Changing Highs –Exploring Substance Trends, Motives, and Emotional Dimensions of Recreational Drug Use

Changing Highs –Exploring Substance Trends, Motives, and Emotional Dimensions of Recreational Drug Use | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Changing Highs –Exploring Substance Trends, Motives, and Emotional Dimensions of Recreational Drug Use Jennifer Uhl, Sabrina Gamali, Birgit U. Stetina This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7886729/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Recreational drug use continues to rise worldwide (UNODC, 2025 ). Alongside growing consumption figures, which are receiving a lot of attention, a more subtle yet significant shift is emerging: The increasing use of new and largely unknown substances that are reshaping patterns and trends within the recreational scene (EMCDDA, 2024; Winstock et al., 2022 ). This online cross-sectional study (N = 716) explored recreational drug users’ perspectives by assessing socio-demographics, consumption patterns, motives, and emotional states (PANAS; Breyer & Bluemke, 2016 ) to identify subjective experiences and emerging trends. The results highlight particularities in the emotional experiences of recreational drug users, such as greater emotional reactivity compared to the standardized non-using sample. In addition, differences in the emotional experiences were also found between the different consumer groups, as well as in terms of the underlying motives for consumption. To understand recreational drug use and its developments, it is necessary to have in-depth knowledge about users. Examining their subjective experiences offers valuable insights and supports the development of health-promoting, user-oriented strategies, such as considering emotional aspects and underlying motives for use. Psychology substance use usage pattern reasons for use motivation emotion harm reduction Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1 Introduction Current trends in the recreational use of illegal psychoactive substances indicate continuous growth. According to the World Drug Report by the UNODC ( 2025 ), the 12-month prevalence rate was around 316 million people (aged 15–64) in 2023, corresponding to a 28% increase over the past ten years. However, as was shown at the beginning of the 2000s, this increase cannot be explained solely by the group of ‘party-users’, among whom prevalence rates are proven to be high. Rather, it refers to numerous population groups within society (Tiemann & Mohokum, 2021 ; European Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2024; Simon, 2002 ). Recent studies suggest that the use of psychoactive substances is not primarily promoted by parties and music events. Instead, ‘party-users’ bring their existing ‘everyday consumption habits’ to these events (Day et al., 2018 ; Hughes et al., 2019 ). Recreational drug use is defined as the controlled use (Schippers & Cramer, 2002 ) of various psychoactive substances in leisure time, primarily for pleasurable reasons (such as increasing relaxation and positive emotions, avoiding unpleasant feelings, activation, building closeness and affiliation with other people, or expanding consciousness). As a rule, this does not lead to any restrictions in social, private, and emotional life (Grabenhofer et al., 2018 ; Stetina et al., 2008 ). The risk of addiction is also low - only a small proportion of people who use psychoactive substances in their leisure time become addicted during their consumption career (Stetina et al., 2008 ). Potential risks in recreational drug use are mainly due to the social and political approach to this issue, which is geared toward prohibition. A restrictive, conservative drug policy not only tends to stigmatize, criminalize, and pathologize users (Werse & Kamphausen, 2018 ), but also hinders the development of harm-minimizing and health-promoting strategies (Gerlach & Stöver, 2012 ; Gerlach, 2004 ; Global Commission On Drug Policy, 2021 ; Wieczoreck, 2020 ; Akzept e.V., 2012). An openminded drug policy, moving away from taboo and stigmatization toward an open discussion of the topic and an expansion of needs-oriented and low-barrier measures for recreational use, is needed to strengthen responsible consumption behaviour, self-responsible drug literacy, and health promotion (Grabenhofer et al., 2018 ; Bundeszentrale für gesundheitliche Aufklärung, 2002). Research on recreational drug use faces specific challenges. Besides the societal and political neglect of the topic, these challenges stem from the group's unique characteristics. In their online study of recreational drug users, Stetina et al. ( 2008 ) showed, among other things, their social concealment and good integration. Recreational drug users do not see themselves as ‘classic drugusers’ and rarely seek addiction treatment services. Additionally, fear of potential prosecution (Betzler et al., 2021 ; Stetina et al., 2008 ) and stigma cause users to withdraw further from the public sphere. This makes it significantly harder to access and reach this hidden population (Stetina et al., 2008 ). Further challenges in the field of recreational drug research arise from changes in consumer behaviour, as well as new trends and developments. According to UNODC data (2019), around 892 new psychoactive substances ( NPS ) were reported between 2009 and 2018, demonstrating how quickly these changes occur. Most of these substances have hallucinogenic, dissociative, or anesthetic effects, like LSD, GBL/GHB, ketamine, psilocybin, 2C-B, or nitrous oxide. Some of these substances have already become firmly established in Europe or among specific (sub-)groups. Although the prevalence of these substances is low compared to more common substances such as alcohol, THC, amphetamines, and cocaine, an increasing trend is evident (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2024 ; Winstock et al., 2022 ). An analysis of various sources, including consumer data, Google search queries, and social media posts, revealed an overall increase from 2009 to 2020 (Sutherland et al., 2023 ). An increase in ketamine consumption was also detected over the course of 2015 to 2022 (Yang et al., 2025 ). Following a stable period of ten years, there has been an increase in the use of other hallucinogenic substances, such as LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, and PCP, particularly since 2020 (NIDA, 2022 ). Currently, there is limited empirical data on these new developments in the consumption of psychoactive substances, specifically regarding consumption trends, individual consumption motives, and associated changes in consumption behaviour (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2024 ; Johnstad, 2021 ). However, this kind of empirical data is essential for developing target group-specific, needs-oriented measures in health promotion, which is a central component in addressing recreational drug use. As part of this study, a consumer-oriented online survey of recreational drug users was conducted to find out more about the culture of recreational drug use. The focus was on analysing new developments and changes in consumption trends, with a central consideration of similarities and differences between ‘familiar’ or ‘classic’ recreational substances (e. g. cocaine, alcohol, cannabis) in comparison with currently ‘trending’ substances (e. g. LSD, psilocybin, GHB/GBL, ketamine). 2 Methods 2.1 Research design and implementation of the survey Research on recreational drug use is challenging, mainly because of the group's unique traits, such as limited access and a discreet social presence. Since multiple studies have confirmed the effectiveness of online surveys in reaching hard-to-access populations (Stetina & Kryspin-Exner, 2009 ; Kothgassner et al., 2011 ; Miller & Sønderlund, 2018 ), this method has been identified as a suitable approach. To reach the population under investigation, a cooperation with selected institutions, music collectives, and operators of websites in the field of recreational drugs (including drug-checking facilities, relevant forums, social media sites, and organizers of techno, club, and rave events) from Austria, Germany, and Switzerland took place. The survey was specifically designed to focus on recreational drug use, targeting individuals with prior experience using psychoactive substances. This client-centered online survey was conducted solely among recreational drug users. While this ensured direct access to this hidden population (Stetina et al., 2008 ), it also meant that the sample obtained was a convenience sample and therefore not representative of the overall population. The data was collected as part of a cross-sectional study using an online survey via SoSci Survey (Leiner, 2019 ) in the period from August 2023 to January 2024. 2.2 Research questions and hypotheses The central research interest was investigating recreational drug users, current developments, and consumption trends, whereby a survey was conducted directly with the affected population itself. The study aimed to investigate consumption trends and changes in substance use. As part of the analysis, ‘classic’ recreational drugs, such as cocaine, amphetamines, and MDMA, were compared with ‘trendy’ substances, such as ketamine, GHB, LSD, and nitrous oxide. The study also investigated the extent to which the underlying motivation to use is relevant as an influencing factor for the respective substance use. Since consumers usually seek to change or intensify emotions when using substances (Reuband, 1986 ; Winstock et al., 2022 ; Forschungsgemeinschaft für Konflikt- und Sozialstudien e. V., 2003; Origer, 2022 ; Marian et al., 2022 ; Thurn et al., 2020 ; Lojszczyk et al., 2023 ; Van Dyck et al., 2023 ; Parks & Kennedy, 2004 ; Ter Bogt & Engels, 2005 ), the emotional state, measured using the PANAS scales (Breyer & Bluemke, 2016 ), was also examined. This allowed for comparisons with a standardized sample (norm population from the validated psychological instrument) and enabled detailed analyses between the substance groups used (‘classic’ substances vs. ‘trending’ substances). The following research questions and hypotheses were developed in response to the research interest presented. Research question 1 ‘What are the special characteristics of the emotional state of recreational drug users?’ Research question 2 ‘How do the consumption motives of recreational drug users differ depending on the substance group consumed?’ 2.3 Survey instruments For data collection, an online questionnaire was used, which in three parts collects (a) sociodemographic data (including age, gender, education level, relationship status), (b) consumption behaviour (including lifetime prevalence, 1-year prevalence, mixed-use, consumption motives) and (c) emotional state measured by the German version of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (Breyer & Bluemke, 2016 ). The German version of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is based on the English version by Watson, Clark & Tellegen ( 1988 ). During development, the authors assumed that the human emotional state can be differentiated into positive affects (e. g., activity, enthusiasm) and adverse affects (e. g., anger, nervousness, anxiety). The psychometric properties of the instrument, including its reliability [Cronbach's α is .86 for both scales; Raykov's ρ is .93, validity (both content validity and construct validity), and objectivity (both evaluation objectivity and interpretation objectivity) can be considered as given (Breyer & Bluemke, 2016 ). The questionnaire uses a total of 20 items [10 items each to measure the Positive Affect (PA) dimension and 10 items to measure the Negative Affect (NA) dimension] to assess different emotions and feelings. Depending on the test instruction, it is possible to record current affects (‘ Please indicate the extent you have felt this way in the last month/week/year ’) or habitually persistent affects (‘ Please indicate the extent how you feel this way in general ’) (Breyer & Bluemke, 2016 ). The present study focused on the emotional state within the last 12 months and formulated the test instruction accordingly: ‘ Please indicate the extent you have felt this way over the last 12 months. ’ A five-point Likert scale (1 = very slightly/not at all, 2 = a little, 3 = moderately, 4 = quite a bit, 5 = extremely) is available for answering the 20 items. Mean values can then be generated for each dimension. High values on the PA scale indicate a high level of concentration, pleasurable engagement, alertness, activity, and a high level of energy, whereas low values on this dimension indicate sadness and lethargy. High values of the NA dimension are characterized by a range of unpleasant emotions such as anger, contempt, guilt, disgust, fear, or nervousness. Low values result in a state of calm (Watson et al., 1988 ). 2.4 Inclusion and exclusion criteria of the test subjects The inclusion criteria were age of majority (at least 18 years old) and active use of psychoactive substances. A total of 905 people took part in the survey. The data records of 189 individuals were excluded from the analysis due to the exclusion criteria (being under 18 years of age and not consuming psychoactive substances); 716 cases were statistically analysed. 2.5 Methods of statistical data analysis Statistical data analysis was performed using the SPSS statistical program, version 29 (IBM Corp., 2022, Armonk, NY, USA). In the descriptive statistical section, frequency counts based on mean values ( M ) and standard deviations ( SD ) were performed for sample presentation. Due to rounding, minor deviations may occur, meaning that the sum of the percentages shown does not always equal exactly 100%. Graphical representations of characteristic distributions were created using frequency tables and histograms (Bortz & Schuster, 2010 ). Information provided by participants in an open response format was used to analyse consumption motives. Accordingly, the available raw data were grouped into higher-level categories to derive frequency and distribution information. After forming the motive classes based on content-related considerations (Cooper, 1994 ; Simons et al., 1998 ; Zvolensky et al., 2007 ; Boys et al., 1999 and 2001 ; Kettner et al., 2019 ; and Ter Bogt & Engels, 2005 ), the individual measured values could be assigned to the respective groups (Bortz & Schuster, 2010 ) and made available for statistical analysis. To investigate the distribution of PANAS dimensions (Breyer & Bluemke, 2016 ) and differences in consumption motives, the study participants were classified into substance-specific consumer groups. The initial variable was the 1-year prevalence, which recorded the frequency of use of different legal and illegal psychoactive substances [Table 1 ]. The frequency of use was recorded as follows: ‘ never ’, ‘ once within the last 12 months ’, ‘ once within the last 6 months ’, ‘ several times within the last 6 months ’, ‘ once within the last month ’, ‘ several times within the last month ’, ‘ once a week ’, ‘ several times a week ’, ‘ daily ’ or ‘ several times a day ’. Table 1 Sample distribution substance groups Substance groups n classic stimulant substances (C SS ) 263 Cocaine MDMA Amphetamine Methamphetamine Medication for the treatment of ADD/ADHD Mephedrone (4-MMC) Kratom Clephedrone (4-CMC) MDE Methylone Crack Khat Ephedrine Metaphedrone (3-MMC) experimental and hallucinogenic/dissociative substances ( EHS ) 92 LSD Magic mushrooms 1cP-LSD DMT Poppers HHC Nitrous oxide 2C-B Ketamine GBL/GHB 2C-T-2/2C-T-7 CP-47, 497 (Spice) 2C-E ADB-Binaca/ADB-Butinaca Nightshade plants LSA (wood roses) Poppy-seeds 2F-Ketamine Mescaline mixed use ( MU ) 221 The substances examined were classified into two groups in the subsequent procedure. The first group consisted of long-established, widely used stimulant substances, such as cocaine, MDMA, and amphetamines, collectively known as the ‘ classic stimulant substances ’ ( CSS ). The second group consisted of comparatively newer hallucinogenic and dissociative substances, such as LSD, 2C-B, and ketamine, collectively known as the ‘ experimental and hallucinogenic/dissociative substances ’ ( EHS ). These substances are becoming increasingly crucial in recreational use. Since many respondents reported mixed use behaviour, an additional category, the ‘ mixed use ’ group ( MU ), was created. The final group allocation was made by assigning each respondent to the substance group for which the highest intensity of use was reported. After a descriptive analysis of the prevalence values of individual substances, the psychoactive substances alcohol, tobacco, and THC products had to be excluded from the analyses. The high 1-year prevalence frequency of these substances ( n > 75%) limited the possibility of meaningful statistical comparisons and could have led to distortions in the results. In the inferential statistics section, group differences between the PANAS dimensions and differences in consumption motives were tested for statistical significance ( p < .05) using MANOVA procedures and post-hoc tests, as well as chi-square tests after verifying the respective prerequisites. One-sample t-tests were performed to analyse the sample's mean values in comparison to the PANAS scales' standardized mean values (Bortz & Schuster, 2010 ). 3 Results and findings 3.1 Sample Description and Descriptive Results A total of 716 people (52.65% male, 44.69% female, 0.14% inter*sex, 1.96% non-binary, 0.56% no response) aged between 16–68 years ( M = 30.85, SD = 9.14) took part in the survey. Most participants were from Austria (43.99%) or Germany (42.18%), followed by Switzerland (5.17%), Italy (4.61%), and smaller proportions from Egypt, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, and the USA (0.14% each). The percentage of missing data was 3.21%. Regarding level of education, most respondents had a university or college degree (45.95%). 19.27% of participants reported having a high school diploma. Other qualifications included general or vocational secondary school (11.17%), vocational higher school (6.7%), trade school/technical college (10.34%), secondary school (2.65%), another qualification without further details (2.23%), and elementary school (0.42%). No qualifications were reported by 0.42% of participants (proportion of missing answers: 0.84%). In terms of relationship status, most participants (53.35%) were single. 31.56% were living in a partnership, 10.34% were married, 1.68% were divorced, 1.12% were separated, and 0.70% were living in a civil partnership. 1.26% of respondents did not provide any information on their current relationship status. Most participants lived in the city (78.35%), although 1.54% of respondents did not provide any information in this regard. The living situation was alone primarily (32.26%), followed by living with a life partner (24.44%), living in a shared apartment (19.97%), living with parents (9.78%), living with a life partner and children (8.94%) or living alone with child(ren) (1.54%) as well as in a multigenerational household (1.26%). Other forms of housing, without further details, were reported by 0.56% of participants. For approximately 1.26%, the current housing situation could not be ascertained due to missing answers [Table 2 ]. Table 2 Demographic profile of the sample (n = 716) Demographic characteristics Frequency (%) Gender male 377 (52.65) female 320 (44.69) inter*sex 1 (0.14) non-binary 14 (1.96) no response 4 (0.56) Place of residence Austria 315 (43.99) Germany 302 (42.18) Switzerland 37 (5.17) Italy 33 (4.61) Egypt 1 (0.14) France 1 (0.14) Netherlands 1 (0.14) Sweden 1 (0.14 UK 1 (0.14) US 1 (0.14) no response 23 (3.21) Level of education university or college degree 329 (45.95) high school diploma 138 (19.27) general or vocational secondary school 79 (11.17) vocational higher school 49 (6.7) trade school/technical college 74 (10.34) secondary school 19 (2.65) another qualification without further details 16 (2.23) elementary school 3 (0.42) no qualifications 3 (0.42) no response 6 (0.84) Relationship status single 382 (53.35) living in a partnership 226 (31.56) married 74 (10.34) divorced 12 (1.68) separated 8 (1.12) living in a civil partnership 5 (0.70) no response 9 (1.26) Current place of residence urban area 561 (78.35) rural area 144 (20.11) no response 11 (1.54) Current living situation alone 231 (32.26) living with a life partner 175 (24.44) living in a shared apartment 143 (19.97) living with parents 70 (9.78) living with a life partner and children 64 (8.94) living alone with child(ren) 11 (1.54) living in a multi-generational household 9 (1.26) other forms of housing without further details 4 (0.56) no response 9 (1.26) When asked about their consumption habits over the past 12 months, more than 75% of respondents reported using alcohol (90.8%), THC products (78.1%), and nicotine (75.7%). In addition to traditional recreational substances like MDMA (60.3%), cocaine (55.8%), and amphetamines (48.6%), around 50% of respondents also used psychedelic or dissociative substances such as hallucinogenic mushrooms (41.9%), LSD (41.2%), ketamine (37.2%), and 2C-B (22.6%). Substances with depressant effects, including morphine (3.7%), poppy seeds (2.3%), and heroin (2.1%), as well as research chemicals like 2F-ketamine (2.3%), CP-47,497 (0.6%), and 2C-T-2/2C-T-7 (0.2%), were used by fewer than 4% of participants in the past year [Figure 1 ]. 84.6% of participants reported having taken two or more substances at the same time or in quick succession (within a few hours) in the last 12 months (proportion of missing responses: 3.5%). The most frequent combinations were in conjunction with alcohol: Alcohol with cannabis (28.2%), alcohol with tobacco (24.5%), cannabis with tobacco (14.9%), alcohol with cocaine (12.9%), and alcohol with amphetamine (10%). 3.2 Analysis of consumer motives The analysis of consumer motives resulted in a total of eight main categories, which were divided as follows: Coping (including stress reduction; escape from reality; reduction of negative emotional states such as boredom, sadness, fear, or stressful thoughts) Enhancement (including increasing positive/desired emotional states such as euphoria, energy, fun; increasing self-confidence and self-esteem; intensifying sex life) Physical Effects (including increased alertness, stamina, physical activation, weight loss or weight gain, improved athletic performance) Social Purpose [including enjoying friendships (more); more successful social behaviour; increasing social and leisure activities (e., at parties); promoting closeness to peers; peer pressure; conformism] Facilitating Activities (including increasing attention, memory, and concentration at school, work, or study) Effect Handling [e. g. increase or decrease (side) effects of other substances] Expansion (including expansion of consciousness; change of consciousness and senses; increase in self-awareness; self-exploration; spiritual experiences) Curiosity (including trying out new things; experimenting; having an interest and an urge to discover) Overall, respondents cited coping reasons most frequently (48.6%), followed by enhancement motives (42.9%) and social purposes (35.9%). Consumption to intensify or attenuate the effects of other substances ( effect handling ) was mentioned least frequently at 1.7% [Figure 2 ]. 3.3 Inferential statistical analyses Inferential statistical calculations were carried out using a grouping variable that assigned respondents to one of the following groups based on their preferred substance use: ‘classic stimulant substances’ (CSS) ‘experimental and hallucinogenic/dissociative substances’ (EHS) In the case of mixed use, subjects were assigned to the group ‘ mixed use ’ ( MU ). 3.3.1 Research Question 1: ‘What are the specific characteristics of emotional states in recreational drug users?’ Research question 1 examined emotional states in recreational drug use and looked at differences in emotional states (a) between recreational drug users compared to the standardized sample (norm population from the validated psychological instrument) and (b) depending on the substance group used. In order to compare the emotional state between users and the standardized sample, one-sample t-tests were calculated based on the standardized mean values of PANAS.The mean score for the Positive Affect (PA) scale was M = 3.17 with a standard deviation ( SD ) of 0.63 across all ages and genders. The mean score for the Negative Affect (NA) PANAS scale was M = 1.72 with an SD of 0.57 (Breyer & Bluemke, 2016 ). For both the PA [Table 3 ] and NA [Table 4 ] PANAS scales, all three substance groups showed significantly higher values compared to the standardized sample. Table 3 Positive Affect (PA) – substance groups CSS, EHS, MU Sample (n = 716) Normative sample a (n = 4138) Group M SD M SD t df p d CSS 3.31 0.64 3.17 0.63 2.97 196 .003* .64 EHS 3.51 0.61 3.17 0.63 4.79 74 < .001** .61 MU 3.35 0.67 3.17 0.63 3.68 190 < .001** .67 ** Significant at the level < 0.001 * Significant at the level < 0.05 a Breyer, B. & Bluemke, M. ( 2016 ). Deutsche Version der Positive and Negative Affect Schedule PANAS (GESIS Panel). Zusammenstellung sozialwissenschaftlicher Items und Skalen. https://doi.org/10.6102/zis242 . Table 4 Negative Affect (NA) – substance groups CSS, EHS, MU Sample (N = 716) Normative sample a (N = 4138) Group M SD M SD t df p d CSS 2.37 0.72 1.72 0.57 12.67 196 < .001** .72 EHS 2.09 0.07 1.72 0.57 5.14 74 < .001** .60 MU 2.28 0.05 1.72 0.57 11.05 190 < .001** .07 ** Significant at the level < 0.001 * Significant at the level < 0.05 a Breyer, B. & Bluemke, M. ( 2016 ). Deutsche Version der Positive and Negative Affect Schedule PANAS (GESIS Panel). Zusammenstellung sozialwissenschaftlicher Items und Skalen. https://doi.org/10.6102/zis242 . To analyze emotional state depending on the substance group consumed, a single-factorial MANOVA showed significant differences regarding both PANAS dimensions (PA, NA) [( F (4,918) = 2.92, p = .021, 𝜂 2 p = .01, Wilk's Λ = 0.98)], whereby post-hoc single-factorial ANOVAs were carried out to examine the exact differences. There were no significant differences for the PA dimension [( F (2,460) = 2.60, p = .076, 𝜂 2 p = .01)], but significant differences for the NA dimension [( F (2,460) = 4.98, p = .007, 𝜂 2 p = .02)]. The Bonferroni post-hoc test found existing differences between people in the CSS group and the EHS group ( p = .005, M Diff = -0.30, 95%-CI [-0.52, -0.07]). The CSS group members ( M = 2.37; SD = 0.72) had significantly higher scores on the NA dimension than those in the EHS group (M = 2.08; SD = 0.60). 3.3.2 Research Question 2: ‘How do the consumption motives of recreational drug users differ depending on the substance group consumed?’ The second research question focused on the underlying consumption motives of recreational drug users, specifically examining possible variations depending on the substance group consumed. Coping motives ranked first among all three consumer groups ( CSS : 47.1%, EHS: 58.7%, and MU: 51.6%). Enhancement motives followed for consumers of CSS (45.2%) and MU (46.6%), while motives around expansion occupied second place for consumers of EHS (48.9%). The third most popular motive among consumers in the CSS (35.4%) and MU (39.8%) groups was social purpose , while among consumers in the EHS group, it was enhancement (45.7%) [Figure 3 ]. To examine whether the consumption motives differed significantly in frequency between the three consumer groups ( CSS , EHS , MU ), χ² tests of independence were conducted. The analysis shows that there were significant differences in consumption due to physical effects ( χ² (2) = 16.83, p < .001, V = .17). This motivation was significantly less common among EHS consumers ( r i * EHS = -3.8) but significantly more common among MU consumers ( r i * MU = 2.8). Also, the motivation in facilitating activities ( χ² (2) = 7.68, p = .021, V = 0.12) was significantly more frequent among consumers of CSS ( r i * CSS = 2.8), whereas effect handling ( χ² (1) = 6.65, p = .036, V = 0.11) was significantly more common among MU consumers (r i * MU = 2.5). There were also significant differences in consumption for expansion motives ( χ² (2) = 36.56, p < .001, V = 0.25). Consumers of CSS ( r i * CSS = -5.8) reported these motives significantly less often. However, consumers of EHS ( r i * EHS = 3.8) and those with an MU ( r i * MU = 3.1) reported them significantly more often. Table 5 [Table 5 ] shows non-significant consumption motives. Table 5 Analysis of consumer motives – CSS, EHS, MU Motive χ² df p V Coping 3.37 2 .186 0.08 Enhancement 0.61 2 .738 0.03 Social Purpose 1.43 2 .490 0.05 Curiosity 4.39 2 .111 0.09 4 Limitations The target group under investigation is difficult to access, so identifying an appropriate approach was the first methodological challenge. Since various studies have emphasized the effectiveness of online surveys with hidden populations (Stetina et al., 2008 ; Stetina & Kryspin-Exner, 2009 ; Kothgassner et al., 2011 ; Miller & Sønderlund, 2018 ), this method was employed in the present study. However, aspects of the sample's representativeness must be critically scrutinized when conducting online surveys. While test arrangements on the WWW facilitate the recruitment of a comprehensive sample, such internet-generated convenience samples are not representative of the overall population (Echterhoff, 2013 ; Möhring & Schlütz, 2019 ; Bortz & Schuster, 2010 ). For example, the data on 1-year prevalence presented in the results Chap. 3.1 ‘ Sample Description and Descriptive Results ’ are representative of the sample described here but do not represent prevalence data for the population. Despite the non-probabilistic sample, it can still provide valuable information for the present exploratory study, such as deriving correlations and causal relationships (Möhring & Schlütz, 2019 ). Furthermore, it must be emphasized in this context that the basic population of recreational drug users is not known; as mentioned, it is a hidden population (Stetina et al., 2008 ). So, the sample in this field of research must necessarily be selective. Any sampling, therefore, only allows a section to be considered. The extent to which this is representative of this group can only be speculated based on the available knowledge from the research field. Another limitation of the study is its cross-sectional design, which is not suitable for recording changes over time. Only longitudinal studies can provide insights into possible developments in consumption behaviour, such as changes in frequency or quantity of consumption (Ullrich, 2018 ; Möhring & Schlütz, 2019 ). There is a need for further research into longitudinal data that can capture potential changes in emotional state or consumption motives, such as continued consumption, cessation of consumption, or switching substances. Studies in the field of (recreational) drug use aim to record opinions, attitudes, and/or behaviours that are subject to particular sensitivity. Surveys in this area are usually perceived as highly personal, primarily since they address behaviours and/or attitudes that conflict with existing legal or sociocultural norms. Surveying value-sensitive topics can lead to respondents providing distorted responses due to social desirability (Kreuter et al., 2008 ). Another methodological criticism can be made regarding the survey methods used. Although the PANAS scales (Breyer & Bluemke, 2016 ) can provide insight into emotional states, they cannot record less ‘traditional’ categories. To adequately capture affective experiences and emotional states, even when using hallucinogenic or dissociative substances, which expand emotional experience to include mystical experiences, connectedness, and ego dissolution, questionnaires must be specifically developed to capture these dimensions. Measurement methods such as the Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ30) (MacLean et al., 2012 ) or the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (5D-ASC & 11D-ASC) (Dittrich, 1998 ; Studerus et al., 2010 ) could prove to be useful for such surveys. 5 Summarized interpretation and conclusions for practice In addition to the continuous increase in prevalence of recreational psychoactive substance use (UNODC, 2025 ), ongoing changes in consumption behaviour, new trends, and developments can be observed (UNODC, 2019; EMCDDA, 2024; Winstock et al., 2022 ). The highly dynamic nature of this field complicates empirical research, underscoring the necessity of ongoing scientific examination of current trends. The present study, therefore, aimed to investigate recent developments in recreational drug use, particularly the rise of previously uncommon substances, and analyse them in comparison to established psychoactive substances regarding similarities and differences. Additionally, the emotional experience of users was considered an essential aspect and examined in comparison to a norm population and about potential differences between predominantly used substance groups. Regarding research question 1 (‘ The emotional state of recreational drug users differs significantly from that of non-users’ ), the analysis of the mean values of the PANAS scales revealed that the subjects in the present study consistently exhibited significantly higher scores than the norm population control group. Taking Cohen's d 1 into account, the results showed medium to large effect sizes, indicating that the present sample had more intense emotional experiences. The more pronounced emotional experience of positive affects (PA) in the population studied seems plausible, as the primary goals of recreational use of psychoactive substances are to enhance and intensify the emotional experience (e. g. promoting euphoria, experiencing a positive state of intoxication) and to increase an active and fulfilling leisure life (Lojszczyk et al., 2023 ; Van Dyck et al., 2023 ; Parks & Kennedy, 2004 ; Ter Bogt & Engels, 2005 ). Definitions of recreational substance use emphasize that bio-psycho-social impairments typically do not occur (Grabenhofer et al., 2018 ; Stetina et al., 2008 ), primarily due to controlled use and adherence to specific consumption rules (Schippers & Cramer, 2002 ). The increased experience of positive emotions can be interpreted as an expression of a hedonistic lifestyle, which often accompanies the recreational use of psychoactive substances. The consistently significantly higher values of the population studied regarding negative affect (NA) bring potential consumption-related undesirable side effects into the scientific focus. In their meta-analysis on motivation in recreational drug use, Lojszczyk et al. ( 2023 ) demonstrated that consumers of psychoactive substances, particularly those who use them regularly, experience undesirable side effects. These include physical effects, such as nausea, vomiting, headaches, teeth grinding, and body temperature fluctuations, as well as psychological effects, such as anxiety, confusion, panic attacks, apathy, and paranoia. So-called ‘lows’, which follow ‘highs’ and manifest as depressive feelings, irritability, mood swings, and negative thoughts, were cited as particularly characteristic. These lows could contribute to the above-average experience of negative emotions. Another possible explanation lies in the user’s basic emotional state. In the case of prevailing negative affects such as boredom, stress, or depressive moods, as indicated by high NA values, the consumption of certain substances - such as MDMA, ketamine, or LSD - can lead to a temporary improvement in mood. However, this effect is usually limited to the duration of the effects of the substances. After the psychoactive effects have worn off, negative emotional states often occur again, which - especially in the case of substances with a serotonergic effect such as MDMA - can be further intensified by neurochemical processes, such as a temporary depletion of serotonin stores (Roberts et al., 2018 ; Zimmermann et al., 2023). In summary, recreational drug users tend to feel their emotions more strongly. They specifically pursue experiences that trigger passionate feelings (Reuband, 1986 ; Winstock et al., 2022 ; Forschungsgemeinschaft für Konflikt- und Sozialstudien e. V., 2003; Origer, 2022 ; Marian et al., 2022 ; Thurn et al., 2020 ; Lojszczyk et al., 2023 ; Van Dyck et al., 2023 ; Parks & Kennedy, 2004 ; Ter Bogt & Engels, 2005 ), which goes beyond just the ‘party culture’ and influences life as a whole. Using psychoactive substances broadens the emotional range, making emotions like joy, euphoria, and activity, as well as disappointment, boredom, or sadness, feel more intense. Consequently, life can be marked by a heightened emotional experience. Comparing the PANAS scales among the CSS , EHS , and MU consumer groups revealed significant differences regarding the Negative Affect scale. Consumers in the CSS group scored higher than those in the EHS group. These results support two hypotheses: (a) the potential side effects of the substances consumed and (b) the users' basic emotional sensitivity. The use of stimulant substances, as included in the CSS group, is more frequently described by users with more pronounced side effects such as anxiety and panic states, irritability, sadness, or depression (Lojszczyk et al., 2023 ; Duff et al., 2007; Parks & Kennedy, 2004 ) than is reported by users of hallucinogenic/dissociative substances (Kennedy & Parks, 2005; Zeifman et al., 2023 ; Schlag et al., 2022 ). This could contribute to stronger negative affect expression and should be considered when explaining the observed differences. Assuming a negatively coloured mood independent of substances, the use of stimulants could indicate self-medication or emotion regulation (Wurmser, 1997 ; Weiss et al., 2022 ). Ter Bogt & Engels ( 2005 ), among others, demonstrated the desire for mood-enhancing and mood-boosting effects in stimulant use in a study of MDMA users. In this study, ‘energy’, ‘euphoria’, and ‘sociability’ were named as the top three motives for consumption. In contrast, the use of psychedelic and dissociative substances is more often based on the search for novel, introspective, and mind-altering experiences than on directly influencing the current mood (Kettner et al., 2019 ; Basedow & Kuitunen-Paul, 2022 ; Soussan et al., 2018 ). People in a negative mood may be more likely to consume CSS , while EHS appears comparatively less attractive. The analysis of the motives for use, as examined in research question 2 (‘ How do the consumption motives of recreational drug users differ depending on the substance group consumed? ’), also revealed significant differences depending on the substance groups consumed. Claims of increasing stamina, alertness, or physical activity ( physical effects ) through substance use were significantly less common among users with mono-consumption of EHS . This does not seem surprising, as popular goals in the use of psychedelic substances increasingly concern the promotion of mind-expanding, spiritual, and introspective experiences (Kettner et al., 2019 ; Basedow & Kuitunen-Paul, 2022 ; Soussan et al., 2018 ). Interestingly, motives related to physical effects were significantly more prevalent in cases of mixed use ( MU ). It is reasonable to assume that the co-use of stimulating substances adds an activating component to the psychedelic effects, thereby modifying the hallucinogenic experience by increasing stamina and alertness. This could indicate a change in consumption trends, in which hallucinogenic/dissociative substances are no longer only used for self-exploration but are increasingly consumed in combination with stimulants at parties or in a social context. Prevalence data also show an increase in the use of substances such as 1cP-LSD, ketamine, and 2C-B, which have become popular ‘party drugs’ in recent years, especially in the recreational drug sector (Winstock et al., 2022 ; European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2024 ; Sutherland et al., 2023 ; NIDA, 2022 ). Motives related to promoting concentration, learning, and memory at school, university, or work ( facilitating activities) were found to be significantly more frequent among CSS users. Under the concept of ‘cognitive enhancement,’ stimulant drugs can optimize cognitive abilities (Racine et al., 2021 ). These results can also be understood in terms of methylphenidate (e. g. Ritalin®, Medikinet®, and Concerta®) and amphetamine (e. g. Adderall® and Elvanse®) preparations in this substance group. Consumption for the purpose of expansion , such as the expansion or alteration of consciousness, spiritual experiences, and a sense of connectedness, was increasingly found among EHS users and people with an MU . Various studies confirm that the primary motivation for using psychedelic substances is consciousness expansion. For instance, Kettner et al. ( 2019 ) found that approximately 90% of LSD users and about 88% of psilocybin and ayahuasca users reported this motivation for consumption. In this context, the phenomenon of so-called ‘psychonauts’ describes people who explore their own psyche using psychedelic and/or dissociative substances (Hartogsohn, 2024 ). Consumption enables a kind of ‘self-exploration’ by softening psychological defense mechanisms and providing deeper access to the inner self (Letheby & Gerrans, 2017 ; Soler et al., 2016 ; Kettner et al., 2019 ). In MU , co-using stimulants can enhance positive psychedelic effects, mitigate challenging states, and boost stamina and alertness. This is intended to make the psychedelic state of intoxication more intense and pleasant (Zeifman et al., 2023 ; Boys et al., 2001 ; Grov et al., 2009 ; Straumann et al., 2023 ). Users with an MU reported significantly more frequent use for effect handling . Although classic hallucinogens, such as LSD or psilocybin, have a lower risk potential, including substance abuse, dependence, toxicity, or undesirable side effects, their mind-altering effects can include positive experiences, as well as undesirable and unpleasant experiences, known as ‘bad trips’ (Zeifman et al., 2023 ). Around 40.9% of participants in a study by Simonsson et al. ( 2023 ) reported having had difficult or unsettling experiences with psychedelic substances. Such experiences can lead to acute or long-term psychological distress or functional impairment (Zeifman et al., 2023 ; Simonsson et al., 2023 ; Barber et al., 2022 ). To protect themselves from challenging psychedelic experiences while enhancing the positive effects, users often resort to other substances as part of an effect control (Zeifman et al., 2023 ; Boys et al., 2001 ; Grov et al., 2009 ). Accordingly, the combined use of LSD and MDMA, also known as ‘candy flipping’, or a combination of psilocybin and MDMA (‘hippie flipping’), is said to help reduce difficult and increase positive experiences. Users report a mood boost through a synergistic increase (Zeifman et al., 2023 ; Boys et al., 2001 ; Grov et al., 2009 ; Straumann et al., 2023 ). Lake and Lucas (2024) demonstrated the popularity of such combinations based on data from the 2023 Global Drug Survey . Among psychedelic substance users ( n = 6.079), 94.2% reported mixed-use behaviour with one or more substances, such as cannabis, alcohol or MDMA. Comparisons of the underlying consumer motives between the CSS , EHS , and MU groups revealed that the use of CSS was consistently associated with performance-enhancing motives. In contrast, the use of EHS was more frequently linked to the desire for mind-expanding experiences and less often with increasing stamina, alertness, or physical activity. The data confirms the results from other studies that have also identified these ‘classic’ motivations for using stimulant or hallucinogenic/dissociative substances (Van de Wijngaart et al., 1997 ; Ter Bogt & Engels, 2005 ; Kettner et al., 2019 ; Basedow & Kuitunen-Paul, 2022 ; and Soussan et al., 2018 ). Relevant new findings emerged in the MU group, which presented significantly higher motivations in terms of expansio n, physical effects , and handling of effects . These findings can be interpreted in the context of consumer trends. Current changes in the party setting are reflected in the increasing popularity of music festivals and electronic rave or dance events, which place the social context of the music experience at the centre (Lojszczyk et al., 2023 ) and are shifting fundamental parameters of the traditional consumption setting (including events in unknown, spacious locations with a large number of visitors). This brings new demands on the substances consumed and leads to changes in consumption behaviour. For instance, consuming stimulating substances alongside hallucinogens can make the experience ‘safer’, enabling one to explore mind-altering states within a social or party setting. At the same time, stimulant effects increase stamina, dancing ability, and perseverance, while hallucinogenic effects promote an intense or alternative musical experience. Therefore, it can be seen that ‘well-known’ substances from the CSS area are supplemented by ‘new’ substances from the psychedelic/dissociative area to intensify and extend leisure life while adding a sensory-altering perspective. In summary, this study demonstrated that. Recreational drug users showed greater emotional reactivity in terms of both positive and negative affect compared to the standardized norm sample. When comparing the emotional state between the substance groups ( CSS , EHS , MU ), CSS users exhibited higher negative affects than the other two groups. This was discussed based on possible undesirable consequences of this specific substance group or the basic emotional constitution of the CSS users, in which the use of ‘happy drugs’ is supposed to attenuate negative affects. Motivational comparisons between the three substance groups ( CSS , EHS , MU ) revealed that users of CSS and EHS primarily sought performance enhancement or mind expansion. These results are consistent with previous research. However, unanticipated results were found among MU consumers, who presented unique characteristics regarding expansion or effect handling. These results were understood in the context of changes in fundamental parameters of recreational drug use. Changes in consumption settings can create new demands for substances and thus initiate new consumption trends. Changes and trends in the consumption of psychoactive substances are closely linked to the changing times and must therefore always be considered in the context of social developments. Reorientations of set and setting (e. g. in party behaviour), shaped by social norms and technological influences, change both consumption behaviour and the experience of substances consumed therein. To understand changes and trends in recreational drug use, key aspects such as underlying motivations, expectations of substances, reasons for substance choice, and individual patterns of use must be considered (Lojszczyk et al., 2023 ). However, this is made more difficult by the constant emergence of new substances that are relatively unknown and unexplored (Winstock & Ramsey, 2010 ; Kettner et al., 2019 ). Focusing on the subjective experiences of users provides an opportunity to gain unique insights into the use of psychoactive substances. This approach offers valuable insights and information to discover new trends in consumption behaviour from a consumer-centered perspective. A holistic understanding of these dynamics is essential to appropriately respond to changes and latest developments in recreational drug use. Further research in this area can help remove the taboo and stigma surrounding the topic, thereby strengthening opportunities for acceptance-oriented health promotion. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the key informants and participants for their generosity, openness, and valuable contributions to the study. Author Contributions Jennifer Uhl: Conceptualization; Methodology; Formal Analysis; Investigation; Data Curation; Writing – Original Draft; Visualization; Project Administration Birgit U. Stetina: Conceptualization; Methodology; Writing – Review & Editing; Supervision; Project Administration Sabrina Gamali: Validation; Writing – Review & Editing; Visualization Ethical considerations Ethics approval was provided by the Ethics Commission by the Faculties of Psychotherapy Science, of Psychology, of Law of the Sigmund Freud University Vienna (FCS4HMVEBR3GLU90168) on July 07, 2023. All participants agreed to a written consent form before participating in the study. Consent to participate All participants agreed to a written consent form before participating in the study. Consent for publication All participants agreed to a written consent form before participating in the study. Declaration of conflicting interest The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Funding statement The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Data availability Due to the inclusion of confidential information, the research data cannot be shared. Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies ChatGPT (GPT-4), Grammarly, and DeepL SE were utilized to support the writing process, optimize language and grammar, and facilitate translation from German to English. 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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1988, Vol. 54, No. 6 , 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063 Weiss NH, Kiefer R, Goncharenko S, Raudales AM, Forkus SR, Schick MR, Contractor AA (2022) Emotion regulation and substance use: A meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend 230:109–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.109131 Werse B, Kamphausen G (2018) Drogenkleinhandel und Social Supply. In M. von Heyden, H. Jungaberle & T. Majić (Hrsg.), Handbuch Psychoaktive Substanzen (S. 137–150). Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin Wieczoreck M (2020) Internationale Drogenpolitik. Ansätze und aktuelle Diskurse. Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 70. Jahrgang, 49–50 , S. 31–36 Winstock A, Munksgaard R, Davies E, Ferris J, ZhuParris A, Barratt M (2022) Global Drug Survey: A different way of looking at drugs. 2022 Drug Trend Report: Time, Music, Clubbing, Age, and Diet. https://www.globaldrugsurvey.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/2022WowReport_Final.pdf Winstock AR, Ramsey JD (2010) Legal highs and the challenges for policy makers. Addiction 105(10):1685–1687. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03163.x Wurmser L (1997) Die verborgene Dimension: Psychodynamik des Drogenzwangs. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Yang KH, Kepner W, Cleland CM, Palamar JJ (2025) Trends and characteristics in ketamine use among US adults with and without depression, 2015–2022. J Affect Disorders Volume 373:345–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.12.108 Zeifman RJ, Kettner H, Pagni BA, Mallard A, Roberts DE, Erritzoe D, Ross S, Carhart-Harris RL (2023) Co-use of MDMA with psilocybin/LSD may buffer against challenging experiences and enhance positive experiences. Sci Rep 13:13645. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-40856-5 Zimmerman J, Zölch N, Coray R, Bavato F, Friedli N, Baumgartner MR, Steuer AE, Opitz A, Werner A, Oeltzschner G, Seifritz E, Stock AK, Beste C, Cole DM, Quednow BB (2023) Chronic 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) Use Is Related to Glutamate and GABA Concentrations in the Striatum But Not the Anterior Cingulate Cortex. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 26(6):438–450. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyad023 Zvolensky MJ, Vujanovic AA, Bernstein A, Bonn-Miller MO, Marshall EC, Leyro TM (2007) Marijuana use motives: A confirmatory test and evaluation among young adult marijuana users. Addict Behaviours 32(12):3122–3130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.06.010 Footnotes The following values are used as a guide for interpreting effect size according to Jacob Cohen ( 1988 ): small effect Cohen's d = 0.2, medium effect Cohen's d = 05 and large effect Cohen's d = 0.8. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7886729","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":531224908,"identity":"f073090f-e797-4615-8d40-f88be5b1ccbc","order_by":0,"name":"Jennifer Uhl","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA60lEQVRIie3OvQrCMBDA8QtCXQJdI/jxCidCUSg+yxWhLqm+Qqa6VFzdfJVKwEl8hro4dXCsUNBWO7gYHR3yH8qR8uMOwGb7w5iqPuTXI2fpFfq/kvBJYL+FUfNO32BDNP+FtFbrQ5aRvwQRpdovMVBtncGtMByWnOZIFE6UWJCO4orwEFli2MK20hNBoRGERB2pMlAgqyNNZJd7guj+IuP6MDcHVhq38JqkLwJORYSElnFLImsyQ4fnuF/HOIrFBXU3/EyGq6PXKWiKblsOs6LE3sadnc+5byCqGRx4G9LPAGBg+mmz2Wy2Zw91DkxS5SveLQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-4612-2673","institution":"Faculty of Psychology, Sigmund Freud University, Vienna, Austria","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jennifer","middleName":"","lastName":"Uhl","suffix":""},{"id":531229332,"identity":"abf29050-ae33-4cfc-9a05-8621619b34c3","order_by":1,"name":"Sabrina Gamali","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0905-4010","institution":"Faculty of Psychology, Sigmund Freud University, Vienna, Austria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sabrina","middleName":"","lastName":"Gamali","suffix":""},{"id":531229200,"identity":"41dad307-440d-4b4e-a4ff-45e8ee0c93a0","order_by":2,"name":"Birgit U. 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12:20:27","extension":"html","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":214093,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7886729/v1/6bba08a84fb17173072ac42b.html"},{"id":93933242,"identity":"b78e53ae-a73f-4f60-ba02-6cbc5faff9b8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-20 12:20:27","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e1-year prevalence of psychoactive substance use\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7886729/v1/c79eacdd051311ad4045f551.png"},{"id":93933244,"identity":"eda35aa5-8118-41df-b17a-9a16f9febf22","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-20 12:20:27","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":14798,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMotivational categories\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7886729/v1/60bf91bb1d1fc81803e2c0c1.png"},{"id":93933243,"identity":"8233c874-4fb0-4fd4-b098-74a75af7b8d3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-20 12:20:27","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26694,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMotive analysis CSS, EHS, MU\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7886729/v1/07e369c710f55652cc61c808.png"},{"id":97250521,"identity":"a75c16e0-1f93-4b11-964c-a0055d7e3bd4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-02 13:14:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1278300,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7886729/v1/76279104-d0ff-4e17-b7ad-30fa3a5ccf5d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eChanging Highs –\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExploring Substance Trends, Motives, and Emotional Dimensions of Recreational Drug Use\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCurrent trends in the recreational use of illegal psychoactive substances indicate continuous growth. According to the World Drug Report by the UNODC (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), the 12-month prevalence rate was around 316\u0026nbsp;million people (aged 15\u0026ndash;64) in 2023, corresponding to a 28% increase over the past ten years. However, as was shown at the beginning of the 2000s, this increase cannot be explained solely by the group of \u0026lsquo;party-users\u0026rsquo;, among whom prevalence rates are proven to be high. Rather, it refers to numerous population groups within society (Tiemann \u0026amp; Mohokum, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; European Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2024; Simon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Recent studies suggest that the use of psychoactive substances is not primarily promoted by parties and music events. Instead, \u0026lsquo;party-users\u0026rsquo; bring their existing \u0026lsquo;everyday consumption habits\u0026rsquo; to these events (Day et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Hughes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecreational drug use is defined as the controlled use (Schippers \u0026amp; Cramer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) of various psychoactive substances in leisure time, primarily for pleasurable reasons (such as increasing relaxation and positive emotions, avoiding unpleasant feelings, activation, building closeness and affiliation with other people, or expanding consciousness). As a rule, this does not lead to any restrictions in social, private, and emotional life (Grabenhofer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Stetina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The risk of addiction is also low - only a small proportion of people who use psychoactive substances in their leisure time become addicted during their consumption career (Stetina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Potential risks in recreational drug use are mainly due to the social and political approach to this issue, which is geared toward prohibition. A restrictive, conservative drug policy not only tends to stigmatize, criminalize, and pathologize users (Werse \u0026amp; Kamphausen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), but also hinders the development of harm-minimizing and health-promoting strategies (Gerlach \u0026amp; St\u0026ouml;ver, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Gerlach, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Global Commission On Drug Policy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Wieczoreck, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Akzept e.V., 2012). An openminded drug policy, moving away from taboo and stigmatization toward an open discussion of the topic and an expansion of needs-oriented and low-barrier measures for recreational use, is needed to strengthen responsible consumption behaviour, self-responsible drug literacy, and health promotion (Grabenhofer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Bundeszentrale f\u0026uuml;r gesundheitliche Aufkl\u0026auml;rung, 2002).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch on recreational drug use faces specific challenges. Besides the societal and political neglect of the topic, these challenges stem from the group's unique characteristics. In their online study of recreational drug users, Stetina et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) showed, among other things, their social concealment and good integration. Recreational drug users do not see themselves as \u0026lsquo;classic drugusers\u0026rsquo; and rarely seek addiction treatment services. Additionally, fear of potential prosecution (Betzler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Stetina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) and stigma cause users to withdraw further from the public sphere. This makes it significantly harder to access and reach this hidden population (Stetina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther challenges in the field of recreational drug research arise from changes in consumer behaviour, as well as new trends and developments. According to UNODC data (2019), around 892 new psychoactive substances (\u003cem\u003eNPS\u003c/em\u003e) were reported between 2009 and 2018, demonstrating how quickly these changes occur. Most of these substances have hallucinogenic, dissociative, or anesthetic effects, like LSD, GBL/GHB, ketamine, psilocybin, 2C-B, or nitrous oxide. Some of these substances have already become firmly established in Europe or among specific (sub-)groups. Although the prevalence of these substances is low compared to more common substances such as alcohol, THC, amphetamines, and cocaine, an increasing trend is evident (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Winstock et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). An analysis of various sources, including consumer data, Google search queries, and social media posts, revealed an overall increase from 2009 to 2020 (Sutherland et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). An increase in ketamine consumption was also detected over the course of 2015 to 2022 (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Following a stable period of ten years, there has been an increase in the use of other hallucinogenic substances, such as LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, and PCP, particularly since 2020 (NIDA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, there is limited empirical data on these new developments in the consumption of psychoactive substances, specifically regarding consumption trends, individual consumption motives, and associated changes in consumption behaviour (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Johnstad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, this kind of empirical data is essential for developing target group-specific, needs-oriented measures in health promotion, which is a central component in addressing recreational drug use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs part of this study, a consumer-oriented online survey of recreational drug users was conducted to find out more about the culture of recreational drug use. The focus was on analysing new developments and changes in consumption trends, with a central consideration of similarities and differences between \u0026lsquo;familiar\u0026rsquo; or \u0026lsquo;classic\u0026rsquo; recreational substances (e. g. cocaine, alcohol, cannabis) in comparison with currently \u0026lsquo;trending\u0026rsquo; substances (e. g. LSD, psilocybin, GHB/GBL, ketamine).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Research design and implementation of the survey\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch on recreational drug use is challenging, mainly because of the group's unique traits, such as limited access and a discreet social presence. Since multiple studies have confirmed the effectiveness of online surveys in reaching hard-to-access populations (Stetina \u0026amp; Kryspin-Exner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Kothgassner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Miller \u0026amp; S\u0026oslash;nderlund, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), this method has been identified as a suitable approach.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo reach the population under investigation, a cooperation with selected institutions, music collectives, and operators of websites in the field of recreational drugs (including drug-checking facilities, relevant forums, social media sites, and organizers of techno, club, and rave events) from Austria, Germany, and Switzerland took place.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe survey was specifically designed to focus on recreational drug use, targeting individuals with prior experience using psychoactive substances. This client-centered online survey was conducted solely among recreational drug users. While this ensured direct access to this hidden population (Stetina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), it also meant that the sample obtained was a convenience sample and therefore not representative of the overall population. The data was collected as part of a cross-sectional study using an online survey via SoSci Survey (Leiner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) in the period from August 2023 to January 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Research questions and hypotheses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe central research interest was investigating recreational drug users, current developments, and consumption trends, whereby a survey was conducted directly with the affected population itself. The study aimed to investigate consumption trends and changes in substance use. As part of the analysis, \u0026lsquo;classic\u0026rsquo; recreational drugs, such as cocaine, amphetamines, and MDMA, were compared with \u0026lsquo;trendy\u0026rsquo; substances, such as ketamine, GHB, LSD, and nitrous oxide. The study also investigated the extent to which the underlying motivation to use is relevant as an influencing factor for the respective substance use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSince consumers usually seek to change or intensify emotions when using substances (Reuband, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Winstock et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Forschungsgemeinschaft f\u0026uuml;r Konflikt- und Sozialstudien e. V., 2003; Origer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Marian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Thurn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Lojszczyk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Van Dyck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Parks \u0026amp; Kennedy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Ter Bogt \u0026amp; Engels, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), the emotional state, measured using the PANAS scales (Breyer \u0026amp; Bluemke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), was also examined. This allowed for comparisons with a standardized sample (norm population from the validated psychological instrument) and enabled detailed analyses between the substance groups used (\u0026lsquo;classic\u0026rsquo; substances vs. \u0026lsquo;trending\u0026rsquo; substances). The following research questions and hypotheses were developed in response to the research interest presented.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch question 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lsquo;What are the special characteristics of the emotional state of recreational drug users?\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch question 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lsquo;How do the consumption motives of recreational drug users differ depending on the substance group consumed?\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Survey instruments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor data collection, an online questionnaire was used, which in three parts collects (a) sociodemographic data (including age, gender, education level, relationship status), (b) consumption behaviour (including lifetime prevalence, 1-year prevalence, mixed-use, consumption motives) and (c) emotional state measured by the German version of the \u003cem\u003ePositive and Negative Affect Schedule\u003c/em\u003e (PANAS) (Breyer \u0026amp; Bluemke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe German version of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is based on the English version by Watson, Clark \u0026amp; Tellegen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e). During development, the authors assumed that the human emotional state can be differentiated into positive affects (e. g., activity, enthusiasm) and adverse affects (e. g., anger, nervousness, anxiety). The psychometric properties of the instrument, including its reliability [Cronbach's α is .86 for both scales; Raykov's ρ is .93, validity (both content validity and construct validity), and objectivity (both evaluation objectivity and interpretation objectivity) can be considered as given (Breyer \u0026amp; Bluemke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire uses a total of 20 items [10 items each to measure the Positive Affect (PA) dimension and 10 items to measure the Negative Affect (NA) dimension] to assess different emotions and feelings. Depending on the test instruction, it is possible to record current affects (\u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003ePlease indicate the extent you have felt this way in the last month/week/year\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;) or habitually persistent affects (\u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003ePlease indicate the extent how you feel this way in general\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;) (Breyer \u0026amp; Bluemke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The present study focused on the emotional state within the last 12 months and formulated the test instruction accordingly: \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003ePlease indicate the extent you have felt this way over the last 12 months.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA five-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very slightly/not at all, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;a little, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;moderately, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;quite a bit, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;extremely) is available for answering the 20 items. Mean values can then be generated for each dimension. High values on the PA scale indicate a high level of concentration, pleasurable engagement, alertness, activity, and a high level of energy, whereas low values on this dimension indicate sadness and lethargy. High values of the NA dimension are characterized by a range of unpleasant emotions such as anger, contempt, guilt, disgust, fear, or nervousness. Low values result in a state of calm (Watson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Inclusion and exclusion criteria of the test subjects\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe inclusion criteria were age of majority (at least 18 years old) and active use of psychoactive substances.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 905 people took part in the survey. The data records of 189 individuals were excluded from the analysis due to the exclusion criteria (being under 18 years of age and not consuming psychoactive substances); 716 cases were statistically analysed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5 Methods of statistical data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eStatistical data analysis was performed using the SPSS statistical program, version 29 (IBM Corp., 2022, Armonk, NY, USA). In the descriptive statistical section, frequency counts based on mean values (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e) and standard deviations (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e) were performed for sample presentation. Due to rounding, minor deviations may occur, meaning that the sum of the percentages shown does not always equal exactly 100%. Graphical representations of characteristic distributions were created using frequency tables and histograms (Bortz \u0026amp; Schuster, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Information provided by participants in an open response format was used to analyse consumption motives. Accordingly, the available raw data were grouped into higher-level categories to derive frequency and distribution information. After forming the motive classes based on content-related considerations (Cooper, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Simons et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Zvolensky et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Boys et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Kettner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; and Ter Bogt \u0026amp; Engels, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), the individual measured values could be assigned to the respective groups (Bortz \u0026amp; Schuster, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and made available for statistical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo investigate the distribution of PANAS dimensions (Breyer \u0026amp; Bluemke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and differences in consumption motives, the study participants were classified into substance-specific consumer groups. The initial variable was the 1-year prevalence, which recorded the frequency of use of different legal and illegal psychoactive substances [Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The frequency of use was recorded as follows: \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003enever\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eonce within the last 12 months\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eonce within the last 6 months\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eseveral times within the last 6 months\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eonce within the last month\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eseveral times within the last month\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eonce a week\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eseveral times a week\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003edaily\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; or \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eseveral times a day\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample distribution substance groups\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstance groups\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eclassic stimulant substances (C\u003cem\u003eSS\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e263\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"13\" rowspan=\"14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCocaine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMDMA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmphetamine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethamphetamine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedication for the treatment of ADD/ADHD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMephedrone (4-MMC)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKratom\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClephedrone (4-CMC)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMDE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethylone\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrack\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKhat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEphedrine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMetaphedrone (3-MMC)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eexperimental and hallucinogenic/dissociative substances (\u003c/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eEHS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e92\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"18\" rowspan=\"19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMagic mushrooms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1cP-LSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDMT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePoppers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHHC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNitrous oxide\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2C-B\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKetamine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGBL/GHB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2C-T-2/2C-T-7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCP-47, 497 (Spice)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2C-E\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eADB-Binaca/ADB-Butinaca\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNightshade plants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLSA (wood roses)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePoppy-seeds\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2F-Ketamine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMescaline\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003emixed use (\u003c/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eMU\u003c/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e221\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe substances examined were classified into two groups in the subsequent procedure. The first group consisted of long-established, widely used stimulant substances, such as cocaine, MDMA, and amphetamines, collectively known as the \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eclassic stimulant substances\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; (\u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e). The second group consisted of comparatively newer hallucinogenic and dissociative substances, such as LSD, 2C-B, and ketamine, collectively known as the \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eexperimental and hallucinogenic/dissociative substances\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; (\u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e). These substances are becoming increasingly crucial in recreational use. Since many respondents reported mixed use behaviour, an additional category, the \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003emixed use\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; group (\u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e), was created. The final group allocation was made by assigning each respondent to the substance group for which the highest intensity of use was reported.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter a descriptive analysis of the prevalence values of individual substances, the psychoactive substances alcohol, tobacco, and THC products had to be excluded from the analyses. The high 1-year prevalence frequency of these substances (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;75%) limited the possibility of meaningful statistical comparisons and could have led to distortions in the results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the inferential statistics section, group differences between the PANAS dimensions and differences in consumption motives were tested for statistical significance (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05) using MANOVA procedures and post-hoc tests, as well as chi-square tests after verifying the respective prerequisites. One-sample t-tests were performed to analyse the sample's mean values in comparison to the PANAS scales' standardized mean values (Bortz \u0026amp; Schuster, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results and findings","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Sample Description and Descriptive Results\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA total of 716 people (52.65% male, 44.69% female, 0.14% inter*sex, 1.96% non-binary, 0.56% no response) aged between 16\u0026ndash;68 years (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30.85, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.14) took part in the survey. Most participants were from Austria (43.99%) or Germany (42.18%), followed by Switzerland (5.17%), Italy (4.61%), and smaller proportions from Egypt, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, and the USA (0.14% each). The percentage of missing data was 3.21%. Regarding level of education, most respondents had a university or college degree (45.95%). 19.27% of participants reported having a high school diploma. Other qualifications included general or vocational secondary school (11.17%), vocational higher school (6.7%), trade school/technical college (10.34%), secondary school (2.65%), another qualification without further details (2.23%), and elementary school (0.42%). No qualifications were reported by 0.42% of participants (proportion of missing answers: 0.84%). In terms of relationship status, most participants (53.35%) were single. 31.56% were living in a partnership, 10.34% were married, 1.68% were divorced, 1.12% were separated, and 0.70% were living in a civil partnership. 1.26% of respondents did not provide any information on their current relationship status. Most participants lived in the city (78.35%), although 1.54% of respondents did not provide any information in this regard. The living situation was alone primarily (32.26%), followed by living with a life partner (24.44%), living in a shared apartment (19.97%), living with parents (9.78%), living with a life partner and children (8.94%) or living alone with child(ren) (1.54%) as well as in a multigenerational household (1.26%). Other forms of housing, without further details, were reported by 0.56% of participants. For approximately 1.26%, the current housing situation could not be ascertained due to missing answers [Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDemographic profile of the sample (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;716)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDemographic characteristics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e377 (52.65)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003efemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e320 (44.69)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003einter*sex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enon-binary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (1.96)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eno response\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (0.56)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlace of residence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAustria\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e315 (43.99)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGermany\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e302 (42.18)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSwitzerland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37 (5.17)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItaly\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33 (4.61)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEgypt\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNetherlands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSweden\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUK\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eno response\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23 (3.21)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLevel of education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003euniversity or college degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e329 (45.95)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehigh school diploma\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e138 (19.27)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egeneral or vocational secondary school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79 (11.17)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evocational higher school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49 (6.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etrade school/technical college\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74 (10.34)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esecondary school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19 (2.65)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eanother qualification without further details\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16 (2.23)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eelementary school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (0.42)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eno qualifications\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (0.42)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eno response\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (0.84)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRelationship status\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esingle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e382 (53.35)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eliving in a partnership\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e226 (31.56)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emarried\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74 (10.34)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edivorced\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (1.68)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eseparated\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (1.12)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eliving in a civil partnership\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (0.70)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eno response\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (1.26)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCurrent place of residence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eurban area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e561 (78.35)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003erural area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e144 (20.11)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eno response\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (1.54)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCurrent living situation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ealone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e231 (32.26)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eliving with a life partner\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e175 (24.44)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eliving in a shared apartment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e143 (19.97)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eliving with parents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70 (9.78)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eliving with a life partner and children\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64 (8.94)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eliving alone with child(ren)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (1.54)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eliving in a multi-generational household\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (1.26)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eother forms of housing without further details\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (0.56)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eno response\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (1.26)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhen asked about their consumption habits over the past 12 months, more than 75% of respondents reported using alcohol (90.8%), THC products (78.1%), and nicotine (75.7%). In addition to traditional recreational substances like MDMA (60.3%), cocaine (55.8%), and amphetamines (48.6%), around 50% of respondents also used psychedelic or dissociative substances such as hallucinogenic mushrooms (41.9%), LSD (41.2%), ketamine (37.2%), and 2C-B (22.6%). Substances with depressant effects, including morphine (3.7%), poppy seeds (2.3%), and heroin (2.1%), as well as research chemicals like 2F-ketamine (2.3%), CP-47,497 (0.6%), and 2C-T-2/2C-T-7 (0.2%), were used by fewer than 4% of participants in the past year [Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.6% of participants reported having taken two or more substances at the same time or in quick succession (within a few hours) in the last 12 months (proportion of missing responses: 3.5%). The most frequent combinations were in conjunction with alcohol: Alcohol with cannabis (28.2%), alcohol with tobacco (24.5%), cannabis with tobacco (14.9%), alcohol with cocaine (12.9%), and alcohol with amphetamine (10%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Analysis of consumer motives\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of consumer motives resulted in a total of eight main categories, which were divided as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoping\u003c/em\u003e (including stress reduction; escape from reality; reduction of negative emotional states such as boredom, sadness, fear, or stressful thoughts)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnhancement\u003c/em\u003e (including increasing positive/desired emotional states such as euphoria, energy, fun; increasing self-confidence and self-esteem; intensifying sex life)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003col style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhysical Effects\u003c/em\u003e (including increased alertness, stamina, physical activation, weight loss or weight gain, improved athletic performance)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003eSocial Purpose\u003c/em\u003e [including enjoying friendships (more); more successful social behaviour; increasing social and leisure activities (e., at parties); promoting closeness to peers; peer pressure; conformism]\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003eFacilitating Activities\u003c/em\u003e (including increasing attention, memory, and concentration at school, work, or study)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003eEffect Handling\u003c/em\u003e [e. g. increase or decrease (side) effects of other substances]\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003eExpansion\u003c/em\u003e (including expansion of consciousness; change of consciousness and senses; increase in self-awareness; self-exploration; spiritual experiences)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003eCuriosity\u003c/em\u003e (including trying out new things; experimenting; having an interest and an urge to discover)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall, respondents cited \u003cem\u003ecoping\u003c/em\u003e reasons most frequently (48.6%), followed by \u003cem\u003eenhancement\u003c/em\u003e motives (42.9%) and \u003cem\u003esocial purposes\u003c/em\u003e (35.9%). Consumption to intensify or attenuate the effects of other substances (\u003cem\u003eeffect handling\u003c/em\u003e) was mentioned least frequently at 1.7% [Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Inferential statistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInferential statistical calculations were carried out using a grouping variable that assigned respondents to one of the following groups based on their preferred substance use:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003col style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026lsquo;classic stimulant substances\u0026rsquo; (CSS)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026lsquo;experimental and hallucinogenic/dissociative substances\u0026rsquo; (EHS)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn the case of mixed use, subjects were assigned to the group\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003col style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\" start=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003emixed use\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; (\u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1 Research Question 1: \u0026lsquo;What are the specific characteristics of emotional states in recreational drug users?\u0026rsquo;\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResearch question 1 examined emotional states in recreational drug use and looked at differences in emotional states (a) between recreational drug users compared to the standardized sample (norm population from the validated psychological instrument) and (b) depending on the substance group used.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn order to compare the emotional state between users and the standardized sample, one-sample t-tests were calculated based on the standardized mean values of PANAS.The mean score for the Positive Affect (PA) scale was \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.17 with a standard deviation (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e) of 0.63 across all ages and genders. The mean score for the Negative Affect (NA) PANAS scale was \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.72 with an \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e of 0.57 (Breyer \u0026amp; Bluemke, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor both the PA [Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e] and NA [Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e] PANAS scales, all three substance groups showed significantly higher values compared to the standardized sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePositive Affect (PA) \u0026ndash; substance groups CSS, EHS, MU\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSample\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;716)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNormative sample\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4138)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGroup\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003et\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e196\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.003*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEHS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMU\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e190\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e** Significant at the level\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e* Significant at the level\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Breyer, B. \u0026amp; Bluemke, M. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Deutsche Version der Positive and Negative Affect Schedule PANAS (GESIS Panel). \u003cem\u003eZusammenstellung sozialwissenschaftlicher Items und Skalen.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.6102/zis242\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNegative Affect (NA) \u0026ndash; substance groups CSS, EHS, MU\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSample\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;716)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNormative sample\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4138)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGroup\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003et\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e196\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEHS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMU\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e190\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e** Significant at the level\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e* Significant at the level\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Breyer, B. \u0026amp; Bluemke, M. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Deutsche Version der Positive and Negative Affect Schedule PANAS (GESIS Panel). \u003cem\u003eZusammenstellung sozialwissenschaftlicher Items und Skalen.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.6102/zis242\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo analyze emotional state depending on the substance group consumed, a single-factorial MANOVA showed significant differences regarding both PANAS dimensions (PA, NA) [(\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4,918)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.92, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.021, \u003cem\u003e𝜂\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= .01, \u003cem\u003eWilk\u0026apos;s \u0026Lambda;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.98)], whereby post-hoc single-factorial ANOVAs were carried out to examine the exact differences.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThere were no significant differences for the PA dimension [(\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2,460)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.60, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.076, \u003cem\u003e𝜂\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= .01)], but significant differences for the NA dimension [(\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2,460)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.98, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.007, \u003cem\u003e𝜂\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.02)].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Bonferroni post-hoc test found existing differences between people in the \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e group and the \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e group (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.005, \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eDiff\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = -0.30, 95%-CI [-0.52, -0.07]). The \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e group members (\u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.37; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.72) had significantly higher scores on the NA dimension than those in the EHS group (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.08; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.60).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.3.2 Research Question 2: \u0026lsquo;How do the consumption motives of recreational drug users differ depending on the substance group consumed?\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe second research question focused on the underlying consumption motives of recreational drug users, specifically examining possible variations depending on the substance group consumed.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoping\u003c/em\u003e motives ranked first among all three consumer groups (\u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e: 47.1%, EHS: 58.7%, and MU: 51.6%). \u003cem\u003eEnhancement\u003c/em\u003e motives followed for consumers of \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e (45.2%) and \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e (46.6%), while motives around \u003cem\u003eexpansion\u003c/em\u003e occupied second place for consumers of \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e (48.9%). The third most popular motive among consumers in the \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e (35.4%) and \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e (39.8%) groups was \u003cem\u003esocial purpose\u003c/em\u003e, while among consumers in the \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e group, it was \u003cem\u003eenhancement\u003c/em\u003e (45.7%) [Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo examine whether the consumption motives differed significantly in frequency between the three consumer groups (\u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e), \u0026chi;\u0026sup2; tests of independence were conducted. The analysis shows that there were significant differences in consumption due to \u003cem\u003ephysical effects\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e(2)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.83, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, \u003cem\u003eV\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.17). This motivation was significantly less common among \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e consumers (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e= -3.8) but significantly more common among \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e consumers (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.8).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlso, the motivation in \u003cem\u003efacilitating activities\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e(2)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.68, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.021, \u003cem\u003eV\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.12) was significantly more frequent among consumers of \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e (\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.8), whereas \u003cem\u003eeffect handling\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.65, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.036, \u003cem\u003eV\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.11) was significantly more common among \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e consumers \u003cem\u003e(r\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.5).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThere were also significant differences in consumption for \u003cem\u003eexpansion\u003c/em\u003e motives (\u003cem\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e(2)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;36.56, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, \u003cem\u003eV\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.25). Consumers of \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e= -5.8) reported these motives significantly less often. However, consumers of \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.8) and those with an \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.1) reported them significantly more often. Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e [Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] shows non-significant consumption motives.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnalysis of consumer motives \u0026ndash; CSS, EHS, MU\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMotive\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eV\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoping\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.186\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnhancement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.738\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial Purpose\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.490\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCuriosity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.111\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Limitations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe target group under investigation is difficult to access, so identifying an appropriate approach was the first methodological challenge. Since various studies have emphasized the effectiveness of online surveys with hidden populations (Stetina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Stetina \u0026amp; Kryspin-Exner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Kothgassner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Miller \u0026amp; S\u0026oslash;nderlund, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), this method was employed in the present study. However, aspects of the sample's representativeness must be critically scrutinized when conducting online surveys. While test arrangements on the WWW facilitate the recruitment of a comprehensive sample, such internet-generated \u003cem\u003econvenience samples\u003c/em\u003e are not representative of the overall population (Echterhoff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; M\u0026ouml;hring \u0026amp; Schl\u0026uuml;tz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Bortz \u0026amp; Schuster, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). For example, the data on 1-year prevalence presented in the results Chap.\u0026nbsp;3.1 \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eSample Description and Descriptive Results\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; are representative of the sample described here but do not represent prevalence data for the population. Despite the non-probabilistic sample, it can still provide valuable information for the present exploratory study, such as deriving correlations and causal relationships (M\u0026ouml;hring \u0026amp; Schl\u0026uuml;tz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, it must be emphasized in this context that the basic population of recreational drug users is not known; as mentioned, it is a \u003cem\u003ehidden population\u003c/em\u003e (Stetina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). So, the sample in this field of research must necessarily be selective. Any sampling, therefore, only allows a section to be considered. The extent to which this is representative of this group can only be speculated based on the available knowledge from the research field.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother limitation of the study is its cross-sectional design, which is not suitable for recording changes over time. Only longitudinal studies can provide insights into possible developments in consumption behaviour, such as changes in frequency or quantity of consumption (Ullrich, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; M\u0026ouml;hring \u0026amp; Schl\u0026uuml;tz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). There is a need for further research into longitudinal data that can capture potential changes in emotional state or consumption motives, such as continued consumption, cessation of consumption, or switching substances.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies in the field of (recreational) drug use aim to record opinions, attitudes, and/or behaviours that are subject to particular sensitivity. Surveys in this area are usually perceived as highly personal, primarily since they address behaviours and/or attitudes that conflict with existing legal or sociocultural norms. Surveying value-sensitive topics can lead to respondents providing distorted responses due to social desirability (Kreuter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother methodological criticism can be made regarding the survey methods used. Although the PANAS scales (Breyer \u0026amp; Bluemke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) can provide insight into emotional states, they cannot record less \u0026lsquo;traditional\u0026rsquo; categories. To adequately capture affective experiences and emotional states, even when using hallucinogenic or dissociative substances, which expand emotional experience to include mystical experiences, connectedness, and ego dissolution, questionnaires must be specifically developed to capture these dimensions. Measurement methods such as the \u003cem\u003eMystical Experience Questionnaire\u003c/em\u003e (MEQ30) (MacLean et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) or the \u003cem\u003eAltered States of Consciousness Rating Scale\u003c/em\u003e (5D-ASC \u0026amp; 11D-ASC) (Dittrich, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Studerus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) could prove to be useful for such surveys.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Summarized interpretation and conclusions for practice","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn addition to the continuous increase in prevalence of recreational psychoactive substance use (UNODC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), ongoing changes in consumption behaviour, new trends, and developments can be observed (UNODC, 2019; EMCDDA, 2024; Winstock et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The highly dynamic nature of this field complicates empirical research, underscoring the necessity of ongoing scientific examination of current trends. The present study, therefore, aimed to investigate recent developments in recreational drug use, particularly the rise of previously uncommon substances, and analyse them in comparison to established psychoactive substances regarding similarities and differences. Additionally, the emotional experience of users was considered an essential aspect and examined in comparison to a norm population and about potential differences between predominantly used substance groups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding research question 1 (\u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eThe emotional state of recreational drug users differs significantly from that of non-users\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e), the analysis of the mean values of the PANAS scales revealed that the subjects in the present study consistently exhibited significantly higher scores than the norm population control group. Taking Cohen's \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e into account, the results showed medium to large effect sizes, indicating that the present sample had more intense emotional experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe more pronounced emotional experience of positive affects (PA) in the population studied seems plausible, as the primary goals of recreational use of psychoactive substances are to enhance and intensify the emotional experience (e. g. promoting euphoria, experiencing a positive state of intoxication) and to increase an active and fulfilling leisure life (Lojszczyk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Van Dyck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Parks \u0026amp; Kennedy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Ter Bogt \u0026amp; Engels, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Definitions of recreational substance use emphasize that bio-psycho-social impairments typically do not occur (Grabenhofer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Stetina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), primarily due to controlled use and adherence to specific consumption rules (Schippers \u0026amp; Cramer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The increased experience of positive emotions can be interpreted as an expression of a hedonistic lifestyle, which often accompanies the recreational use of psychoactive substances.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe consistently significantly higher values of the population studied regarding negative affect (NA) bring potential consumption-related undesirable side effects into the scientific focus. In their meta-analysis on motivation in recreational drug use, Lojszczyk et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that consumers of psychoactive substances, particularly those who use them regularly, experience undesirable side effects. These include physical effects, such as nausea, vomiting, headaches, teeth grinding, and body temperature fluctuations, as well as psychological effects, such as anxiety, confusion, panic attacks, apathy, and paranoia. So-called \u0026lsquo;lows\u0026rsquo;, which follow \u0026lsquo;highs\u0026rsquo; and manifest as depressive feelings, irritability, mood swings, and negative thoughts, were cited as particularly characteristic. These lows could contribute to the above-average experience of negative emotions. Another possible explanation lies in the user\u0026rsquo;s basic emotional state. In the case of prevailing negative affects such as boredom, stress, or depressive moods, as indicated by high NA values, the consumption of certain substances - such as MDMA, ketamine, or LSD - can lead to a temporary improvement in mood. However, this effect is usually limited to the duration of the effects of the substances. After the psychoactive effects have worn off, negative emotional states often occur again, which - especially in the case of substances with a serotonergic effect such as MDMA - can be further intensified by neurochemical processes, such as a temporary depletion of serotonin stores (Roberts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zimmermann et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, recreational drug users tend to feel their emotions more strongly. They specifically pursue experiences that trigger passionate feelings (Reuband, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Winstock et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Forschungsgemeinschaft f\u0026uuml;r Konflikt- und Sozialstudien e. V., 2003; Origer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Marian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Thurn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Lojszczyk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Van Dyck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Parks \u0026amp; Kennedy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Ter Bogt \u0026amp; Engels, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), which goes beyond just the \u0026lsquo;party culture\u0026rsquo; and influences life as a whole. Using psychoactive substances broadens the emotional range, making emotions like joy, euphoria, and activity, as well as disappointment, boredom, or sadness, feel more intense. Consequently, life can be marked by a heightened emotional experience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparing the PANAS scales among the \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e consumer groups revealed significant differences regarding the Negative Affect scale. Consumers in the \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e group scored higher than those in the \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e group. These results support two hypotheses: (a) the potential side effects of the substances consumed and (b) the users' basic emotional sensitivity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe use of stimulant substances, as included in the \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e group, is more frequently described by users with more pronounced side effects such as anxiety and panic states, irritability, sadness, or depression (Lojszczyk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Duff et al., 2007; Parks \u0026amp; Kennedy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) than is reported by users of hallucinogenic/dissociative substances (Kennedy \u0026amp; Parks, 2005; Zeifman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Schlag et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This could contribute to stronger negative affect expression and should be considered when explaining the observed differences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssuming a negatively coloured mood independent of substances, the use of stimulants could indicate self-medication or emotion regulation (Wurmser, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Weiss et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Ter Bogt \u0026amp; Engels (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), among others, demonstrated the desire for mood-enhancing and mood-boosting effects in stimulant use in a study of MDMA users. In this study, \u0026lsquo;energy\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;euphoria\u0026rsquo;, and \u0026lsquo;sociability\u0026rsquo; were named as the top three motives for consumption. In contrast, the use of psychedelic and dissociative substances is more often based on the search for novel, introspective, and mind-altering experiences than on directly influencing the current mood (Kettner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Basedow \u0026amp; Kuitunen-Paul, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Soussan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). People in a negative mood may be more likely to consume \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e, while \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e appears comparatively less attractive.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the motives for use, as examined in research question 2 (\u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eHow do the consumption motives of recreational drug users differ depending on the substance group consumed?\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;), also revealed significant differences depending on the substance groups consumed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eClaims of increasing stamina, alertness, or physical activity (\u003cem\u003ephysical effects\u003c/em\u003e) through substance use were significantly less common among users with mono-consumption of \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e. This does not seem surprising, as popular goals in the use of psychedelic substances increasingly concern the promotion of mind-expanding, spiritual, and introspective experiences (Kettner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Basedow \u0026amp; Kuitunen-Paul, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Soussan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Interestingly, motives related to \u003cem\u003ephysical effects\u003c/em\u003e were significantly more prevalent in cases of mixed use (\u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e). It is reasonable to assume that the co-use of stimulating substances adds an activating component to the psychedelic effects, thereby modifying the hallucinogenic experience by increasing stamina and alertness. This could indicate a change in consumption trends, in which hallucinogenic/dissociative substances are no longer only used for self-exploration but are increasingly consumed in combination with stimulants at parties or in a social context. Prevalence data also show an increase in the use of substances such as 1cP-LSD, ketamine, and 2C-B, which have become popular \u0026lsquo;party drugs\u0026rsquo; in recent years, especially in the recreational drug sector (Winstock et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Sutherland et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; NIDA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMotives related to promoting concentration, learning, and memory at school, university, or work (\u003cem\u003efacilitating activities)\u003c/em\u003e were found to be significantly more frequent among \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e users. Under the concept of \u0026lsquo;cognitive enhancement,\u0026rsquo; stimulant drugs can optimize cognitive abilities (Racine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These results can also be understood in terms of methylphenidate (e. g. Ritalin\u0026reg;, Medikinet\u0026reg;, and Concerta\u0026reg;) and amphetamine (e. g. Adderall\u0026reg; and Elvanse\u0026reg;) preparations in this substance group.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsumption for the purpose of \u003cem\u003eexpansion\u003c/em\u003e, such as the expansion or alteration of consciousness, spiritual experiences, and a sense of connectedness, was increasingly found among \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e users and people with an \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e. Various studies confirm that the primary motivation for using psychedelic substances is consciousness expansion. For instance, Kettner et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that approximately 90% of LSD users and about 88% of psilocybin and ayahuasca users reported this motivation for consumption. In this context, the phenomenon of so-called \u0026lsquo;psychonauts\u0026rsquo; describes people who explore their own psyche using psychedelic and/or dissociative substances (Hartogsohn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Consumption enables a kind of \u0026lsquo;self-exploration\u0026rsquo; by softening psychological defense mechanisms and providing deeper access to the inner self (Letheby \u0026amp; Gerrans, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Soler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Kettner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e, co-using stimulants can enhance positive psychedelic effects, mitigate challenging states, and boost stamina and alertness. This is intended to make the psychedelic state of intoxication more intense and pleasant (Zeifman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Boys et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Grov et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Straumann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsers with an \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e reported significantly more frequent use for \u003cem\u003eeffect handling\u003c/em\u003e. Although classic hallucinogens, such as LSD or psilocybin, have a lower risk potential, including substance abuse, dependence, toxicity, or undesirable side effects, their mind-altering effects can include positive experiences, as well as undesirable and unpleasant experiences, known as \u0026lsquo;bad trips\u0026rsquo; (Zeifman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Around 40.9% of participants in a study by Simonsson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) reported having had difficult or unsettling experiences with psychedelic substances. Such experiences can lead to acute or long-term psychological distress or functional impairment (Zeifman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Simonsson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Barber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). To protect themselves from challenging psychedelic experiences while enhancing the positive effects, users often resort to other substances as part of an effect control (Zeifman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Boys et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Grov et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, the combined use of LSD and MDMA, also known as \u0026lsquo;candy flipping\u0026rsquo;, or a combination of psilocybin and MDMA (\u0026lsquo;hippie flipping\u0026rsquo;), is said to help reduce difficult and increase positive experiences. Users report a mood boost through a synergistic increase (Zeifman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Boys et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Grov et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Straumann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Lake and Lucas (2024) demonstrated the popularity of such combinations based on data from the \u003cem\u003e2023 Global Drug Survey\u003c/em\u003e. Among psychedelic substance users (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.079), 94.2% reported mixed-use behaviour with one or more substances, such as cannabis, alcohol or MDMA.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparisons of the underlying consumer motives between the \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e, and MU groups revealed that the use of CSS was consistently associated with performance-enhancing motives. In contrast, the use of EHS was more frequently linked to the desire for mind-expanding experiences and less often with increasing stamina, alertness, or physical activity. The data confirms the results from other studies that have also identified these \u0026lsquo;classic\u0026rsquo; motivations for using stimulant or hallucinogenic/dissociative substances (Van de Wijngaart et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Ter Bogt \u0026amp; Engels, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Kettner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Basedow \u0026amp; Kuitunen-Paul, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; and Soussan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelevant new findings emerged in the \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e group, which presented significantly higher motivations in terms of \u003cem\u003eexpansio\u003c/em\u003en, \u003cem\u003ephysical effects\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ehandling of effects\u003c/em\u003e. These findings can be interpreted in the context of consumer trends. Current changes in the party setting are reflected in the increasing popularity of music festivals and electronic rave or dance events, which place the social context of the music experience at the centre (Lojszczyk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and are shifting fundamental parameters of the traditional consumption setting (including events in unknown, spacious locations with a large number of visitors). This brings new demands on the substances consumed and leads to changes in consumption behaviour. For instance, consuming stimulating substances alongside hallucinogens can make the experience \u0026lsquo;safer\u0026rsquo;, enabling one to explore mind-altering states within a social or party setting. At the same time, stimulant effects increase stamina, dancing ability, and perseverance, while hallucinogenic effects promote an intense or alternative musical experience. Therefore, it can be seen that \u0026lsquo;well-known\u0026rsquo; substances from the \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e area are supplemented by \u0026lsquo;new\u0026rsquo; substances from the psychedelic/dissociative area to intensify and extend leisure life while adding a sensory-altering perspective.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study demonstrated that.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col style=\"list-style-type:lower-alpha;\"\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecreational drug users showed greater emotional reactivity in terms of both positive and negative affect compared to the standardized norm sample.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen comparing the emotional state between the substance groups (\u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e), \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e users exhibited higher negative affects than the other two groups. This was discussed based on possible undesirable consequences of this specific substance group or the basic emotional constitution of the \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e users, in which the use of \u0026lsquo;happy drugs\u0026rsquo; is supposed to attenuate negative affects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eMotivational comparisons between the three substance groups (\u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e) revealed that users of \u003cem\u003eCSS\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEHS\u003c/em\u003e primarily sought performance enhancement or mind expansion. These results are consistent with previous research. However, unanticipated results were found among \u003cem\u003eMU\u003c/em\u003e consumers, who presented unique characteristics regarding expansion or effect handling. These results were understood in the context of changes in fundamental parameters of recreational drug use. Changes in consumption settings can create new demands for substances and thus initiate new consumption trends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChanges and trends in the consumption of psychoactive substances are closely linked to the changing times and must therefore always be considered in the context of social developments. Reorientations of set and setting (e. g. in party behaviour), shaped by social norms and technological influences, change both consumption behaviour and the experience of substances consumed therein. To understand changes and trends in recreational drug use, key aspects such as underlying motivations, expectations of substances, reasons for substance choice, and individual patterns of use must be considered (Lojszczyk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, this is made more difficult by the constant emergence of new substances that are relatively unknown and unexplored (Winstock \u0026amp; Ramsey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Kettner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Focusing on the subjective experiences of users provides an opportunity to gain unique insights into the use of psychoactive substances. This approach offers valuable insights and information to discover new trends in consumption behaviour from a consumer-centered perspective. A holistic understanding of these dynamics is essential to appropriately respond to changes and latest developments in recreational drug use. Further research in this area can help remove the taboo and stigma surrounding the topic, thereby strengthening opportunities for acceptance-oriented health promotion.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the key informants and participants for their generosity, openness, and valuable contributions to the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJennifer Uhl: Conceptualization; Methodology; Formal Analysis; Investigation; Data Curation; Writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft; Visualization; Project Administration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBirgit U. Stetina: Conceptualization; Methodology; Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing; Supervision; Project Administration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSabrina Gamali: Validation; Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualization\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical considerations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthics approval was provided by the Ethics Commission by the Faculties of Psychotherapy Science, of Psychology, of Law of the Sigmund Freud University Vienna (FCS4HMVEBR3GLU90168) on July 07, 2023. All participants agreed to a written consent form before participating in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants agreed to a written consent form before participating in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants agreed to a written consent form before participating in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeclaration of conflicting interest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding statement\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDue to the inclusion of confidential information, the research data cannot be shared.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeclaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChatGPT (GPT-4), Grammarly, and DeepL SE were utilized to support the writing process, optimize language and grammar, and facilitate translation from German to English. 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Addict Behaviours 32(12):3122\u0026ndash;3130. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.06.010\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.06.010\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e The following values are used as a guide for interpreting effect size according to Jacob Cohen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e): small effect Cohen's d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.2, medium effect Cohen's d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;05 and large effect Cohen's d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Sigmund Freud University Vienna","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"substance use, usage pattern, reasons for use, motivation, emotion, harm reduction","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7886729/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7886729/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eRecreational drug use continues to rise worldwide (UNODC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Alongside growing consumption figures, which are receiving a lot of attention, a more subtle yet significant shift is emerging: The increasing use of new and largely unknown substances that are reshaping patterns and trends within the recreational scene (EMCDDA, 2024; Winstock et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This online cross-sectional study (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;716) explored recreational drug users\u0026rsquo; perspectives by assessing socio-demographics, consumption patterns, motives, and emotional states (PANAS; Breyer \u0026amp; Bluemke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) to identify subjective experiences and emerging trends. The results highlight particularities in the emotional experiences of recreational drug users, such as greater emotional reactivity compared to the standardized non-using sample. In addition, differences in the emotional experiences were also found between the different consumer groups, as well as in terms of the underlying motives for consumption. To understand recreational drug use and its developments, it is necessary to have in-depth knowledge about users. Examining their subjective experiences offers valuable insights and supports the development of health-promoting, user-oriented strategies, such as considering emotional aspects and underlying motives for use.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Changing Highs –Exploring Substance Trends, Motives, and Emotional Dimensions of Recreational Drug Use","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-20 12:20:22","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7886729/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"77026c6e-de61-450e-b9b3-4f7fe688829b","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 20th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":56476489,"name":"Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-20T12:20:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-20 12:20:22","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7886729","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7886729","identity":"rs-7886729","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}