Attitudes and Tendencies Toward the Medicinal Use of Saffron Among Academic Communities in Herat

Attitudes and Tendencies Toward the Medicinal Use of Saffron Among Academic Communities in Herat | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Attitudes and Tendencies Toward the Medicinal Use of Saffron Among Academic Communities in Herat Amir Hossain Ghaffari, Safiullah Fetrat, Ali Ahmad Mohammadi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7608978/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), valued in traditional Asian medicine, contains bioactive compounds such as crocin and safranal with antioxidant, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, and cognitive-enhancing properties. This study assessed attitudes, awareness, and consumption of saffron among educated individuals in Herat, Afghanistan, emphasizing its potential as a complementary therapy. A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 400 faculty members, students, and staff from Herat, Jami, and Ghalib Universities. Data were collected using a structured Likert-scale questionnaire and analyzed in SPSS (v26) with Student’s t-test and multiple regression to identify predictors of therapeutic use. Over 90% of participants reported positive attitudes toward saffron as a medicinal supplement. Commonly cited benefits included mood enhancement (mean = 3.62), improved sleep (mean = 3.57), and stress reduction. The questionnaire demonstrated strong reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.834). Participants from medical sciences (50% of the sample) exhibited significantly greater awareness of therapeutic properties. Regression analysis identified prior positive experiences, belief in natural remedies, and preference for herbal treatments as significant predictors of willingness to use saffron therapeutically. In conclusion, saffron is widely accepted as a complementary supplement in the academic community of Herat. Strengthening awareness and validating efficacy may enhance integration into health strategies and reduce reliance on synthetic pharmaceuticals. Health sciences/Health care Health sciences/Medical research Saffron herbal supplement public health therapeutic attitudes antioxidant Afghanistan Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction Saffron ( Crocus sativus L.), a perennial herbaceous plant of the Iridaceae family, is considered one of the most important crops in Iran and Afghanistan [ 1 , 2 ]. Although saffron cultivation has long been practiced in several regions of the world, including India, Italy, and Greece, today Iran and Afghanistan are recognized as the largest global producers, accounting for the majority of the world’s supply [ 3 ]. Within Afghanistan, saffron cultivation has expanded significantly in recent decades, supported by favorable agro-climatic conditions and rising international demand. The provinces of Herat, Balkh, Kandahar, and Sar-e-Pul provide particularly suitable soils and climates for saffron cultivation, with Herat standing out as the leading production center, contributing nearly 92% of the country’s total saffron harvest. In Herat, districts such as Ghorian, Pashtun Zarghun, Karukh, and Zindajan are especially prominent saffron-producing areas [ 3 ]. Saffron thrives in subtropical regions characterized by mild winters and hot, dry summers, and the plant demonstrates a remarkable tolerance to both cold and heat. The therapeutic and culinary value of saffron is largely attributable to three bioactive constituents: picrocrocin, crocin, and safranal. Crocin, a glycosidic carotenoid, is responsible for saffron’s vivid red color; picrocrocin contributes its distinctive bitter flavor; and safranal, a volatile terpene derivative, imparts its characteristic aroma. In addition, saffron stigmas are rich in mucilage, essential oils, and minerals, with racinol identified as a notable component [ 4 ]. The chemical profile of saffron includes both lipid- and water-soluble pigments. Lipid-soluble pigments encompass lycopene, α-carotene, β-carotene, and zeaxanthin, whereas water-soluble pigments consist primarily of crocin, with smaller amounts of anthocyanins[ 4 ]. Carbohydrates make up about 20% of the plant’s dry weight, mainly in the form of reducing sugars such as glucose, fructose, and gentiobiose, with trace amounts of xylose and rhamnose also detected. Its mineral content has been reported to range between 4% and 8%, with a typical analysis showing Cl₂ = 2.89%, SO₃ = 7.1%, Na₂O = 8.56%, P₂O₅ = 10.01%, and K₂O = 34.46% [ 5 ]. Beyond these, saffron is also a notable source of riboflavin (vitamin B₂), which contributes to its antioxidant activity [ 6 ]. Antioxidants are central to saffron’s biological significance, as they neutralize free radicals, reduce oxidative stress, and thereby mitigate processes linked to aging, carcinogenesis, and chronic disease [ 6 ]. Experimental and clinical studies have highlighted a wide spectrum of therapeutic effects of saffron, including antihypertensive, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, anti-asthmatic, hypoglycemic, memory-enhancing, and appetite-suppressing properties [ 7 , 8 ]. Furthermore, growing evidence suggests that saffron and its active constituents play preventive and therapeutic roles in diverse conditions, such as depression, ocular diseases, seizures and epilepsy, pain, inflammation, premenstrual syndrome, cardiovascular disorders, hypertension, peptic ulcers, gastrointestinal diseases, diabetes, and cancer [ 7 – 9 ]. The mechanisms underlying these effects are primarily attributed to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic pathways, although interactions with neurotransmitter systems and molecular signaling pathways have also been proposed [ 6 , 10 ]. Despite its promising pharmacological properties, saffron is not without limitations. Excessive intake can lead to adverse effects, including anorexia, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and hypersensitivity reactions. Its historical use in stimulating uterine contractions further underscores the need for caution in specific populations such as pregnant women [ 10 ]. These safety considerations highlight the importance of establishing appropriate therapeutic dosages through rigorous clinical evaluation. Afghanistan’s status as a leading global producer provides unique opportunities for advancing scientific knowledge on saffron. Nevertheless, the majority of existing research has been conducted outside the country, and domestic studies remain limited. While saffron is increasingly promoted as both an alternative livelihood to opium cultivation and a valuable agricultural export, its therapeutic applications and cultural uses have not been comprehensively studied within Afghanistan. This research gap restricts the country’s contribution to the global scientific literature and hinders the development of evidence-based strategies for the safe and effective use of saffron in complementary medicine. The present study was therefore designed to address this gap by investigating the attitudes, awareness, and consumption experiences of saffron among educated individuals in Herat Province. By examining both perceptions and practices, the study aims to generate insights into saffron’s cultural and therapeutic significance in Afghanistan and to provide a foundation for future research into its potential role as a complementary therapy. 2. Materials and Methods This study was designed as an analytical–quantitative field investigation to evaluate the medicinal properties of saffron and its potential role in promoting public health. The study population comprised professors, students, and staff from Herat University, as well as Jami and Ghalib private universities and their families. From this population, a sample of 400 individuals was selected, with the sample size validated using Cochran’s formula. A simple random sampling technique was applied to ensure representativeness of the broader population. Data were collected using a structured, five-point Likert-scale questionnaire. The instrument included items measuring awareness of saffron’s medicinal properties, attitudes toward its therapeutic applications, personal experiences and consumption patterns, and willingness to acquire further knowledge and use saffron in the future. Content validity of the questionnaire was confirmed through expert review. Reliability analysis was conducted using SPSS (version 26), and the instrument demonstrated strong internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.834. Following administration, responses were coded and analyzed statistically in SPSS. 3. Findings A total of 400 questionnaires were distributed, all of which were duly completed and returned. Participants’ ages ranged from 15 to 45 years, with the majority between 15–25 years; the smallest proportion were above 45 years. Results are provided in Table 1. Table 1. Age distribution of participants Age group Frequency Percentage Relative Frequency Cumulative Frequency 15–25 268 67% 0.67 268 26–35 104 26% 0.26 372 36–45 16 4% 0.04 388 Above 45 12 3% 0.03 400 Total 400 100% 1 — The age distribution is further illustrated in Figure 1. 3.1 Educational Levels of Participants Educational attainment ranged from high school graduates to doctoral degree holders. The largest proportion were bachelor’s degree holders (62%), while doctoral degree holders accounted for 2%. Results are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Educational levels of participants Educational Level Frequency Percentage Relative Frequency Cumulative Frequency High School Graduate 108 27% 0.27 108 Bachelor’s Degree 248 62% 0.62 356 Master’s Degree 36 9% 0.09 392 Doctorate 8 2% 0.02 400 Total 400 100% 1.00 — The educational levels of participants are further illustrated in Figure 2. 3.2 Marital Status Among participants, 33% were married and 67% were single. Results are presented in Table 3. This indicates that a larger proportion of single individuals participated in the study, which may reflect greater interest in research-related activities among this group. Detailed information is presented in Table 3. Table 3. Marital status of participants Marital Status Frequency Percentage Relative Frequency Cumulative Frequency Married 132 33% 0.33 132 Single 268 67% 0.67 400 Total 400 100% 1.00 — 3.3 Income Levels Regarding income, 61% of participants were in the medium-income group, 37% in the low-income group, and 2% in the high-income group. Results are summarized in Table 4. Table 4. Income levels of participants Income Level Frequency Percentage Relative Frequency Cumulative Frequency Low 148 37% 0.37 148 Medium 244 61% 0.61 392 High 8 2% 0.02 400 Total 400 100% 1.00 — 3.4 Academic Disciplines Half of the participants (50%) were enrolled in Medical Sciences, followed by Natural Sciences (29%), Other disciplines (14%), and Social Sciences (7%). Results are provided in Table 5. Table 5. Academic disciplines of participants Academic Discipline Frequency Percentage Relative Frequency Cumulative Frequency Social Sciences 28 7% 0.07 28 Natural Sciences 116 29% 0.29 144 Medical Sciences 200 50% 0.50 344 Others 56 14% 0.14 400 Total 400 100% 1.00 — 3.5 Familiarity with Research Activities A majority of respondents (61%) reported moderate familiarity with research activities, 19% reported low familiarity, and 9% reported high familiarity. Results are shown in Table 6. Table 6. Participants’ familiarity with research activities Familiarity Level Frequency Percentage Relative Frequency Cumulative Frequency Very Low 28 7% 0.07 28 Low 76 19% 0.19 104 Moderate 244 61% 0.61 348 High 36 9% 0.09 384 Very High 16 4% 0.04 400 Total 400 100% 1.00 — 4. Results 4.1 Results of One-Sample t-Test The results of the one-sample t-test are presented in Table 7. All demographic and attitudinal variables were statistically significant at the p < 0.001 threshold, indicating that the observed means differed meaningfully from their hypothesized test values. Among demographic factors, education yielded the largest mean difference (2.86), suggesting stronger deviations in this category, whereas gender produced the smallest mean difference (1.02). The 95% confidence intervals for all estimates excluded zero, reinforcing the robustness of these findings. Regarding attitudes toward saffron, respondents consistently demonstrated strong agreement with statements related to its therapeutic value. The highest mean scores were observed for “Saffron contains compounds with medicinal properties” (mean = 4.37) and “I will use saffron if recommended by a doctor” (mean = 4.33). Additional attitudinal dimensions, including perceived effects on mood, memory, and sleep, produced mean values above 3.5, all reaching statistical significance. At the same time, awareness of potential risks was evident. Agreement with the statement “Caution should be exercised in the dietary use of saffron” was high (mean = 4.15), while experiences of side effects from excessive use scored lower but still notable (mean = 3.08). Together, these results indicate that respondents recognized both the therapeutic promise and the possible adverse consequences of saffron consumption. Table 7. Results of one-sample t-test using Student’s t-distribution (N = 400) Variable t -value df Sig. (p) Mean Difference 95% CI (Lower) 95% CI (Upper) Education 88.109 399 .000 2.860 2.80 2.92 Age 40.191 399 .000 1.430 1.36 1.50 Marital Status 70.943 399 .000 1.670 1.62 1.72 Gender 145.532 399 .000 1.020 1.01 1.03 Income 63.725 399 .000 1.650 1.60 1.70 Academic Field 68.423 399 .000 2.710 2.63 2.79 Research Familiarity 68.077 399 .000 2.840 2.76 2.92 Have you ever used saffron as a complementary therapy? 55.834 399 .000 1.550 1.50 1.60 Saffron contains compounds with medicinal properties. 121.862 399 .000 4.370 4.30 4.44 The antidepressant properties of saffron are supported by scientific research. 100.054 399 .000 4.100 4.02 4.18 Saffron possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. 100.917 399 .000 3.930 3.85 4.01 Saffron improves brain function and memory. 114.079 399 .000 4.110 4.04 4.18 Saffron has had multiple therapeutic applications in traditional medicine. 119.603 399 .000 4.400 4.33 4.47 I regularly study the medicinal benefits of saffron. 64.168 399 .000 3.350 3.25 3.45 I consider saffron to be a beneficial natural medicine. 111.714 399 .000 4.310 4.23 4.39 Saffron could replace some chemical medications. 88.161 399 .000 3.970 3.88 4.06 Using saffron is less risky compared to industrial drugs. 110.380 399 .000 4.270 4.19 4.35 Caution should be exercised in the dietary use of saffron. 97.189 399 .000 4.150 4.07 4.23 Saffron should be used more widely in the pharmaceutical industry. 95.473 399 .000 4.070 3.99 4.15 Therapeutic use of saffron should be under medical supervision. 75.915 399 .000 3.680 3.58 3.78 I regularly use saffron in my diet. 62.048 399 .000 3.440 3.33 3.55 After consuming saffron, I experienced improved mood or reduced stress. 73.970 399 .000 3.620 3.52 3.72 Saffron has improved my sleep quality. 77.571 399 .000 3.570 3.48 3.66 I have used saffron during illness or fatigue. 84.331 399 .000 3.790 3.70 3.88 My experience with saffron has been positive and beneficial. 96.179 399 .000 4.050 3.97 4.13 I have experienced side effects from excessive saffron use. 54.093 399 .000 3.080 2.97 3.19 I am interested in learning more about saffron’s medicinal benefits. 121.971 399 .000 4.350 4.28 4.42 I will use saffron for treatment if recommended by a doctor. 133.285 399 .000 4.330 4.27 4.39 I am interested in using saffron as a complement to drug treatments. 124.228 399 .000 4.190 4.12 4.26 Saffron will be part of my future treatment plans. 104.914 399 .000 4.000 3.93 4.07 I prefer using herbal medicines like saffron rather than chemical drugs. 82.200 399 .000 4.220 4.12 4.32 4.2 Regression Analysis and Beta Coefficients The multiple regression analysis (Table 8) assessed the predictive power of individual items on overall attitudes toward saffron. Several predictors achieved statistical significance (p < 0.05). The strongest positive association was identified for “I am interested in using saffron as a supplement alongside medical treatments” (β = 0.483, p < 0.001), highlighting its substantial contribution to favorable attitudes. Similarly, “I continuously study the therapeutic properties of saffron” and “Saffron has therapeutic applications in traditional medicine” also demonstrated significant positive effects. Conversely, certain items exhibited negative coefficients despite their positive wording. For instance, “I regularly use saffron in my diet” (β = –0.325, p < 0.001) was inversely related to the outcome measure, suggesting that habitual dietary use may diminish the perception of saffron as a specialized therapeutic agent. Likewise, “I consider saffron a beneficial natural medicine” was negatively associated with the dependent outcome, indicating nuanced and possibly context-specific relationships. Several items failed to reach statistical significance (p > 0.05), including “Greater use of saffron should be made in pharmaceuticals,” “Saffron has improved my sleep,” and “Using saffron will be part of my future treatment plans.” For these, the 95% confidence intervals crossed zero, confirming their lack of measurable effect. Overall, the regression analysis revealed a complex interplay of reinforcing and diminishing factors that shape attitudes toward saffron. These findings suggest that perceptions are not uniformly positive but instead moderated by contextual and behavioral considerations. Table 8. Beta coefficients, regression results, and 95% confidence intervals (N = 400) Variable B (Unstandardized) Std. Error Beta (Standardized) T Sig. (p) 95% CI for B Saffron contains compounds with medicinal properties -0.262 0.051 -0.289 -5.089 .000 -0.363 to -0.161 The antidepressant properties of saffron are scientifically confirmed -0.105 0.042 -0.133 -2.495 .013 -0.189 to -0.022 Saffron has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties 0.108 0.048 0.130 2.275 .023 0.015 to 0.202 Saffron consumption improves brain function and memory -0.135 0.053 -0.150 -2.526 .012 -0.240 to -0.030 Saffron has multiple therapeutic applications in traditional medicine 0.158 0.053 0.179 2.977 .003 0.054 to 0.262 I continuously study the therapeutic properties of saffron 0.212 0.036 0.341 5.890 .000 0.141 to 0.283 I consider saffron a beneficial natural medicine -0.204 0.045 -0.242 -4.508 .000 -0.293 to -0.115 Saffron can replace part of chemical medicines -0.111 0.043 -0.154 -2.593 .010 -0.195 to -0.027 Saffron has fewer risks compared to industrial medicines 0.198 0.045 0.236 4.371 .000 0.109 to 0.287 Caution should be exercised in the dietary use of saffron 0.048 0.037 0.063 1.298 .195 -0.025 to 0.120 Greater use of saffron should be made in the pharmaceutical industry 0.008 0.042 0.010 0.189 .850 -0.074 to 0.090 Therapeutic use of saffron should be done under medical consultation 0.007 0.031 0.011 0.231 .817 -0.053 to 0.067 I regularly use saffron in my diet -0.190 0.038 -0.325 -5.019 .000 -0.265 to -0.116 After consuming saffron, I have experienced improved mood or reduced stress -0.129 0.050 -0.194 -2.559 .011 -0.228 to -0.030 Saffron has improved the quality of my sleep 0.018 0.054 0.025 0.333 .739 -0.088 to 0.124 I have used saffron during illness or fatigue 0.123 0.047 0.171 2.617 .009 0.031 to 0.216 My experience with saffron consumption has been positive and beneficial -0.050 0.046 -0.065 -1.096 .274 -0.140 to 0.040 I have experienced side effects from excessive saffron consumption 0.099 0.029 0.174 3.452 .001 0.043 to 0.156 I am interested in learning more about the therapeutic properties of saffron 0.108 0.050 0.119 2.154 .032 0.009 to 0.207 If a doctor recommends it, I will use saffron for treatment -0.055 0.065 -0.055 -0.850 .396 -0.183 to 0.072 I am interested in using saffron as a supplement alongside medical treatments 0.465 0.066 0.483 7.035 .000 0.335 to 0.595 Using saffron will be part of my future treatment plans -0.072 0.053 -0.084 -1.351 .177 -0.176 to 0.033 I prefer to use herbal medicines such as saffron rather than chemical drugs 0.076 0.037 0.121 2.071 .039 0.004 to 0.149 5. Discussion This study provides novel insights into public perceptions of saffron’s therapeutic potential, integrating both confirmatory and exploratory evidence. Consistent with preclinical and clinical studies, participants demonstrated strong agreement regarding saffron’s bioactive properties and its potential role in managing health outcomes. Notably, high mean scores for medicinal attributes and physician-recommended use indicate trust in saffron as a complementary intervention. The findings align with experimental research showing that saffron’s bioactive compound, crocin, exerts anxiolytic effects comparable to diazepam in animal models [ 12 ], while saffron extracts significantly reduce oxidative stress biomarkers [ 13 ]. Mechanistic studies further implicate antioxidant pathways, with crocin shown to lower malondialdehyde levels and modulate enzymatic activity, thereby mitigating oxidative stress [ 14 , 15 ]. These mechanisms may underlie the positive attitudes observed in our study, particularly regarding saffron’s effects on psychological well-being, sleep, and cognition. Importantly, the regression results highlight that attitudes are not uniformly positive. Negative associations for dietary use and general acceptance as a natural medicine suggest that regular, non-clinical exposure may normalize saffron as a routine ingredient, reducing its perceived therapeutic distinctiveness. This tension underscores the importance of differentiating saffron’s culinary versus medicinal applications in public education and policy initiatives. The Afghan context amplifies the significance of these findings. Saffron is both an economic driver and a culturally embedded remedy, particularly in Herat province, which dominates national production. Expanding awareness of saffron’s scientifically validated health benefits could enhance its integration into healthcare while simultaneously strengthening local agricultural livelihoods. However, the mixed regression findings also caution against overgeneralization: therapeutic promotion must be accompanied by clear communication about risks, dosage, and clinical applicability. Taken together, this study contributes to the literature by demonstrating that while the public largely recognizes saffron’s therapeutic promise, nuanced factors such as habitual use and cultural framing modulate perceptions. Future research should employ longitudinal and interventional designs to disentangle these dynamics and evaluate the translational potential of saffron in clinical and public health contexts. 6. Conclusion This study found that more than 90% of university professors and students in Herat province reported positive perceptions of saffron, particularly regarding its potential benefits for mood, sleep quality, and stress reduction. Willingness to use saffron therapeutically was significantly associated with prior positive experiences, belief in natural remedies, and interest in herbal treatments. As these findings are derived from self-reported perceptions rather than clinical outcomes, they should be interpreted with caution. Rigorous clinical trials and laboratory investigations are needed to establish saffron’s efficacy and safety. Future research should integrate traditional knowledge with clinical evidence through well-designed randomized studies and mechanistic investigations to better define saffron’s role as a complementary approach in modern healthcare. Saffron is widely perceived as beneficial for mental and physical health among academics in Herat, but its therapeutic role requires confirmation through rigorous randomized trials and mechanistic studies. 7. Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to advance the understanding and application of saffron: Public Awareness and Education: To bridge the knowledge gap identified in this study's primary demographic, targeted public awareness campaigns should be designed through national health ministries and academic institutions. These programs should leverage media, educational channels, and healthcare centers to disseminate scientifically-backed information on saffron's verified benefits and therapeutic applications. Future research should assess the efficacy of different communication strategies in improving public knowledge and attitudes toward herbal medicine. Clinical Research: The subjective data from this study highlights the need for rigorous, objective research. Specifically, we recommend conducting randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials to definitively determine effective dosages, administration methods, and potential drug interactions. These trials should focus on specific health conditions (e.g., anxiety, mild-to-moderate depression) and utilize standardized saffron extracts with quantified bioactive compounds (e.g., crocin, safranal) to ensure reproducibility and strengthen the scientific basis for its therapeutic use. Integration into Healthcare: Given the promising attitudes found among the academic population, a phased approach to integrating saffron into complementary medicine is recommended. This involves collaboration between herbal medicine producers and medical centers to introduce saffron as a supplement or complementary treatment option under medical supervision. This integration should be accompanied by continuous monitoring and reporting of patient outcomes and potential adverse effects. Saffron Value Chain Development: Governmental and relevant institutional bodies should implement support programs aimed at improving the entire saffron value chain. This includes investing in infrastructure for cultivation, processing, packaging, and export. Support should focus on promoting sustainable farming practices and quality control standards (e.g., ISO 3632) to ensure the product's purity and potency, which is critical for both therapeutic efficacy and market competitiveness. Monitored Consumption Guidelines: While our study suggests a positive perception of saffron, moderate consumption should be part of a healthy lifestyle and monitored by healthcare professionals, such as nutritionists or physicians. This proactive approach is essential to prevent potential adverse effects from excessive consumption and to ensure its safe use, particularly when combined with other medications. 8. Limitations of the Study This study, while providing valuable insights, is subject to several limitations that may affect the generalizability and interpretation of its findings: Sampling Bias: The participant pool was primarily drawn from a convenience sample of academic institutions (faculty members, students, and staff). This group is likely to possess a higher level of scientific literacy and be more open to scientifically informed views on herbal medicines, which may not be representative of the general population. Consequently, the observed positive attitudes and knowledge of saffron's benefits may be an overestimation of the broader public's perception. Self-Reported Data and Response Bias: The reliance on self-administered questionnaires introduces the risk of response bias. Specifically, participants may have provided socially desirable answers, overstating their knowledge or positive experiences with saffron. This potential for self-reporting inaccuracy limits the objectivity of the collected data, as it is based on subjective perspectives rather than direct observation or clinical measurement. Lack of Contextual and Clinical Data: The study did not account for critical contextual influences such as cultural background, individual medical history, or traditional beliefs, all of which can significantly affect attitudes toward and experiences with herbal medicines. Furthermore, as an observational study, it did not include clinical trials. Therefore, the findings do not provide an objective assessment of saffron's therapeutic efficacy or a comprehensive analysis of potential risks, including adverse effects, which were only briefly addressed in the questionnaire. Declarations Ethics Declarations The study received ethical approval from Jami University (J.2025.3.20.1). All participants were systematically informed about the study’s aims and significance, with the objectives clearly explained to each individual. To protect confidentiality, no personal identifiers were collected. Participants were explicitly informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without consequence. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants, and from parents/guardians in the case of minors. All procedures were conducted in strict accordance with relevant ethical guidelines and regulations. Acknowledgments The authors sincerely thank all participants for their time and valuable insights. We also gratefully acknowledge the Research Vice-Chancellorship of Herat University and its affiliated academic institutions for their support and cooperation throughout this study. Special appreciation is extended to the Department of Sciences, Herat University, for providing logistical and administrative assistance. Authors’ Contributions: AAM contributed to questionnaire design, data analysis, manuscript writing, and supervision of the study. AHG was responsible for data collection, manuscript writing, and editing. SF contributed to data entry and manuscript editing. All authors reviewed and approved the manuscript. Data Availability Statement The datasets generated and analyzed during this study are not publicly available due to privacy and confidentiality considerations of participant responses. However, de-identified data may be made available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request (Ali Ahmad Mohammadi, Email: [email protected] ) for academic and research purposes. Declaration of Competing Interest Authors of this study declare that there are no competing interests Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. References Abbaszade-Cheragheali, A., Beheshti, F., Kakhki, S., Khatibi, S. R., Dehnokhalaji, F., Akbari, E., Fathi, H. & Farimani, S. S. Crocin, the main active saffron ( Crocus sativus L.) constituent, as a potential candidate to prevent anxiety and depressive-like behaviors induced by unpredictable chronic mild stress. Neurosci. Lett. 791, 136912 (2022). Agha-Hosseini, M., Kashani, L., Aleyaseen, A., Ghoreishi, A., Rahmanpour, H. A., Zarrinara, A. R. & Akhondzadeh, S. Crocus sativus L. (saffron) in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome: a double-blind, randomised and placebo-controlled trial. BJOG 115, 515–519 (2008). Ahmadian, A. Important Medicinal Plants of Iran. Vol. 1 169–173 (Torbat Heydariyeh Univ. Press, 2013). 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University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Safiullah","middleName":"","lastName":"Fetrat","suffix":""},{"id":517603568,"identity":"e046f26b-27b2-4631-a759-c70a4ba86d93","order_by":2,"name":"Ali Ahmad Mohammadi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA3klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACNgjJ3gOimIGY8QGRWnjOwLQwGxCnhUEih0gt/O0H2B583GOX2Cf59pgEQ4V1YgP7YfxWSJxJYDec8Sw5sU06L02C4Ux6YgNPMgFnHUhgk+Y5wGzMJp1jJsHYdjixgSH/AF4d8ucfsEn/OVBvzCZ5BqjlH1AL/2P8lhjcANrCcOCwHJsED1BLA1CLBAGHGd54wCbZc+C4HBtPjrFFwrF04zYJArbInU9gk/hxoJpHvv2M4Y0PNday/fyEvM/A/wHBTmCAR9MoGAWjYBSMAkoAAAKMPRuc2bW6AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Herat University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ali","middleName":"Ahmad","lastName":"Mohammadi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-13 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15:27:46","extension":"html","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":110764,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7608978/v1/6fc05770bb273a0f1b4c411a.html"},{"id":92274804,"identity":"1c69965a-16ab-478c-8a37-70f44f133324","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-26 15:27:39","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31356,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge distribution of participants in the study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7608978/v1/f13341b5c3edf59359900d4a.jpeg"},{"id":92274818,"identity":"33374337-1ca3-4e7b-b18b-b3b9b25727f9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-26 15:27:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":42040,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEducational levels of participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7608978/v1/dcdc57c261233bcdcbf0b48c.jpeg"},{"id":92576130,"identity":"84db9782-32ca-44a1-92e6-e32f8d6114b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-01 08:24:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1609538,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7608978/v1/625deeba-8a20-4d49-84d6-72a2ff0c7700.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Attitudes and Tendencies Toward the Medicinal Use of Saffron Among Academic Communities in Herat","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSaffron (\u003cem\u003eCrocus sativus\u003c/em\u003e L.), a perennial herbaceous plant of the Iridaceae family, is considered one of the most important crops in Iran and Afghanistan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Although saffron cultivation has long been practiced in several regions of the world, including India, Italy, and Greece, today Iran and Afghanistan are recognized as the largest global producers, accounting for the majority of the world\u0026rsquo;s supply [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Within Afghanistan, saffron cultivation has expanded significantly in recent decades, supported by favorable agro-climatic conditions and rising international demand. The provinces of Herat, Balkh, Kandahar, and Sar-e-Pul provide particularly suitable soils and climates for saffron cultivation, with Herat standing out as the leading production center, contributing nearly 92% of the country\u0026rsquo;s total saffron harvest. In Herat, districts such as Ghorian, Pashtun Zarghun, Karukh, and Zindajan are especially prominent saffron-producing areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSaffron thrives in subtropical regions characterized by mild winters and hot, dry summers, and the plant demonstrates a remarkable tolerance to both cold and heat. The therapeutic and culinary value of saffron is largely attributable to three bioactive constituents: picrocrocin, crocin, and safranal. Crocin, a glycosidic carotenoid, is responsible for saffron\u0026rsquo;s vivid red color; picrocrocin contributes its distinctive bitter flavor; and safranal, a volatile terpene derivative, imparts its characteristic aroma. In addition, saffron stigmas are rich in mucilage, essential oils, and minerals, with racinol identified as a notable component [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe chemical profile of saffron includes both lipid- and water-soluble pigments. Lipid-soluble pigments encompass lycopene, α-carotene, β-carotene, and zeaxanthin, whereas water-soluble pigments consist primarily of crocin, with smaller amounts of anthocyanins[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Carbohydrates make up about 20% of the plant\u0026rsquo;s dry weight, mainly in the form of reducing sugars such as glucose, fructose, and gentiobiose, with trace amounts of xylose and rhamnose also detected. Its mineral content has been reported to range between 4% and 8%, with a typical analysis showing Cl₂ = 2.89%, SO₃ = 7.1%, Na₂O\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.56%, P₂O₅ = 10.01%, and K₂O\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34.46% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Beyond these, saffron is also a notable source of riboflavin (vitamin B₂), which contributes to its antioxidant activity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntioxidants are central to saffron\u0026rsquo;s biological significance, as they neutralize free radicals, reduce oxidative stress, and thereby mitigate processes linked to aging, carcinogenesis, and chronic disease [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Experimental and clinical studies have highlighted a wide spectrum of therapeutic effects of saffron, including antihypertensive, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, anti-asthmatic, hypoglycemic, memory-enhancing, and appetite-suppressing properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, growing evidence suggests that saffron and its active constituents play preventive and therapeutic roles in diverse conditions, such as depression, ocular diseases, seizures and epilepsy, pain, inflammation, premenstrual syndrome, cardiovascular disorders, hypertension, peptic ulcers, gastrointestinal diseases, diabetes, and cancer [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR8\" citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The mechanisms underlying these effects are primarily attributed to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic pathways, although interactions with neurotransmitter systems and molecular signaling pathways have also been proposed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite its promising pharmacological properties, saffron is not without limitations. Excessive intake can lead to adverse effects, including anorexia, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and hypersensitivity reactions. Its historical use in stimulating uterine contractions further underscores the need for caution in specific populations such as pregnant women [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. These safety considerations highlight the importance of establishing appropriate therapeutic dosages through rigorous clinical evaluation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfghanistan\u0026rsquo;s status as a leading global producer provides unique opportunities for advancing scientific knowledge on saffron. Nevertheless, the majority of existing research has been conducted outside the country, and domestic studies remain limited. While saffron is increasingly promoted as both an alternative livelihood to opium cultivation and a valuable agricultural export, its therapeutic applications and cultural uses have not been comprehensively studied within Afghanistan. This research gap restricts the country\u0026rsquo;s contribution to the global scientific literature and hinders the development of evidence-based strategies for the safe and effective use of saffron in complementary medicine.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study was therefore designed to address this gap by investigating the attitudes, awareness, and consumption experiences of saffron among educated individuals in Herat Province. By examining both perceptions and practices, the study aims to generate insights into saffron\u0026rsquo;s cultural and therapeutic significance in Afghanistan and to provide a foundation for future research into its potential role as a complementary therapy.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study was designed as an analytical\u0026ndash;quantitative field investigation to evaluate the medicinal properties of saffron and its potential role in promoting public health. The study population comprised professors, students, and staff from Herat University, as well as Jami and Ghalib private universities and their families. From this population, a sample of 400 individuals was selected, with the sample size validated using Cochran\u0026rsquo;s formula. A simple random sampling technique was applied to ensure representativeness of the broader population.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were collected using a structured, five-point Likert-scale questionnaire. The instrument included items measuring awareness of saffron\u0026rsquo;s medicinal properties, attitudes toward its therapeutic applications, personal experiences and consumption patterns, and willingness to acquire further knowledge and use saffron in the future.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent validity of the questionnaire was confirmed through expert review. Reliability analysis was conducted using SPSS (version 26), and the instrument demonstrated strong internal consistency, with a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficient of 0.834. Following administration, responses were coded and analyzed statistically in SPSS.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eA total of 400 questionnaires were distributed, all of which were duly completed and returned. Participants\u0026rsquo; ages ranged from 15 to 45 years, with the majority between 15\u0026ndash;25 years; the smallest proportion were above 45 years. Results are provided in Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1. Age distribution of participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge group\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCumulative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e15\u0026ndash;25\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e268\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e268\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e26\u0026ndash;35\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e372\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e36\u0026ndash;45\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e388\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbove 45\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e400\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe age distribution is further illustrated in Figure 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Educational Levels of Participants\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEducational attainment ranged from high school graduates to doctoral degree holders. The largest proportion were bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree holders (62%), while doctoral degree holders accounted for 2%. Results are presented in Table 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2. Educational levels of participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEducational Level\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCumulative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh School Graduate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBachelor\u0026rsquo;s Degree\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e248\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e356\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaster\u0026rsquo;s Degree\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e392\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDoctorate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e400\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.00\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe educational levels of participants are further illustrated in Figure 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Marital Status\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong participants, 33% were married and 67% were single. Results are presented in Table 3. This indicates that a larger proportion of single individuals participated in the study, which may reflect greater interest in research-related activities among this group. Detailed information is presented in Table 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3. Marital status of participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMarital Status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCumulative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMarried\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSingle\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e268\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e400\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.00\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Income Levels\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding income, 61% of participants were in the medium-income group, 37% in the low-income group, and 2% in the high-income group. Results are summarized in Table 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4. Income levels of participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIncome Level\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCumulative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLow\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedium\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e244\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e392\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e400\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.00\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Academic Disciplines\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHalf of the participants (50%) were enrolled in Medical Sciences, followed by Natural Sciences (29%), Other disciplines (14%), and Social Sciences (7%). Results are provided in Table 5.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5. Academic disciplines of participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcademic Discipline\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCumulative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocial Sciences\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNatural Sciences\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedical Sciences\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e344\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOthers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e400\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.00\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.5 Familiarity with Research Activities\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA majority of respondents (61%) reported moderate familiarity with research activities, 19% reported low familiarity, and 9% reported high familiarity. Results are shown in Table 6.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6. Participants\u0026rsquo; familiarity with research activities\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFamiliarity Level\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCumulative Frequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVery Low\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLow\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e244\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e348\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e384\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVery High\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e400\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.00\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Results of One-Sample t-Test\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the one-sample t-test are presented in Table 7. All demographic and attitudinal variables were statistically significant at the p \u0026lt; 0.001 threshold, indicating that the observed means differed meaningfully from their hypothesized test values.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong demographic factors, education yielded the largest mean difference (2.86), suggesting stronger deviations in this category, whereas gender produced the smallest mean difference (1.02). The 95% confidence intervals for all estimates excluded zero, reinforcing the robustness of these findings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding attitudes toward saffron, respondents consistently demonstrated strong agreement with statements related to its therapeutic value. The highest mean scores were observed for \u0026ldquo;Saffron contains compounds with medicinal properties\u0026rdquo; (mean = 4.37) and \u0026ldquo;I will use saffron if recommended by a doctor\u0026rdquo; (mean = 4.33). Additional attitudinal dimensions, including perceived effects on mood, memory, and sleep, produced mean values above 3.5, all reaching statistical significance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the same time, awareness of potential risks was evident. Agreement with the statement \u0026ldquo;Caution should be exercised in the dietary use of saffron\u0026rdquo; was high (mean = 4.15), while experiences of side effects from excessive use scored lower but still notable (mean = 3.08). Together, these results indicate that respondents recognized both the therapeutic promise and the possible adverse consequences of saffron consumption.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 7. Results of one-sample t-test using Student\u0026rsquo;s t-distribution (N = 400)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSig. (p)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean Difference\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% CI (Lower)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% CI (Upper)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.109\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.860\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.191\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.430\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarital Status\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.943\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.670\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e145.532\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIncome\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.725\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.650\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAcademic Field\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.423\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.710\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResearch Familiarity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.840\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHave you ever used saffron as a complementary therapy?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.834\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.550\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron contains compounds with medicinal properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e121.862\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.370\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe antidepressant properties of saffron are supported by scientific research.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.917\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.930\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron improves brain function and memory.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.079\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron has had multiple therapeutic applications in traditional medicine.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e119.603\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI regularly study the medicinal benefits of saffron.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.168\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.350\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI consider saffron to be a beneficial natural medicine.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e111.714\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.310\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron could replace some chemical medications.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.161\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.970\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsing saffron is less risky compared to industrial drugs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e110.380\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.270\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaution should be exercised in the dietary use of saffron.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97.189\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.150\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron should be used more widely in the pharmaceutical industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.473\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTherapeutic use of saffron should be under medical supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.915\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.680\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI regularly use saffron in my diet.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.048\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.440\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter consuming saffron, I experienced improved mood or reduced stress.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.970\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.620\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron has improved my sleep quality.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.571\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.570\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI have used saffron during illness or fatigue.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.331\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.790\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMy experience with saffron has been positive and beneficial.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96.179\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI have experienced side effects from excessive saffron use.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.093\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI am interested in learning more about saffron\u0026rsquo;s medicinal benefits.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e121.971\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.350\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI will use saffron for treatment if recommended by a doctor.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e133.285\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.330\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI am interested in using saffron as a complement to drug treatments.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e124.228\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.190\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron will be part of my future treatment plans.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e104.914\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI prefer using herbal medicines like saffron rather than chemical drugs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.220\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"\"\u003e4.2\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003eRegression Analysis and Beta Coefficients\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe multiple regression analysis (Table 8) assessed the predictive power of individual items on overall attitudes toward saffron. Several predictors achieved statistical significance (p \u0026lt; 0.05). The strongest positive association was identified for \u0026ldquo;I am interested in using saffron as a supplement alongside medical treatments\u0026rdquo; (\u0026beta; = 0.483, p \u0026lt; 0.001), highlighting its substantial contribution to favorable attitudes. Similarly, \u0026ldquo;I continuously study the therapeutic properties of saffron\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Saffron has therapeutic applications in traditional medicine\u0026rdquo; also demonstrated significant positive effects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConversely, certain items exhibited negative coefficients despite their positive wording. For instance, \u0026ldquo;I regularly use saffron in my diet\u0026rdquo; (\u0026beta; = \u0026ndash;0.325, p \u0026lt; 0.001) was inversely related to the outcome measure, suggesting that habitual dietary use may diminish the perception of saffron as a specialized therapeutic agent. Likewise, \u0026ldquo;I consider saffron a beneficial natural medicine\u0026rdquo; was negatively associated with the dependent outcome, indicating nuanced and possibly context-specific relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral items failed to reach statistical significance (p \u0026gt; 0.05), including \u0026ldquo;Greater use of saffron should be made in pharmaceuticals,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;Saffron has improved my sleep,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Using saffron will be part of my future treatment plans.\u0026rdquo; For these, the 95% confidence intervals crossed zero, confirming their lack of measurable effect.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, the regression analysis revealed a complex interplay of reinforcing and diminishing factors that shape attitudes toward saffron. These findings suggest that perceptions are not uniformly positive but instead moderated by contextual and behavioral considerations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 8. Beta coefficients, regression results, and 95% confidence intervals (N = 400)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"775\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eB (Unstandardized)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStd. Error\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBeta (Standardized)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSig. (p)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% CI for B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron contains compounds with medicinal properties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.262\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.289\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.089\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.363 to -0.161\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe antidepressant properties of saffron are scientifically confirmed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.105\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.133\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.495\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.189 to -0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.130\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.275\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.015 to 0.202\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron consumption improves brain function and memory\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.135\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.150\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.526\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.240 to -0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron has multiple therapeutic applications in traditional medicine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.158\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.179\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.977\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.054 to 0.262\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI continuously study the therapeutic properties of saffron\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.212\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.341\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.890\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.141 to 0.283\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI consider saffron a beneficial natural medicine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.204\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.242\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.508\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.293 to -0.115\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron can replace part of chemical medicines\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.111\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.154\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.593\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.195 to -0.027\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron has fewer risks compared to industrial medicines\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.198\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.236\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.371\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.109 to 0.287\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaution should be exercised in the dietary use of saffron\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.298\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.195\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.025 to 0.120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGreater use of saffron should be made in the pharmaceutical industry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.189\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.850\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.074 to 0.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTherapeutic use of saffron should be done under medical consultation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.231\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.817\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.053 to 0.067\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI regularly use saffron in my diet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.190\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.325\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.265 to -0.116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter consuming saffron, I have experienced improved mood or reduced stress\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.129\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.194\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.559\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.228 to -0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaffron has improved the quality of my sleep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.333\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.739\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.088 to 0.124\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI have used saffron during illness or fatigue\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.123\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.171\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.617\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.031 to 0.216\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMy experience with saffron consumption has been positive and beneficial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.065\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.096\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.274\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.140 to 0.040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI have experienced side effects from excessive saffron consumption\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.174\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.452\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043 to 0.156\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI am interested in learning more about the therapeutic properties of saffron\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.119\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.154\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.032\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.009 to 0.207\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIf a doctor recommends it, I will use saffron for treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.065\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.850\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.396\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.183 to 0.072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI am interested in using saffron as a supplement alongside medical treatments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.465\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.066\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.483\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.335 to 0.595\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsing saffron will be part of my future treatment plans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.084\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.351\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.177\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.176 to 0.033\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI prefer to use herbal medicines such as saffron rather than chemical drugs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.076\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.121\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.071\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.039\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.004 to 0.149\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides novel insights into public perceptions of saffron\u0026rsquo;s therapeutic potential, integrating both confirmatory and exploratory evidence. Consistent with preclinical and clinical studies, participants demonstrated strong agreement regarding saffron\u0026rsquo;s bioactive properties and its potential role in managing health outcomes. Notably, high mean scores for medicinal attributes and physician-recommended use indicate trust in saffron as a complementary intervention.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings align with experimental research showing that saffron\u0026rsquo;s bioactive compound, crocin, exerts anxiolytic effects comparable to diazepam in animal models [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], while saffron extracts significantly reduce oxidative stress biomarkers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Mechanistic studies further implicate antioxidant pathways, with crocin shown to lower malondialdehyde levels and modulate enzymatic activity, thereby mitigating oxidative stress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. These mechanisms may underlie the positive attitudes observed in our study, particularly regarding saffron\u0026rsquo;s effects on psychological well-being, sleep, and cognition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eImportantly, the regression results highlight that attitudes are not uniformly positive. Negative associations for dietary use and general acceptance as a natural medicine suggest that regular, non-clinical exposure may normalize saffron as a routine ingredient, reducing its perceived therapeutic distinctiveness. This tension underscores the importance of differentiating saffron\u0026rsquo;s culinary versus medicinal applications in public education and policy initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Afghan context amplifies the significance of these findings. Saffron is both an economic driver and a culturally embedded remedy, particularly in Herat province, which dominates national production. Expanding awareness of saffron\u0026rsquo;s scientifically validated health benefits could enhance its integration into healthcare while simultaneously strengthening local agricultural livelihoods. However, the mixed regression findings also caution against overgeneralization: therapeutic promotion must be accompanied by clear communication about risks, dosage, and clinical applicability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaken together, this study contributes to the literature by demonstrating that while the public largely recognizes saffron\u0026rsquo;s therapeutic promise, nuanced factors such as habitual use and cultural framing modulate perceptions. Future research should employ longitudinal and interventional designs to disentangle these dynamics and evaluate the translational potential of saffron in clinical and public health contexts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study found that more than 90% of university professors and students in Herat province reported positive perceptions of saffron, particularly regarding its potential benefits for mood, sleep quality, and stress reduction. Willingness to use saffron therapeutically was significantly associated with prior positive experiences, belief in natural remedies, and interest in herbal treatments. As these findings are derived from self-reported perceptions rather than clinical outcomes, they should be interpreted with caution. Rigorous clinical trials and laboratory investigations are needed to establish saffron\u0026rsquo;s efficacy and safety. Future research should integrate traditional knowledge with clinical evidence through well-designed randomized studies and mechanistic investigations to better define saffron\u0026rsquo;s role as a complementary approach in modern healthcare. Saffron is widely perceived as beneficial for mental and physical health among academics in Herat, but its therapeutic role requires confirmation through rigorous randomized trials and mechanistic studies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Recommendations","content":"\u003cp\u003eBased on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to advance the understanding and application of saffron:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePublic Awareness and Education:\u003c/strong\u003e To bridge the knowledge gap identified in this study\u0026apos;s primary demographic, targeted public awareness campaigns should be designed through national health ministries and academic institutions. These programs should leverage media, educational channels, and healthcare centers to disseminate scientifically-backed information on saffron\u0026apos;s verified benefits and therapeutic applications. Future research should assess the efficacy of different communication strategies in improving public knowledge and attitudes toward herbal medicine.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Research:\u003c/strong\u003e The subjective data from this study highlights the need for rigorous, objective research. Specifically, we recommend conducting randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials to definitively determine effective dosages, administration methods, and potential drug interactions. These trials should focus on specific health conditions (e.g., anxiety, mild-to-moderate depression) and utilize standardized saffron extracts with quantified bioactive compounds (e.g., crocin, safranal) to ensure reproducibility and strengthen the scientific basis for its therapeutic use.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntegration into Healthcare:\u003c/strong\u003e Given the promising attitudes found among the academic population, a phased approach to integrating saffron into complementary medicine is recommended. This involves collaboration between herbal medicine producers and medical centers to introduce saffron as a supplement or complementary treatment option under medical supervision. This integration should be accompanied by continuous monitoring and reporting of patient outcomes and potential adverse effects.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSaffron Value Chain Development:\u003c/strong\u003e Governmental and relevant institutional bodies should implement support programs aimed at improving the entire saffron value chain. This includes investing in infrastructure for cultivation, processing, packaging, and export. Support should focus on promoting sustainable farming practices and quality control standards (e.g., ISO 3632) to ensure the product\u0026apos;s purity and potency, which is critical for both therapeutic efficacy and market competitiveness.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMonitored Consumption Guidelines:\u003c/strong\u003e While our study suggests a positive perception of saffron, moderate consumption should be part of a healthy lifestyle and monitored by healthcare professionals, such as nutritionists or physicians. This proactive approach is essential to prevent potential adverse effects from excessive consumption and to ensure its safe use, particularly when combined with other medications.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"8.\tLimitations of the Study","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study, while providing valuable insights, is subject to several limitations that may affect the generalizability and interpretation of its findings:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSampling Bias:\u003c/strong\u003e The participant pool was primarily drawn from a convenience sample of academic institutions (faculty members, students, and staff). This group is likely to possess a higher level of scientific literacy and be more open to scientifically informed views on herbal medicines, which may not be representative of the general population. Consequently, the observed positive attitudes and knowledge of saffron\u0026apos;s benefits may be an overestimation of the broader public\u0026apos;s perception.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSelf-Reported Data and Response Bias:\u003c/strong\u003e The reliance on self-administered questionnaires introduces the risk of response bias. Specifically, participants may have provided socially desirable answers, overstating their knowledge or positive experiences with saffron. This potential for self-reporting inaccuracy limits the objectivity of the collected data, as it is based on subjective perspectives rather than direct observation or clinical measurement.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLack of Contextual and Clinical Data:\u003c/strong\u003e The study did not account for critical contextual influences such as cultural background, individual medical history, or traditional beliefs, all of which can significantly affect attitudes toward and experiences with herbal medicines. Furthermore, as an observational study, it did not include clinical trials. Therefore, the findings do not provide an objective assessment of saffron\u0026apos;s therapeutic efficacy or a comprehensive analysis of potential risks, including adverse effects, which were only briefly addressed in the questionnaire.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Declarations \u003c/strong\u003eThe study received ethical approval from Jami University (J.2025.3.20.1). All participants were systematically informed about the study\u0026rsquo;s aims and significance, with the objectives clearly explained to each individual. To protect confidentiality, no personal identifiers were collected. Participants were explicitly informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without consequence. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants, and from parents/guardians in the case of minors. All procedures were conducted in strict accordance with relevant ethical guidelines and regulations.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;The authors sincerely thank all participants for their time and valuable insights. We also gratefully acknowledge the Research Vice-Chancellorship of Herat University and its affiliated academic institutions for their support and cooperation throughout this study. Special appreciation is extended to the Department of Sciences, Herat University, for providing logistical and administrative assistance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;AAM contributed to questionnaire design, data analysis, manuscript writing, and supervision of the study. AHG was responsible for data collection, manuscript writing, and editing. SF contributed to data entry and manuscript editing. All authors reviewed and approved the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;The datasets generated and analyzed during this study are not publicly available due to privacy and confidentiality considerations of participant responses. However, de-identified data may be made available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request (Ali Ahmad Mohammadi, Email: [email protected]) for academic and research purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors of this study declare that there are no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/58895_8739fc6c57c1c19a/58895_custom_files/img1758889871.png\" width=\"683\" height=\"109\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbbaszade-Cheragheali, A., Beheshti, F., Kakhki, S., Khatibi, S. R., Dehnokhalaji, F., Akbari, E., Fathi, H. \u0026amp; Farimani, S. S. Crocin, the main active saffron (\u003cem\u003eCrocus sativus\u003c/em\u003e L.) constituent, as a potential candidate to prevent anxiety and depressive-like behaviors induced by unpredictable chronic mild stress. \u003cem\u003eNeurosci. Lett.\u003c/em\u003e 791, 136912 (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAgha-Hosseini, M., Kashani, L., Aleyaseen, A., Ghoreishi, A., Rahmanpour, H. A., Zarrinara, A. R. \u0026amp; Akhondzadeh, S. \u003cem\u003eCrocus sativus\u003c/em\u003e L. (saffron) in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome: a double-blind, randomised and placebo-controlled trial. \u003cem\u003eBJOG\u003c/em\u003e 115, 515\u0026ndash;519 (2008).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAhmadian, A. \u003cem\u003eImportant Medicinal Plants of Iran. Vol. 1\u003c/em\u003e 169\u0026ndash;173 (Torbat Heydariyeh Univ. Press, 2013).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlipour, R., Aryaeian, N., Hajiluian, G., Soleimani, M. \u0026amp; Barati, M. The effect of the saffron intervention on NAFLD status and related gene expression in a rat model. \u003cem\u003eMed. J. Islam. Repub. Iran\u003c/em\u003e 37, 28 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBastani, S. et al. An evaluation on potential anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of crocin. \u003cem\u003eBiomed. Pharmacother.\u003c/em\u003e 153, 113297 (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDe Mastro, G. \u0026amp; Ruta, C. Relation between corm size and saffron (\u003cem\u003eCrocus sativus\u003c/em\u003e) flowering. \u003cem\u003eActa Hortic.\u003c/em\u003e 344, 514\u0026ndash;517 (1993).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHe, S. Y., Qian, Z. Y., Wen, N., Tang, F. T., Xu, G. L. \u0026amp; Zhou, C. H. Influence of crocetin on experimental atherosclerosis in hyperlipidamic-diet quails. \u003cem\u003eEur. J. Pharmacol.\u003c/em\u003e 554, 191\u0026ndash;195 (2007).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHeidary, M., Vahhabi, S., Nejadi, J. R., Delfan, B., Birjandi, M., Kaviani, H. \u0026amp; Givrad, S. Effect of saffron on semen parameters of infertile men. \u003cem\u003eUrol. J.\u003c/em\u003e 5, 255\u0026ndash;259 (2008).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBagur, M. J. et al. Saffron: An old medicinal plant and a potential novel functional food. \u003cem\u003eMolecules\u003c/em\u003e 23, 30 (2017).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKouchaki, A. R., Najibnia, S. \u0026amp; Lalehgani, B. Evaluation of saffron yield (\u003cem\u003eCrocus sativus\u003c/em\u003e L.) in intercropping with cereals, pulses and medicinal plants. \u003cem\u003eIran. J. Agric. Res.\u003c/em\u003e 7, 175\u0026ndash;184 (2009).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMacua, T. Epidemiology and management of anxiety disorders. \u003cem\u003eJ. Pediatr. Neurol. Med.\u003c/em\u003e 6, 3\u0026ndash;5 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMaggi, M. A., Bisti, S. \u0026amp; Picco, C. Saffron: Chemical composition and neuroprotective activity. \u003cem\u003eMolecules\u003c/em\u003e 25, 5618 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMoshiri, M., Vahabzadeh, M. \u0026amp; Hosseinzadeh, H. Clinical applications of saffron (\u003cem\u003eCrocus sativus\u003c/em\u003e) and its constituents: a review. \u003cem\u003eDrug Res.\u003c/em\u003e 65, 287\u0026ndash;295 (2015).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOmid-Beigi, R. The effect of cultivation areas on saffron quality. \u003cem\u003eIran. J. Hortic. Sci. Technol.\u003c/em\u003e 3\u0026ndash;4, 167\u0026ndash;178 (2000).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePouchieu, C. et al. Acute effect of a saffron extract (Safr\u0026rsquo;Inside\u0026trade;) and its main volatile compound on the stress response in healthy young men: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. \u003cem\u003eNutrients\u003c/em\u003e 15, 2921 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Saffron, herbal supplement, public health, therapeutic attitudes, antioxidant, Afghanistan","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7608978/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7608978/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSaffron (Crocus sativus L.), valued in traditional Asian medicine, contains bioactive compounds such as crocin and safranal with antioxidant, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, and cognitive-enhancing properties. This study assessed attitudes, awareness, and consumption of saffron among educated individuals in Herat, Afghanistan, emphasizing its potential as a complementary therapy. A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 400 faculty members, students, and staff from Herat, Jami, and Ghalib Universities. Data were collected using a structured Likert-scale questionnaire and analyzed in SPSS (v26) with Student\u0026rsquo;s t-test and multiple regression to identify predictors of therapeutic use. Over 90% of participants reported positive attitudes toward saffron as a medicinal supplement. Commonly cited benefits included mood enhancement (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.62), improved sleep (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.57), and stress reduction. The questionnaire demonstrated strong reliability (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.834). Participants from medical sciences (50% of the sample) exhibited significantly greater awareness of therapeutic properties. Regression analysis identified prior positive experiences, belief in natural remedies, and preference for herbal treatments as significant predictors of willingness to use saffron therapeutically. In conclusion, saffron is widely accepted as a complementary supplement in the academic community of Herat. Strengthening awareness and validating efficacy may enhance integration into health strategies and reduce reliance on synthetic pharmaceuticals.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Attitudes and Tendencies Toward the Medicinal Use of Saffron Among Academic Communities in Herat","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-26 15:06:24","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7608978/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b68e436a-2fb1-4e8a-a33d-43e425b3b342","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 26th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":55008829,"name":"Health sciences/Health care"},{"id":55008830,"name":"Health sciences/Medical research"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-01T08:24:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-26 15:06:24","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7608978","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7608978","identity":"rs-7608978","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}