Serological and Molecular evaluation of Capripoxvirus of small ruminants and the disease management from a suspected goatpox outbreak in Shika, Nigeria

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These diseases are transboundary threats endemic in Nigeria, potentially harming animal production systems through reduced trade, enforced control measures, morbidity, and mortality. This case-control study was conducted following a suspected outbreak of pox disease in a herd of adult female goats (does) that exhibited symptoms such as mucous nasal discharge and skin lesions, including vesicles, nodules, and scabs. Farm visit was carried out to clinically examine the infected animals, collect sera for serology and nasal swabs for conventional PCR, and manage the disease. 50 sera were analyzed by indirect ELISA for Capripoxvirus (CaPV) neutralizing antibodies. Seropositive results guided the choice of nasal swab samples for the PCR conducted. Conventional PCR testing was performed on 24 nasal swab samples with seropositivity to CaPV. On physical examination, 128 out of 233 goats (55%) showed pox lesions along with varying degrees of respiratory complications. Pyrexia (39.5 to 41°C) was observed in all 128 affected goats (100%). Other clinical signs included mucous nasal discharge, congested ocular mucous membranes, and a recorded mortality of 65 goats. Morbidity and mortality rates were determined to be 55% and 28%, respectively. ELISA results revealed a 96% positivity rate for Capripoxvirus, and PCR analysis confirmed the presence of the virus with 100% amplification at 172 bp. The outbreak management, which included isolation and supported treatment, effectively limited the disease’s spread. Capripoxvirus Goatpox Goatpox virus ELISA and PCR Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Sheep and goats are highly valuable assets in African, Mediterranean, and Southeast Asian countries, serving as important sources of meat, milk, and wool (Haile et al. 2018 ). They significantly contribute to the income of resource-constrained communities, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas (Dubie et al. 2022 ). However, several challenges hinder sheep and goat production, including diseases and other management issues (Zewdie et al. 2021 ). One of the major diseases affecting small ruminant production is pox disease, which includes sheeppox and goatpox. These diseases are endemic in Nigeria and have transboundary importance, leading to severe clinical symptoms that hamper production and cause significant economic losses (Rawlins et al. 2022 ). The losses associated with pox disease stem from compromised skin quality, reduced milk production, and other production-related issues, including morbidity and mortality. This has led the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH, formerly OIE) to classify it as a notifiable disease (OIE 2020 ). Sporadic outbreaks of pox disease occur in various countries in Africa, as well as in Asia, India, and the Middle East (Adedeji et al. 2021 ; Chahota et al. 2022 ; Zewdie et al. 2021 ). In Nigeria, sheeppox and goatpox (SGP) are particularly endemic, with cases often appearing as either outbreaks or isolated infections in the field. However, reported cases of the disease are limited, likely due to a lack of laboratory facilities for molecular diagnosis. SGP is a highly debilitating viral systemic infection in small ruminants, primarily characterized by widespread skin eruptions, fever, generalized nodules or papules, vesicles on non-wool areas of the skin, and nodular lesions in the lungs and mucosa of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, which can ultimately lead to death (Ghander et al. 2020 ; Adedeji et al. 2021 ). Sheep poxvirus (SPPV), Goat poxvirus (GTPV), and Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) are members of the Capripoxvirus genus, from the family Poxviridae, and the causative agents of pox diseases in small and large ruminants. The virus is transmitted primarily via direct contact or inhalation of aerosol (Rawlins et al. 2022 ). Biting flies have also been incriminated in transmitting Capripoxvirus , (CaPV) to the hosts (Zewdie et al. 2021 ). Diagnosis of these diseases is typically confirmed using molecular methods, particularly the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique (Zeedan et al. 2021 ). Genetic tools such as conventional PCR and phylogenetic analysis facilitate the investigation of Capripoxvirus at the genus level, which is crucial for confirmatory diagnostic studies (Pham et al. 2021 ). This research aimed to confirm the diagnosis of the disease, utilize ELISA to detect neutralizing antibodies and PCR to detect the viral genome from nasal swab samples and provide supportive treatment. This study was initiated in response to a reported suspected outbreak of goatpox (GTP) in a herd of goats located in Shika, Giwa Local Government Area (LGA), Kaduna State, Nigeria, and was directed to the Animal Health Unit of the National Animal Production Research Institute at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Materials and Methods Study Location This study was conducted at a research farm located in Shika, a community within the Giwa Local Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. The region is situated in the Northern Guinea Savannah, between latitudes 11° and 12ʹ N and longitudes 7° and 33ʹ E, at an altitude of 650 meters. It experiences a sub-humid climate with an average annual rainfall of 1,150 mm, predominantly occurring during the rainy season when over 70% falls between July and August. The average ambient temperature during the wet season is 27.5°C, with humidity levels around 72%. The early dry season generally begins in October and is followed by a cold-dry period known as harmattan, lasting until February. This is then succeeded by hot weather, where daytime temperatures fluctuate between 14°C and 35°C, while relative humidity ranges from 10–20% (Amodu et al. 2001 ). Study Animals and Case History The Animal Health Clinic at the National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI) in ABU, Zaria, was contacted regarding a herd of approximately 232 goats. This herd consists of various indigenous breeds of adult female goats (does), including Red Sokoto, Sahelian, and West African dwarf goats, all aged between 2 to 5 years. The herd includes only does, as the bucks are kept at a distance to prevent accidental mating and to maintain accurate breeding records. The primary concern raised was the appearance of skin eruptions affecting some members of the herd. Upon investigation, it was found that the issue initially began with one doe that exhibited copious nasal discharge, which was followed by the development of pox lesions on the skin. At the time of this outbreak, the does had just weaned their kids, and were preparing for the upcoming breeding season. Study Design, Clinical Examination, and Data Collection Upon arrival at the herd, a general physical examination was conducted using appropriate restraint techniques on each individual animal. The rectal temperature was measured, and other clinical signs and symptoms were thoroughly investigated and recorded. A case history was obtained from the farm manager, along with relevant information from the livestock health record book. Purposive sampling was employed to include only the goats exhibiting skin eruptions accompanied by mucous nasal discharges. Thus, any goat showing these symptoms was isolated for sampling, comprehensive clinical examination, and disease management. 50 serum samples were collected from clinically infected goats showing skin pox lesions with mucous nasal discharges. Out of that, 24 nasal swab samples were collected from the seropositive samples. The samples were obtained by inserting a sterile swab stick deep into the nasal cavity and gently twisting it to collect nasal secretions. This method follows the procedure described by Ullah et al. ( 2016 ). The swab sticks were then placed in a storage and transport media—Puritan® DNA/RNA Shield (Zymo Research Corp., USA)—before being transported to the laboratory for subsequent DNA extraction and PCR analysis at the Africa Centre of Excellence for Neglected Tropical Diseases and Forensic Biotechnology (ACENTDFB) at ABU, Zaria. Laboratory Analysis All sera collected were analysed for specific antibodies to CaPV using indirect enzyme linked immuo-sorbent assay (iELISA) test kit obtained from Biostone™ Animal Health (USA). The test was performed according to the manufacturer’s instructions, examined the presence of neutralizing antibodies to CaPV in sera obtained from the goats. From the seropositive samples obtained, 24 nasal swabs were randomly collected from those seropositive goats, which were used for subsequent PCR. DNA extraction Extraction of DNA from the nasal swab samples suspended in DNA/RNA Shield was performed directly using QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (Qiagen, Germany), adopting the manufacturer’s instructions. After elution of the DNA, it was stored at -20°C before running PCR. Conventional polymerase chain reaction and Gel electrophoresis All samples were subjected to conventional PCR through the amplification of the RNA polymerase subunit-30ka (RPO30) gene of the virus. T he primers utilized were; SpGpRNApolF (5’-TCTATGTCTTGATATGTGGTGGTAG-3’) and SpGpRNApolR (5’-AGTGATTAGGTGGTGGTGTATTATTTTCC-3’), as earlier described by Lamien et al. ( 2011 ). PCR amplification was carried out using a 25µl final reaction volume, containing 12.5µl of master mix (New England Biolabs containing a combination of dNTP, MgCl2, Taq polymerase, and PCR buffer), 1µl forward primer, 1µl reverse primer, 2µl of extracted DNA, and 8.5µl of nuclease-free water. The thermal cycling conditions for the amplification were set as follows: initial denaturation for 5 min at 94℃, 35 cycles of 40s at 94℃, 30s at 54℃, and 1 min at 72℃, and then final extension for 5 min at 72℃. Gel electrophoresis was carried out to visualize the PCR product. 5µl of each PCR product was utilized on a 1.5% (w/v) agarose gel with the addition of ethidium bromide. Amplicons obtained were then visualized using a gel documentation system (Lamien et al. 2011 ; Adedeji et al. 2019 ). Case Management All the infected goats were administered a combination of Procaine Penicillin G 200mg and Dihydrostreptomycin sulfate 250mg (P-strepnor®) at the dose rate of 1ml/25kg body weight via the intramuscular route for 5 days, as recommended by the manufacturers. Dexamethasone (Dexapalm®) was also administered to some of those with severe respiratory complications at a dose of 1ml/25kg body weight via the intramuscular route for 3 days. The livestock attendants were advised to keep the sick animals indoors until they recovered. Data Analysis All data generated from the field during sampling were entered and stored in a Microsoft Office Excel 2007 spreadsheet and also displayed in the form of a table and figures, together with other laboratory analyses. Descriptive statistics were utilized to summarize the data obtained on lesion manifestation, morbidity, and mortality rates. Results Physical examination was carried out thoroughly on all herd members, comprising 232 adult female goats (does), and clinical signs were documented as presented in Table 1 . 128 does (i.e., 100% of diseased and 55% of the herd) were exhibiting signs of skin eruptions like vesicles, nodules, and scabs with varying degrees of respiratory complications. In addition to the skin lesion, other accompanying clinical signs were observed in the goats (Figs. 1 and 2 ). Rectal temperatures were measured to be between 39.5 to 41℃ in 128 of all those with pox lesions, which is a 55% incidence. Nasal mucous discharge was observed in 84, which is a 46% incidence. Lacrimation was recorded in 86 (37% incidence). Dyspnoea was observed in 54 (23% incidence). The congested ocular mucous membrane was recorded in 88 (38% incidence). Superficial lymphadenitis was also recorded in 94 (41% incidence). Mortality was recorded on 65 does which is 28% of the total flock size and 51% of the diseased. Post-mortem examination also revealed nodular lesions all around the surfaces of the lung tissues (Fig. 3 ) and occlusion of the respiratory tract with mucous. Table 1 Incidence of accompanying clinical signs on the suspected goats with skin lesions in Shika S/No. Observed Clinical signs No. of affected Goats Incidence (%) 1 Pyrexia (39.5 to 41℃) 128 55 2 Nasal mucous discharges 107 46 3 Lacrimation 86 37 4 Congested ocular mucous membrane 88 38 5 Enlarged submandibular lymph nodes 94 41 6 Dyspnoea 54 23 7 Anorexia 42 18 8 Diarrhoea 25 11 9 Death 65 28 The CaPV ELISA conducted on the 50 sera obtained from the suspected goats revealed seropositivity in up to 48 wells, which is 96% seropositivity from all the sera samples collected. This further guided the selection of 24 nasal swab samples used to conduct conventional PCR. Figure 4 below shows the electropherogram result of PCR products obtained from the 24 tested nasal swabs. The SpGpRNApolF/R specific primers for the CaPV were used to investigate the presence of the CaPV genome in the conventional PCR, and subsequent viewing of results using 1.5% agarose electrophoresis. All the suspected 24 samples tested presented a single amplicon of approximately 172 bp, which is captured as a clear band in the electropherogram shown below: Discussion The clinical signs observed in this study, including generalized pox lesions, pyrexia (ranging from 39.5 to 41°C), nasal mucous discharges, lacrimation, morbidity, and mortality, are characteristic of goatpox (Boshra et al., 2015 ; Kassa et al., 2024 ). These findings align with those reported by Adeyinka et al. (2019) in Jos, Nizeyimana et al. ( 2023 ) in Uganda, Karim et al. ( 2016 ) in India, and Boshra et al. ( 2015 ) in Saudi Arabia, all of whom documented similar clinical signs during natural outbreaks of pox disease in small ruminants. Information gathered revealed that similar condition recently affected a flock of sheep in a neighboring community with similar manifestation and it was confirmed to be sheeppox (Hussaini et al., 2025 ). In this study, a total of 128 adult female goats out of a herd size of 232 were infected with a morbidity rate of 55%, while 65 were recorded dead with a case fatality rate of 51% and a mortality rate of 28%. This study indicated a similar morbidity rate to that of Babiuk et al. ( 2009 ), who reported a comparable morbidity rate of 60% in the GTP outbreak in Vietnam. However, the mortality rate of 28% reported in this case is relatively lower compared to the higher value reported by Babiuk et al. ( 2009 ), which could be attributed to the differences in breed and location. The relatively high morbidity and mortality could be associated with a lack of vaccination, which has not been made available for use in Nigeria. High mortalities of 64% were reported in a herd of goats in Jos, Nigeria by Adedeji et al. ( 2019 ); as well as 74.6% and 84% also reported by Malik et al. ( 2011 ) and Karim et al. ( 2016 ) respectively in natural pox disease outbreak in India among a herd of goats. Considering the results obtained from the iELISA test, positive results were found from the 50 collected goat sera, which could mean that the outbreak encountered could be that of Capripoxvirus infection, as this means that there were circulating neutralizing antibodies within the animals. The result yielded a seropositivity of 96% out of the tested samples obtained from the goat herds. SPPV and GTPV could not be distinguished by the serological test due to close antigenic relationship, even with LSDV, as they are all members of the genus- Capripoxvirus (Bianchini et al. 2025 ). This serological test examined the presence of neutralizing antibodies to CaPV in sera of 50 goats having an outbreak of suspected Capripoxvirus infection. Based on the history collated from the livestock attendants and the record books, the animals were never vaccinated against CaPV, therefore, the antibodies against CaPV detected were from field infections and not as a result of vaccination. Similar serological ELISA tests were also carried out by other researchers for seroprevalence study of pox diseases in small and large ruminants (Tian et al. 2010 ; Ebrahimi-Jam et al. 2021 ; Berguido et al. 2022 ). Targeting the genes of RPO30 (30 kDa DNA-dependent RNA polymerase subunit), P32, and GPCR (G-protein-coupled chemokine receptor) is commonly used for the detection and differentiation of CaPVs (Pham et al. 2021 ; Manjunatha-Reddy et al. 2024). In this study, however, the primers specifically targeted only the RPO30 gene in the conventional PCR (PCR). This was sufficient to confirm the presence of the CaPV genome in the samples (Hussaini et al. 2025 ). The PCR results indicated that all 24 tested nasal swab samples belonged to the goat poxvirus of the Capripoxvirus genus, with an amplicon band size of 172 bp (i.e 100% positivity). This finding aligns with previous studies by Lamien et al. ( 2011 ), Adedeji et al. ( 2019 ), and Wondimu et al. ( 2021 ), which reported a similar band size in PCR results from goat scab samples. Two weeks after administering treatment, the affected goats showed positive improvement, as the skin lesions dried up and their overall health condition enhanced. It has been reported that pox disease provides life-long protection post-infection (Bhanuprakash et al. 2022 ). In conclusion, CaPV of small ruminants, most likely goatpox, was confirmed in the herd of goats exhibiting skin lesions along with respiratory complications. The goat sera revealed the neutralizing antibodies to CaPV and the viral genome was successfully detected from the nasal swab samples of the goats with pox lesions. This reinforces the idea that nasal swab samples can be effective specimens for diagnosing pox disease, particularly in the presence of respiratory complications and/or when there is non-compliance by livestock owners to allow for collection of scab samples. Furthermore, the isolation and supportive treatment implemented during the management of this outbreak significantly contributed to limiting the spread of the disease. Additional molecular studies are highly recommended to sequence the Capripoxvirus genome which could facilitate phylogenetic analysis and differentiation. Declarations Ethics approval Ethical approval was obtained from Ethical Committee on Animal Use and Care of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria (ABUCAUC), with reference number- ABUCAUC/2025/043. Funding This work was supported by Tertiary Education Trust Fund (Tetfund) under the Institutional Based Research (IBR)/Tetfund Research Grant 2024 (Grant ID number- TETF/DR&D/UNI/ZARIA/IBR/2024/BATCH 8/17). Author Solomon Okaiyeto has received the research support from Tetfund via the Directorate of Research and Innovation, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Conflict of interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Acknowledgement I would like to acknowledge and appreciate the technical and management staff of NAPRI and ACENTDFB, ABU, Zaria for providing the conducive atmosphere to conduct this research. I wish to also express our acknowledgement and appreciation to TETFund and Directorate of Research and Innovation, ABU, Zaria for sponsoring this work. Author Contributions All authors- Mustapha Hussaini, Solomon Okaiyeto, Hussaina Joan Makun and Caleb Ayuba Kudi, contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Mustapha Hussaini, Solomon Okaiyeto, Hussaina Joan Makun and Caleb Ayuba Kudi. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Mustapha Hussaini, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Data availability All relevant data are included in this manuscript. Please keep in touch with the corresponding author concerning any enquiry or further information. References Adedeji AJ, Dashe Y, Babatunde OA, Woma TY, Anvou RJ, Jolly AA, Bashir MB, Chima N, Olayinka A, Sini IT, Luka P, Okewole P (2019) Co-infection of peste des petits ruminants and goatpox in a mixed flock of sheep and goats in Kanam, North-Central Nigeria. Vet Med Sci 5:412–418. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7154499","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":502101599,"identity":"ef3c2efa-aad6-4c95-88df-546c0ed51c73","order_by":0,"name":"Mustapha Hussaini","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAwUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNACNgYGfjBJJGBsACmWbCBZi8EBYrXozkh//pinzEbe+EbyswcfKhjk+cUO4NdidiPHsJnnXJrhthtp5oYzzjAYzpydQFALYzNv2+EEsxsJZtK8bQwJBrcJakl/CNZiPCP9G7FaEgzBWgwkcoi15cwbw5lzgH6ZceZNmeSMMxJE+OV4+oMPb4Ahxt+evk3iQwWQIU1ACwgw8YBIAbBKCcLKQYDxB4jkP0Cc6lEwCkbBKBh5AADcykPSvz2XzgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7012-512X","institution":"NAPRI: National Animal Production Research Institute, ABU, Zaria","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mustapha","middleName":"","lastName":"Hussaini","suffix":""},{"id":502101600,"identity":"04ed69f5-0d10-44b8-9922-28f5e7c021b2","order_by":1,"name":"Solomon Olu Okaiyeto","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ahmadu Bello University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Solomon","middleName":"Olu","lastName":"Okaiyeto","suffix":""},{"id":502101601,"identity":"6b550d6f-555f-4a8e-ba56-f2a7aed42b17","order_by":2,"name":"Hussaina Joan Makun","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"NAPRI: National Animal Production Research Institute, ABU, Zaria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hussaina","middleName":"Joan","lastName":"Makun","suffix":""},{"id":502101602,"identity":"ab1f9dab-0b20-4748-88b0-0df2ae517909","order_by":3,"name":"Caleb Ayuba Kudi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ahmadu Bello University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Caleb","middleName":"Ayuba","lastName":"Kudi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-18 06:26:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7154499/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7154499/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89987809,"identity":"0ef9dda5-21e5-4a84-9160-c90c0c53478b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-27 07:01:43","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":309562,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePox lesions on the skin surface and mucous nasal discharges of an infected doe\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7154499/v1/47235647895d0a71ac97942e.png"},{"id":89987804,"identity":"9394d8a4-19ab-4f72-a421-1112909bb19e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-27 07:01:43","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":265868,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePox lesions on the skin surface and mucous nasal discharges of an infected goat\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7154499/v1/6ce8352b361513936acbed7a.png"},{"id":89987811,"identity":"1d3e1091-f26f-41c7-8f1d-f026fda67095","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-27 07:01:43","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":361220,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eshows nodular legions on the surfaces of lung tissues of a goat\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7154499/v1/101f16343a7e247347cf7163.png"},{"id":89987806,"identity":"8f51d794-e62b-4a83-b05c-ea21273ca582","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-27 07:01:43","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":196433,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eshows Electropherogram of PCR analysis. Where lane M: 100bp Ladder, lane 1-24: Goatpox positive samples at 172bp.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7154499/v1/e69aa00d3bd54a482490a700.png"},{"id":90425810,"identity":"6a8199ee-9e36-4faf-b94b-fc8fa316795e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-02 14:40:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2200261,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7154499/v1/b9558aba-4685-49d1-9946-c0818db6e1a9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Serological and Molecular evaluation of Capripoxvirus of small ruminants and the disease management from a suspected goatpox outbreak in Shika, Nigeria","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSheep and goats are highly valuable assets in African, Mediterranean, and Southeast Asian countries, serving as important sources of meat, milk, and wool (Haile et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). They significantly contribute to the income of resource-constrained communities, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas (Dubie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, several challenges hinder sheep and goat production, including diseases and other management issues (Zewdie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). One of the major diseases affecting small ruminant production is pox disease, which includes sheeppox and goatpox. These diseases are endemic in Nigeria and have transboundary importance, leading to severe clinical symptoms that hamper production and cause significant economic losses (Rawlins et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The losses associated with pox disease stem from compromised skin quality, reduced milk production, and other production-related issues, including morbidity and mortality. This has led the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH, formerly OIE) to classify it as a notifiable disease (OIE \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Sporadic outbreaks of pox disease occur in various countries in Africa, as well as in Asia, India, and the Middle East (Adedeji et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Chahota et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zewdie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In Nigeria, sheeppox and goatpox (SGP) are particularly endemic, with cases often appearing as either outbreaks or isolated infections in the field. However, reported cases of the disease are limited, likely due to a lack of laboratory facilities for molecular diagnosis. SGP is a highly debilitating viral systemic infection in small ruminants, primarily characterized by widespread skin eruptions, fever, generalized nodules or papules, vesicles on non-wool areas of the skin, and nodular lesions in the lungs and mucosa of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, which can ultimately lead to death (Ghander et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Adedeji et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSheep poxvirus (SPPV), Goat poxvirus (GTPV), and Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) are members of the \u003cem\u003eCapripoxvirus\u003c/em\u003e genus, from the family Poxviridae, and the causative agents of pox diseases in small and large ruminants. The virus is transmitted primarily via direct contact or inhalation of aerosol (Rawlins et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Biting flies have also been incriminated in transmitting \u003cem\u003eCapripoxvirus\u003c/em\u003e, (CaPV) to the hosts (Zewdie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Diagnosis of these diseases is typically confirmed using molecular methods, particularly the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique (Zeedan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Genetic tools such as conventional PCR and phylogenetic analysis facilitate the investigation of \u003cem\u003eCapripoxvirus\u003c/em\u003e at the genus level, which is crucial for confirmatory diagnostic studies (Pham et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This research aimed to confirm the diagnosis of the disease, utilize ELISA to detect neutralizing antibodies and PCR to detect the viral genome from nasal swab samples and provide supportive treatment. This study was initiated in response to a reported suspected outbreak of goatpox (GTP) in a herd of goats located in Shika, Giwa Local Government Area (LGA), Kaduna State, Nigeria, and was directed to the Animal Health Unit of the National Animal Production Research Institute at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy Location\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted at a research farm located in Shika, a community within the Giwa Local Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. The region is situated in the Northern Guinea Savannah, between latitudes 11\u0026deg; and 12ʹ N and longitudes 7\u0026deg; and 33ʹ E, at an altitude of 650 meters. It experiences a sub-humid climate with an average annual rainfall of 1,150 mm, predominantly occurring during the rainy season when over 70% falls between July and August. The average ambient temperature during the wet season is 27.5\u0026deg;C, with humidity levels around 72%. The early dry season generally begins in October and is followed by a cold-dry period known as harmattan, lasting until February. This is then succeeded by hot weather, where daytime temperatures fluctuate between 14\u0026deg;C and 35\u0026deg;C, while relative humidity ranges from 10\u0026ndash;20% (Amodu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy Animals and Case History\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Animal Health Clinic at the National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI) in ABU, Zaria, was contacted regarding a herd of approximately 232 goats. This herd consists of various indigenous breeds of adult female goats (does), including Red Sokoto, Sahelian, and West African dwarf goats, all aged between 2 to 5 years. The herd includes only does, as the bucks are kept at a distance to prevent accidental mating and to maintain accurate breeding records. The primary concern raised was the appearance of skin eruptions affecting some members of the herd. Upon investigation, it was found that the issue initially began with one doe that exhibited copious nasal discharge, which was followed by the development of pox lesions on the skin. At the time of this outbreak, the does had just weaned their kids, and were preparing for the upcoming breeding season.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy Design, Clinical Examination, and Data Collection\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUpon arrival at the herd, a general physical examination was conducted using appropriate restraint techniques on each individual animal. The rectal temperature was measured, and other clinical signs and symptoms were thoroughly investigated and recorded. A case history was obtained from the farm manager, along with relevant information from the livestock health record book. Purposive sampling was employed to include only the goats exhibiting skin eruptions accompanied by mucous nasal discharges. Thus, any goat showing these symptoms was isolated for sampling, comprehensive clinical examination, and disease management. 50 serum samples were collected from clinically infected goats showing skin pox lesions with mucous nasal discharges. Out of that, 24 nasal swab samples were collected from the seropositive samples. The samples were obtained by inserting a sterile swab stick deep into the nasal cavity and gently twisting it to collect nasal secretions. This method follows the procedure described by Ullah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The swab sticks were then placed in a storage and transport media\u0026mdash;Puritan\u0026reg; DNA/RNA Shield (Zymo Research Corp., USA)\u0026mdash;before being transported to the laboratory for subsequent DNA extraction and PCR analysis at the Africa Centre of Excellence for Neglected Tropical Diseases and Forensic Biotechnology (ACENTDFB) at ABU, Zaria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLaboratory Analysis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll sera collected were analysed for specific antibodies to CaPV using indirect enzyme linked immuo-sorbent assay (iELISA) test kit obtained from Biostone\u0026trade; Animal Health (USA). The test was performed according to the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s instructions, examined the presence of neutralizing antibodies to CaPV in sera obtained from the goats. From the seropositive samples obtained, 24 nasal swabs were randomly collected from those seropositive goats, which were used for subsequent PCR.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDNA extraction\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtraction of DNA from the nasal swab samples suspended in DNA/RNA Shield was performed directly using QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (Qiagen, Germany), adopting the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s instructions. After elution of the DNA, it was stored at -20\u0026deg;C before running PCR.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConventional polymerase chain reaction and Gel electrophoresis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll samples were subjected to conventional PCR through the amplification of the RNA polymerase subunit-30ka (RPO30) gene of the virus. \u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003ehe primers utilized were;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpGpRNApolF (5\u0026rsquo;-TCTATGTCTTGATATGTGGTGGTAG-3\u0026rsquo;) and\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpGpRNApolR (5\u0026rsquo;-AGTGATTAGGTGGTGGTGTATTATTTTCC-3\u0026rsquo;), as earlier described by Lamien et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePCR amplification was carried out using a 25\u0026micro;l final reaction volume, containing 12.5\u0026micro;l of master mix (New England Biolabs containing a combination of dNTP, MgCl2, Taq polymerase, and PCR buffer), 1\u0026micro;l forward primer, 1\u0026micro;l reverse primer, 2\u0026micro;l of extracted DNA, and 8.5\u0026micro;l of nuclease-free water. The thermal cycling conditions for the amplification were set as follows: initial denaturation for 5 min at 94℃, 35 cycles of 40s at 94℃, 30s at 54℃, and 1 min at 72℃, and then final extension for 5 min at 72℃.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGel electrophoresis was carried out to visualize the PCR product. 5\u0026micro;l of each PCR product was utilized on a 1.5% (w/v) agarose gel with the addition of ethidium bromide. Amplicons obtained were then visualized using a gel documentation system (Lamien et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Adedeji et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCase Management\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll the infected goats were administered a combination of Procaine Penicillin G 200mg and Dihydrostreptomycin sulfate 250mg (P-strepnor\u0026reg;) at the dose rate of 1ml/25kg body weight via the intramuscular route for 5 days, as recommended by the manufacturers. Dexamethasone (Dexapalm\u0026reg;) was also administered to some of those with severe respiratory complications at a dose of 1ml/25kg body weight via the intramuscular route for 3 days. The livestock attendants were advised to keep the sick animals indoors until they recovered.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll data generated from the field during sampling were entered and stored in a Microsoft Office Excel 2007 spreadsheet and also displayed in the form of a table and figures, together with other laboratory analyses. Descriptive statistics were utilized to summarize the data obtained on lesion manifestation, morbidity, and mortality rates.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003ePhysical examination was carried out thoroughly on all herd members, comprising 232 adult female goats (does), and clinical signs were documented as presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. 128 does (i.e., 100% of diseased and 55% of the herd) were exhibiting signs of skin eruptions like vesicles, nodules, and scabs with varying degrees of respiratory complications. In addition to the skin lesion, other accompanying clinical signs were observed in the goats (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Rectal temperatures were measured to be between 39.5 to 41℃ in 128 of all those with pox lesions, which is a 55% incidence. Nasal mucous discharge was observed in 84, which is a 46% incidence. Lacrimation was recorded in 86 (37% incidence). Dyspnoea was observed in 54 (23% incidence). The congested ocular mucous membrane was recorded in 88 (38% incidence). Superficial lymphadenitis was also recorded in 94 (41% incidence). Mortality was recorded on 65 does which is 28% of the total flock size and 51% of the diseased. Post-mortem examination also revealed nodular lesions all around the surfaces of the lung tissues (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) and occlusion of the respiratory tract with mucous.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncidence of accompanying clinical signs on the suspected goats with skin lesions in Shika\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS/No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eObserved Clinical signs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo. of affected Goats\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncidence (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePyrexia (39.5 to 41℃)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e128\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNasal mucous discharges\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLacrimation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCongested ocular mucous membrane\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnlarged submandibular lymph nodes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDyspnoea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnorexia\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiarrhoea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeath\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe CaPV ELISA conducted on the 50 sera obtained from the suspected goats revealed seropositivity in up to 48 wells, which is 96% seropositivity from all the sera samples collected. This further guided the selection of 24 nasal swab samples used to conduct conventional PCR.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e below shows the electropherogram result of PCR products obtained from the 24 tested nasal swabs. The SpGpRNApolF/R specific primers for the CaPV were used to investigate the presence of the CaPV genome in the conventional PCR, and subsequent viewing of results using 1.5% agarose electrophoresis. All the suspected 24 samples tested presented a single amplicon of approximately 172 bp, which is captured as a clear band in the electropherogram shown below:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe clinical signs observed in this study, including generalized pox lesions, pyrexia (ranging from 39.5 to 41\u0026deg;C), nasal mucous discharges, lacrimation, morbidity, and mortality, are characteristic of goatpox (Boshra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Kassa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). These findings align with those reported by Adeyinka et al. (2019) in Jos, Nizeyimana et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) in Uganda, Karim et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) in India, and Boshra et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) in Saudi Arabia, all of whom documented similar clinical signs during natural outbreaks of pox disease in small ruminants. Information gathered revealed that similar condition recently affected a flock of sheep in a neighboring community with similar manifestation and it was confirmed to be sheeppox (Hussaini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, a total of 128 adult female goats out of a herd size of 232 were infected with a morbidity rate of 55%, while 65 were recorded dead with a case fatality rate of 51% and a mortality rate of 28%. This study indicated a similar morbidity rate to that of Babiuk et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), who reported a comparable morbidity rate of 60% in the GTP outbreak in Vietnam. However, the mortality rate of 28% reported in this case is relatively lower compared to the higher value reported by Babiuk et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), which could be attributed to the differences in breed and location. The relatively high morbidity and mortality could be associated with a lack of vaccination, which has not been made available for use in Nigeria. High mortalities of 64% were reported in a herd of goats in Jos, Nigeria by Adedeji et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e); as well as 74.6% and 84% also reported by Malik et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) and Karim et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) respectively in natural pox disease outbreak in India among a herd of goats.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsidering the results obtained from the iELISA test, positive results were found from the 50 collected goat sera, which could mean that the outbreak encountered could be that of \u003cem\u003eCapripoxvirus\u003c/em\u003e infection, as this means that there were circulating neutralizing antibodies within the animals. The result yielded a seropositivity of 96% out of the tested samples obtained from the goat herds. SPPV and GTPV could not be distinguished by the serological test due to close antigenic relationship, even with LSDV, as they are all members of the genus- \u003cem\u003eCapripoxvirus\u003c/em\u003e (Bianchini et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). This serological test examined the presence of neutralizing antibodies to CaPV in sera of 50 goats having an outbreak of suspected \u003cem\u003eCapripoxvirus\u003c/em\u003e infection. Based on the history collated from the livestock attendants and the record books, the animals were never vaccinated against CaPV, therefore, the antibodies against CaPV detected were from field infections and not as a result of vaccination. Similar serological ELISA tests were also carried out by other researchers for seroprevalence study of pox diseases in small and large ruminants (Tian et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Ebrahimi-Jam et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Berguido et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTargeting the genes of RPO30 (30 kDa DNA-dependent RNA polymerase subunit), P32, and GPCR (G-protein-coupled chemokine receptor) is commonly used for the detection and differentiation of CaPVs (Pham et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Manjunatha-Reddy et al. 2024). In this study, however, the primers specifically targeted only the RPO30 gene in the conventional PCR (PCR). This was sufficient to confirm the presence of the CaPV genome in the samples (Hussaini et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The PCR results indicated that all 24 tested nasal swab samples belonged to the goat poxvirus of the \u003cem\u003eCapripoxvirus\u003c/em\u003e genus, with an amplicon band size of 172 bp (i.e 100% positivity). This finding aligns with previous studies by Lamien et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), Adedeji et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and Wondimu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), which reported a similar band size in PCR results from goat scab samples. Two weeks after administering treatment, the affected goats showed positive improvement, as the skin lesions dried up and their overall health condition enhanced. It has been reported that pox disease provides life-long protection post-infection (Bhanuprakash et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, CaPV of small ruminants, most likely goatpox, was confirmed in the herd of goats exhibiting skin lesions along with respiratory complications. The goat sera revealed the neutralizing antibodies to CaPV and the viral genome was successfully detected from the nasal swab samples of the goats with pox lesions. This reinforces the idea that nasal swab samples can be effective specimens for diagnosing pox disease, particularly in the presence of respiratory complications and/or when there is non-compliance by livestock owners to allow for collection of scab samples. Furthermore, the isolation and supportive treatment implemented during the management of this outbreak significantly contributed to limiting the spread of the disease. Additional molecular studies are highly recommended to sequence the \u003cem\u003eCapripoxvirus\u003c/em\u003e genome which could facilitate phylogenetic analysis and differentiation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was obtained from Ethical Committee on Animal Use and Care of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria (ABUCAUC), with reference number- ABUCAUC/2025/043.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by Tertiary Education Trust Fund (Tetfund) under the Institutional Based Research (IBR)/Tetfund Research Grant 2024 (Grant ID number- TETF/DR\u0026amp;D/UNI/ZARIA/IBR/2024/BATCH 8/17). Author Solomon Okaiyeto has received the research support from Tetfund via the Directorate of Research and Innovation, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI would like to acknowledge and appreciate the technical and management staff of NAPRI and ACENTDFB, ABU, Zaria for providing the conducive atmosphere to conduct this research. I wish to also express our acknowledgement and appreciation to TETFund and Directorate of Research and Innovation, ABU, Zaria for sponsoring this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors- Mustapha Hussaini, Solomon Okaiyeto, Hussaina Joan Makun and Caleb Ayuba Kudi, contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Mustapha Hussaini, Solomon Okaiyeto, Hussaina Joan Makun and Caleb Ayuba Kudi. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Mustapha Hussaini, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll relevant data are included in this manuscript. Please keep in touch with the corresponding author concerning any enquiry or further information.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdedeji AJ, Dashe Y, Babatunde OA, Woma TY, Anvou RJ, Jolly AA, Bashir MB, Chima N, Olayinka A, Sini IT, Luka P, Okewole P (2019) Co-infection of peste des petits ruminants and goatpox in a mixed flock of sheep and goats in Kanam, North-Central Nigeria. Vet Med Sci 5:412\u0026ndash;418.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdedeji AJ, Ijoma SI, Atai RB, Dogonyaro BB, Adole, JA, Maurice NA, Osemeke OH, Waziri IA, Atuman YJ, Lyons N, Stevens KB, Beard PM, Limon G (2021) Household and animal factors associated with sheeppox and goatpox sero-prevalence and identification of high-risk areas in selected States of northern Nigeria. 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Virol J 7(1):245- 248.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUllah RW, Zahur AB, Latif A, Dasti JI, Irshad H, Afzal M, Rasheed T, Malik AR, Qureshi Z (2016) Research Article: Detection of Peste des Petits Ruminants Viral RNA in Fecal Samples of Goats after an Outbreak in Punjab Province of Pakistan: A Longitudinal Study. Hindawi Publishing Corporation. BioMed Res Int http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/1486824\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWondimu A, Tassew H, Gelaye E, Hagos Y, Belay A, Teshome Y, Laiju S, Asebe G (2021) Outbreak Investigation and Molecular Detection of Pox Virus Circulating in Sheep and Goats in Selected Districts of West Gojjam and Awi Zones Northwest, Ethiopia. Vet Med Res Rep 12:303\u0026ndash;315.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZeedan GSG, Mahmoud AH, Abdalhamed AM, Ghazy AA, Abd EL-Razik KhA (2021) Rapid Detection and Differentiation between Sheep Pox and Goat Pox Viruses by Real-Time qPCR and Conventional PCR in Sheep and Goats in Egypt. World Vet J\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e10 (1): 80-87.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZewdie G, Derese G, Getachew B, Belay H, Akalu M (2021) Review of sheep and goat pox disease: current updates on epidemiology, diagnosis, prevention and control measures in Ethiop. J Anim Dis 1:28-32.\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Capripoxvirus, Goatpox, Goatpox virus, ELISA and PCR","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7154499/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7154499/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCapripoxvirus\u003c/em\u003e is the causative agent of pox diseases in small and large ruminants, and members of this genus comprises of sheep poxvirus, goat poxvirus, and lumpy skin disease virus. These diseases are transboundary threats endemic in Nigeria, potentially harming animal production systems through reduced trade, enforced control measures, morbidity, and mortality. This case-control study was conducted following a suspected outbreak of pox disease in a herd of adult female goats (does) that exhibited symptoms such as mucous nasal discharge and skin lesions, including vesicles, nodules, and scabs. Farm visit was carried out to clinically examine the infected animals, collect sera for serology and nasal swabs for conventional PCR, and manage the disease. 50 sera were analyzed by indirect ELISA for \u003cem\u003eCapripoxvirus\u003c/em\u003e (CaPV) neutralizing antibodies. Seropositive results guided the choice of nasal swab samples for the PCR conducted. Conventional PCR testing was performed on 24 nasal swab samples with seropositivity to CaPV. On physical examination, 128 out of 233 goats (55%) showed pox lesions along with varying degrees of respiratory complications. Pyrexia (39.5 to 41\u0026deg;C) was observed in all 128 affected goats (100%). Other clinical signs included mucous nasal discharge, congested ocular mucous membranes, and a recorded mortality of 65 goats. Morbidity and mortality rates were determined to be 55% and 28%, respectively. ELISA results revealed a 96% positivity rate for Capripoxvirus, and PCR analysis confirmed the presence of the virus with 100% amplification at 172 bp. The outbreak management, which included isolation and supported treatment, effectively limited the disease\u0026rsquo;s spread.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Serological and Molecular evaluation of Capripoxvirus of small ruminants and the disease management from a suspected goatpox outbreak in Shika, Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-27 07:01:38","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7154499/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"48cdb08b-5dec-411d-a96e-d15efba4abb7","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-02T14:32:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-27 07:01:38","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7154499","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7154499","identity":"rs-7154499","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}