruction. Leadership by school heads also played a crucial role in successful ICT integration. As noted that strong leadership, a clear ICT vision, and investment in capacity building measures such as training are essential for meaningful integration (Molla \u0026amp; Seyoum, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Sagre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, these emerging themes that were uncovered and discussed in the findings section of this article manifested even though tension existed within and between the activity systems; the school stakeholders worked together to resolve the tension as they were aware of the causes of the \u0026lsquo;tensions\u0026rsquo;. It is crucial for all the schools\u0026rsquo; stakeholders to know their respective roles in working to integrate ICT in their schools successfully. The findings also uncovered that assisted performance, sharing ideas, and distributed leadership are the sources of resolutions of \u0026lsquo;contradictions\u0026rsquo; within and among activity systems. The most influential leadership styles refer to the distributed leadership, which serves as a catalyst in influencing the teachers\u0026rsquo; ICT integration towards attaining the success of ICT integration across schools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGood organisational practices can shape the activity to ensure that each stakeholder is effectively playing their roles in making \u0026ldquo;contradictions as the sources of change and development\u0026rdquo; (Engestrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e, p. 137). An organisation should also identify its \u0026lsquo;tensions\u0026rsquo; and the causes of \u0026lsquo;tensions\u0026rsquo; to ensure successful ICT integration from the grassroots. Without positive changes to organisational practice, no such culture can be formed. As Fullan (2002) stated:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeading in a culture of change means creating a culture (not just a structure) of change. It does not mean adopting innovations, one after another; it does mean producing the capacity to seek, critically assess, and selectively incorporate new ideas and practices - all the time, inside the organisation as well as outside it. (p. 7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; ICT integration in teaching is not without its own set of \u0026lsquo;tensions\u0026rsquo;; wherever and whenever issues arise, instead of the belief and motivation of teachers, efforts from the school\u0026rsquo;s community, including the PTA, alumni, technology developers, and local business owners, can provide strong social and financial support. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the conceptual framework for teachers\u0026rsquo; ICT integration in the highest level of ICT integration schools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis comparative case study explores the integration of ICT in teaching across two Malaysian elementary schools, namely National Type Chinese School (School P) and National School (School K), which were recognized with a 5 star SSQS rating. Guided by CHAT and the ASA framework, the study examined key contradictions in ICT practices and how they were resolved within each school\u0026rsquo;s unique sociocultural context.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy comparing the two case studies, this research revealed key similarities in how tensions, such as financial and time constraints, were resolved through shared community efforts, distributed leadership, and collaborative professional development. However, in terms of community support, leadership structure, and ICT infrastructure, shaped the nature and resolution of these contradictions, differences emerged in how each school\u0026rsquo;s sociocultural context. These findings address both research questions by illuminating how shared themes manifest across diverse settings while highlighting the contextual uniqueness in their implementation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, successful ICT integration in both schools would be facilitated by dynamic, context sensitive solutions rooted in sociocultural understanding, stakeholder collaboration, and adaptive leadership. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of ICT practices in Malaysian elementary education, and would be exampler to offer implications for policy, teacher training, and community engagement strategies in similar settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 Study Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conjunction with other studies on contradiction for more than a decade, such as (e.g., Divaharan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Fredriksen \u0026amp; Hadjerrouit, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Jocius et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Sagre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), the study is relevant due to emerging technology and the need to be evaluated three years after implementation (Fullan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The findings obtained from this study have provided empirical data that support how ICT integration in elementary schools can be successfull implemented. However, limitations exist that require further consideration, while the study findings provide several insights for future research. One limitation is the use of in depth interviews and document analysis. The study could have benefitted from prolonged observation at each school to better understand the schools\u0026rsquo; culture and activities related to ICT integration (Angrosino \u0026amp; Perez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). However, both in depth interviews and document analysis were considered adequate for achieving the study purpose. The study did not focus on the interaction between students and teachers in the classroom, but rather the interaction within and between the activity systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;A statement of ethics approval:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was obtained from the UPSI\u0026rsquo;s Research Ethics Committee (Approval Code: 2025-0643-01), ensuring compliance with all applicable ethical standards involving research with human participants. Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study. A statement on participant consent: The participant has been informed about the purpose, procedures, and scope of the research study and provides voluntary consent to take part. Participation is entirely voluntary, and the participant may withdraw at any stage without penalty. Consent is granted for the use and publication of information provided, including any photographs or videos, in the study\u0026rsquo;s final report or related publications that may be accessible to a wide audience.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAchuthan K, Francis SP, Diwakar S (2017) Augmented reflective learning and knowledge retention perceived among students in classrooms involving virtual laboratories. Educ Inform Technol 22(6):2825\u0026ndash;2855. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9626-x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10639-017-9626-x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAngrosino MV, de Perez KAM (2003) Rethinking Observation: From Method to Context. 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Springer. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6321-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/978-1-4419-6321-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[{"identity":"759f594e-bf7e-403d-a2fb-22df246ae0fd","identifier":"10.13039/501100008685","name":"Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris","awardNumber":"Article Processing within Transformative Agreement","order_by":0}],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Sultan Idris Education University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Malaysian education, cultural historical activity theory, elementary schools, comparative study, school culture, ICT integration","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7960888/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7960888/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eOne National Type Chinese School and one National School are chosen as case studies to investigate the cultural influence of ICT integration in two high performing urban Malaysian elementary schools. Research aims to examine key contradictions and their resolutions in integrating ICT into teaching among teachers and to explore how governance structures are designed to support ICT integration success. A qualitative multiple case study design was adopted, primary data collection was semi structured interviews, and triangulated with non participant observations and document analysis involving 14 teachers. The analysis was guided by the Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) framework on the ICT integration implementation process in teaching and learning. Three common contradictions emerged across both schools: inadequate school ICT facilities due to financial limitations, non compliance due to workload and time constraints, and non compliance rooted in resistance to change. Despite these shared challenges, the schools adopted different strategies to manage tensions, particularly in how assisted performance was governed. The National Type Chinese School emphasised collaborative peer mentoring, while the National School relied on top down instructional guidance. Both were also influenced by their respective cultural and institutional contexts, demonstrated shared strategies of idea sharing and distributed leadership. This study reveals how cultural and structural differences shape both the problems and the solutions in digital pedagogical practices, and challenges the universality of ICT integration frameworks. It highlights the need for cultural responsive policies and teacher development models.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Beyond One Size Fits All: A Cultural Informed Comparative Study of ICT Integration in Malaysian Elementary Schools","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-29 12:33:50","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7960888/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"380e8131-fe4e-480b-a419-91eb00ed5e02","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 29th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":56961762,"name":"Cultural Studies"},{"id":56961763,"name":"Information Theory"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-29T12:33:50+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-29 12:33:50","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7960888","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7960888","identity":"rs-7960888","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}