Knowledge and Perceptions of Pest Ants in a Tropical Context

Knowledge and Perceptions of Pest Ants in a Tropical Context | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Short Report Knowledge and Perceptions of Pest Ants in a Tropical Context Marcela Pimid, André Ibanez, Nurul Ashikin Abdullah, Sze Huei Yek This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8371016/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Ants are typical household and agricultural pests in tropical regions, yet little is known about how the public perceives and manages them in Malaysia. This study investigated the public’s perception and knowledge of pest ant ecology and common management approaches. Qualitative methods using interviews were conducted with local stakeholders across sites in Peninsular and Borneo, Malaysia, to capture respondents’ experiences with ants, recognition of pest species, ecological knowledge, and preferred control methods. Interviewed communities viewed ants as ‘context-dependent nuisances’, with household ants considered pests and requiring control. Ants found outdoors were tolerated unless perceived as ‘venomous’. Although respondents were unable to identify ant species, their understanding of ant ecology and behaviour was relatively high. Several species also had consistent local names, and surveyed communities demonstrated awareness of ants' temporal activity patterns. The term ‘fire ants’ refers to multiple stinging/biting ant species. This highlighted the need for caution when recommending control strategies. Most respondents did not seek professional pest control; instead, they relied on home-based remedies or preventive practices. This integrated approach, using interviews and ant species identification, suggests the need for cost-effective, location-specific toxic baits and for improved public guidance on species-appropriate management approaches. Fire ant Context-dependent nuisance Household pests Agricultural pests Home-based remedies Preventive practices Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Key message Public perceptions of ants are highly context dependent. Local communities possess an ecological understanding of ant behaviour. Households relies on home-based remedies or preventive practices to manage pest ants. Introduction A pest is defined as an organism that negatively impacts human resources, such as food and crops; causes injury or discomfort to people and animals; damages structures; or interferes with human activities (Hill 1997 ). Among pest arthropods, pest ant control is often synonymous with invasive ant control, which involves the use of chemical pesticides (Santos 2016 ). Although invasive alien ants imposed substantial economic costs globally (Angulo et al. 2022 ), not all pest ants are alien species. For example, Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant) is a typical urban pest ant with a wide subtropical and tropical distribution; however, in most of its range, it is not considered an alien species (Perez-Flores et al. 2025). In temperate countries, the general public's knowledge of household pest insect biology is generally lacking, and the pest management approach adopted is reactive rather than proactive (Schoelitsz et al. 2019 ). In tropical countries, ant diversity is higher, and gardening and small-scale agriculture are widespread; therefore, managing pest ants is no longer limited to household control. A knowledge gap exists in studies of pest ants in Asia (Santos 2016 ), especially regarding public perceptions, understanding of pest ant biology, and the need to control pest ants. This study aims to explore the public perceptions of pest ants in Malaysia. Although many studies in Malaysia address the behaviour and ecology of ants (Philip et al. 2018 ; Yek et al. 2023 ), no research has investigated public perceptions of ants in everyday settings or how these perceptions directly shape how people manage ants as pests or nuisances. To that end, this study examines: (i) the public’s perception and understanding of pest ant ecology, and (ii) pest ant management. Materials and methods The study sites are situated in Malaysia (covering Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia) and in Singapore. Both Malaysia and Singapore experience a moist tropical climate that supports a high diversity of ant species (Sayre et al. 2020 ; Economo et al. 2018 ). Due to these characteristics, many tramp species (some considered pests) are also present (Wong et al. 2023 ). The sites are located within various environments, including urban settings such as parks and green spaces in populated areas, as well as rural regions (Fig. 1 ). Specifically, the study sites comprise six urban parks, one palm oil plantation, one farm, five rural villages, and one forest center. To examine how people perceive ants and implement control actions, we employed purposive sampling (Ahmad and Wilkins 2025). A purposive approach means participants are selected according to predetermined criteria to ensure that the data address the research purpose. We conducted qualitative, in-depth interviews with informants in their respective areas (Huis 2021 ). Interviews were chosen to capture how people think and act, not merely to list the ant species observed at the sites, thereby providing rich, nuanced data. We selected informants who were familiar with the site or had lived there for an extended period. The aim is to capture informants’ unique observations, such as ant changes over time at their respective locations. Examples of the questions include: (1) Are you aware of ants? (2) ⁠Are ants beneficial or a problem for you? Why? Associate ant species with the ants they are concerned with; (3) Do you think pest control would help manage the ants at your place? Why, (4) What challenges do you face with ants at your place, and what solutions have you tried or would suggest? (5) What do you think about invasive ants? Can you name or describe any that you know? All on-site interviews were recorded with the informants’ consent to ensure data accuracy. The interview data were analysed using qualitative content analysis (Bengtsson 2016 ). In this regard, manifest analysis describes the surface meaning of texts, whereas latent analysis examines their underlying meaning; hence, it extends to an interpretive level where researchers seek to determine what the text is talking about (See details in Bengtsson 2016 ). Human perceptions are important for gauging how people understand ants’ biology and behaviour, and how they respond to ants. However, this information alone is insufficient without scientific data on which ant species are present at the sites. The most abundant and perceptible ants were identified. Ant specimens were collected with entomological aspirators, preserved in 95% ethanol, and brought to the laboratory for identification (Delabie et al. 2020 ). Ants were identified to the genus level using Nazarreta et al. ( 2019 ), and common pest ants can be keyed to the species level by comparing images in AntWiki and AntWeb and using entomological keys (AntWeb 2025; Hashimoto 2003 ). Data integration involved comparing and contrasting the interview results with the ant species identified at each site. Results The coding process resulted in 12 distinct themes, including specific subthemes that describe both settings and practices (Supplementary S2). Based on the themes, we further categorise them into two study objectives: perceptions and behaviours (Fig. 2 ) and pest ant management approach (Fig. 3 ). The ‘ants as a context-dependent nuisance’, ‘mixed perception of ants as nuisance and beneficial’ and ‘health/safety and pain’ subthemes deal with how the public views ants in Malaysia. The ‘species mentioned frequently with local names’, ‘fire ants as a lay label for multiple stinging species’ and ‘temporal activity patterns and habitat shifts’ subthemes show the understanding of the public on ants’ behaviour. The ‘invasive/dominant species turnover’ and ‘termite bigger problem than ants’ demonstrate the public’s priority on organisms (ants or termites) that need management. The ‘place-based variations’ and ‘structural/plant damage concerns’ subthemes deal with the emerging concern where pest ant control should be applied. Lastly, the ‘preventive mindset’ and ‘common management tactics’ indicate the extent of management approaches used by the public in pest ants’ control. Discussion In general, whether insects (including ants) are considered pests largely depends on the perceptions, attitudes, and knowledge of the human inhabitants who interact with them regularly (Schoelitsz et al. 2019 ). This is also what we found in our interviews. The ‘context-dependent nuisance’ sub-themes revealed that ants found in the kitchen area and those that bite/sting in the garden are being considered as pests. From where the ants were found, ants found outdoors were tolerated more than those found indoors. Tolerance towards these ants also depends on whether the inhabitant perceives them as a risk to their children or as poisonous. It is interesting to note that most interviewers tolerate painful bites, but not if they are poisonous, although it was unclear what the definition of ‘poisonous’ is in their case. Our interviews revealed that although the general public lacks the knowledge to identify ant species, their understanding of the ecology and behaviour of these pests is relatively high. This is contrary to published work on pest insect identification among the general public (Schoelitsz et al. 2019 ). For example, several species have consistent common names across the Dusun communities: ‘Tobohung’ refers to Camponotus sp., and ‘Sodom’ to Nylanderia sp. Some ant species' temporal patterns were also noted by interviewers, demonstrating intimate knowledge of the pest ant community's changes. Fire ants are common names for several common stinging/biting species. In Malaysia, fire ants refer to Leptogenys sp., Oecophylla smaragdina , and/or Solenopsis sp. For sea turtle conservationists, the underground driver ants ( Dorylus laevigatus ), which prey on sea turtle eggs, are also often referred to as fire ants (Long et al. 2023 ). As not all fire ants can be managed with the same approach, one needs to practice caution when receiving requests to suggest a suitable management approach. The interviews showed that people who find ants a nuisance are not seeking professional pest control assistance. Sugar-diet pest ants are most commonly controlled with toxic baits for area-wide management and residual spray for buildings and structures (Lee and Yang 2022 ). As pest ant problems are mostly confined to small and specific areas (‘place-based variations’ and ‘structural/plant damage concerns’ subthemes), people might feel that seeking professional aid would be too costly and resort to home-based remedies to control ants. This suggests that potential pest control should develop more location-specific and cost-effective toxic baits for consumers. Another possibility is that people are not seeking professional aid because of a high preventive mindset (e.g., keeping the kitchen counter clean under the ‘preventive mindset’ subtheme). Even though termites were not part of the research, some interviewers indicated they were more concerned about damage caused by termites. This is consistent with the larger investment in termite control approaches (e.g. Lee and Lee 2025 ; Enagbonma et al. 2025 ). This study examines how people view and respond to ants in their daily lives. Despite the lack of scientific knowledge to identify specific ant species, the respondents have used traditional ecological knowledge accumulated over time to manage ants. Guided mainly by where ants occur and how painful or nuisance-causing they are, they employ preventive controls considered safe inside their homes. The danger of misconceptions such as “ in Malaysia, everything will be called fire ant as long as they sting/bite. That's the reason as fire ants are referred to multiple species (Leptogenys, Oecophylla or Solenopsis)” could lead to adverse effects in the long-term management of pest ants. For example, using wrong baits/insecticides for the actual species, harm to non-target fauna, and resurgence of pest resistance to indoor control measures. In light of this, we emphasise the need for management efforts and future studies to bridge local traditional knowledge with the scientific community, so that ant pest-management strategies are locally acceptable and effective. The implication for ant-pest management industries is that strategy should promote sustainable products and practices, guided by a sound understanding of end-user perspectives and scientific evidence. Statements and Declarations The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Author Contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Interview questions, data collection and analysis were performed by Marcela Pimid, André Ibanez, Nurul Ashikin binti Abdullah and Sze Huei Yek. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Marcela Pimid and Sze Huei Yek and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Data Availability The interviewee answers and analyses from current study are available as supplementary sections of the manuscript. Ethics Approval Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. The Universiti Malaysia Sabah Research Ethics Committee has confirmed that no additional ethical approval is required. Acknowledgements We thank the local stakeholders for agreeing to be interviewed for the pest ant survey. The survey was conducted under the permission issued by the Sabah Biodiversity Centre (SaBC) (permit number: JKM/MBS.1000-2/2 JLD.20 (148)) and the Singapore National Parks permit (permit number: NP/RP24-147b), with AI, MP and SHY as local collaborators. References Angulo E, Hoffmann BD, Ballesteros-Mejia L. et al. (2022) Economic costs of invasive alien ants worldwide. Biol Invasions 24(7):2041-2060. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-022-02791-w AntWeb. Version 8.114. California Academy of Science, online at https://www.antweb.org. Accessed 3 December 2025. Bengtsson M. (2016) How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus Open 2:8-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npls.2016.01.001 Delabie J, Koch E, Dodonov P. et al. (2020) Sampling and analysis methods for ant diversity assessment. In Measuring arthropod biodiversity: A handbook of sampling methods (pp. 13-54). Cham: Springer International Publishing. Economo EP, Narula N, Friedman NR, Weiser MD, Guénard B (2018) Macroecology and macroevolution of the latitudinal diversity gradient in ants. Nat Commun 9(1):1778. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04218 Enagbonma BJ, Mmushi R, Babalola OO (2025) Biotechnological utilization: the potential role of the termite gut symbiotic microbiome. Symbiosis 95(3):307-316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13199-025-01053-2 Hashimoto Y (2003) Chapter 9. Identification guide to the ant genera of Borneo. In Inventory and Collection - Total protocol for understanding of biodiversity (pp. 89-162). Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Hill DS (1997) Pest definitions. In The economic importance of insects (pp. 51-63). 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Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.14203/press.273 Pérez-Flores O, Branstetter MG, Longino JT, Matos-Maraví P, Borovanska M, Janda M (2025) A phylogenomic overview of the ant genus Tapinoma Foerster, 1850 (Formicidae: Dolichoderinae), with the phylogeographic history of the ghost ant Tapinoma melanocephalum . Insect Syst Diversity 9(5):1-18. https://doi.org/10.1093/isd/ixaf035 Philip AJ, Fayle TM, Yusah KM (2018) Selectively logging old growth rain forest twice changes canopy ant species composition, while conversion to oil palm changes composition and reduces species richness and diversity. J Trop Biol Conser 15(1):139-154. Santos MN (2016) Research on urban ants: approaches and gaps. Insectes Soc 63(3):359-371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-016-0483-1 Sayre R, Karagulle D, Frye C, Boucher T, Wolff NH, Breyer S et al (2020) An assessment of the representation of ecosystems in global protected areas using new maps of World Climate Regions and World Ecosystems. 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04:48:29","extension":"html","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":55797,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8371016/v1/7629c805e3bf3e2064c3d680.html"},{"id":98624526,"identity":"a1e78ae7-8a2f-4948-9c43-730ff9058f5b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-19 17:08:29","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":277253,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy sites in Peninsula Malaysia, Sabah and Singapore (Supplementary S1). In orange, rural sites and blue urban sites. In brackets, the number of sites per type (rural or urban)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8371016/v1/d16272e6f933e9c5da43cff7.png"},{"id":98480070,"identity":"19a401f2-e4b5-4604-93cb-36d0af01f04b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-18 04:48:29","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":76594,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSix sub-themes were relevant to understanding the perceptions of pest ants in the tropical context (including peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Sabah)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8371016/v1/9f74bb07f26b30b49fe1f7fe.png"},{"id":98480072,"identity":"8d706441-0c41-4443-8ca1-622a79daae42","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-18 04:48:29","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":68870,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSix themes were relevant to understanding the management approaches and mindset for pest ants in the tropical context (including peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Sabah)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8371016/v1/02511ef404347e49d0bf1129.png"},{"id":100360896,"identity":"ee610952-5674-4f7e-91af-3b8ea315efec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:44:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":679726,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8371016/v1/ce0fe282-db72-4e83-b2f0-9b876a6767cb.pdf"},{"id":98480082,"identity":"32ab7275-395b-452c-ab94-30704f83b294","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-18 04:48:29","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":158279,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementaryfile.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8371016/v1/65d700bd11b159ec6e4431a6.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Knowledge and Perceptions of Pest Ants in a Tropical Context","fulltext":[{"header":"Key message","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePublic perceptions of ants are highly context dependent.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLocal communities possess an ecological understanding of ant behaviour.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHouseholds relies on home-based remedies or preventive practices to manage pest ants.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eA pest is defined as an organism that negatively impacts human resources, such as food and crops; causes injury or discomfort to people and animals; damages structures; or interferes with human activities (Hill \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Among pest arthropods, pest ant control is often synonymous with invasive ant control, which involves the use of chemical pesticides (Santos \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Although invasive alien ants imposed substantial economic costs globally (Angulo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), not all pest ants are alien species. For example, \u003cem\u003eTapinoma melanocephalum\u003c/em\u003e (ghost ant) is a typical urban pest ant with a wide subtropical and tropical distribution; however, in most of its range, it is not considered an alien species (Perez-Flores et al. 2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn temperate countries, the general public's knowledge of household pest insect biology is generally lacking, and the pest management approach adopted is reactive rather than proactive (Schoelitsz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In tropical countries, ant diversity is higher, and gardening and small-scale agriculture are widespread; therefore, managing pest ants is no longer limited to household control. A knowledge gap exists in studies of pest ants in Asia (Santos \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), especially regarding public perceptions, understanding of pest ant biology, and the need to control pest ants. This study aims to explore the public perceptions of pest ants in Malaysia. Although many studies in Malaysia address the behaviour and ecology of ants (Philip et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Yek et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), no research has investigated public perceptions of ants in everyday settings or how these perceptions directly shape how people manage ants as pests or nuisances. To that end, this study examines: (i) the public\u0026rsquo;s perception and understanding of pest ant ecology, and (ii) pest ant management.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study sites are situated in Malaysia (covering Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia) and in Singapore. Both Malaysia and Singapore experience a moist tropical climate that supports a high diversity of ant species (Sayre et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Economo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Due to these characteristics, many tramp species (some considered pests) are also present (Wong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The sites are located within various environments, including urban settings such as parks and green spaces in populated areas, as well as rural regions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, the study sites comprise six urban parks, one palm oil plantation, one farm, five rural villages, and one forest center.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo examine how people perceive ants and implement control actions, we employed purposive sampling (Ahmad and Wilkins 2025). A purposive approach means participants are selected according to predetermined criteria to ensure that the data address the research purpose. We conducted qualitative, in-depth interviews with informants in their respective areas (Huis \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Interviews were chosen to capture how people think and act, not merely to list the ant species observed at the sites, thereby providing rich, nuanced data. We selected informants who were familiar with the site or had lived there for an extended period. The aim is to capture informants\u0026rsquo; unique observations, such as ant changes over time at their respective locations. Examples of the questions include: (1) Are you aware of ants? (2) ⁠Are ants beneficial or a problem for you? Why? Associate ant species with the ants they are concerned with; (3) Do you think pest control would help manage the ants at your place? Why, (4) What challenges do you face with ants at your place, and what solutions have you tried or would suggest? (5) What do you think about invasive ants? Can you name or describe any that you know?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll on-site interviews were recorded with the informants\u0026rsquo; consent to ensure data accuracy. The interview data were analysed using qualitative content analysis (Bengtsson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In this regard, manifest analysis describes the surface meaning of texts, whereas latent analysis examines their underlying meaning; hence, it extends to an interpretive level where researchers seek to determine what the text is talking about (See details in Bengtsson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuman perceptions are important for gauging how people understand ants\u0026rsquo; biology and behaviour, and how they respond to ants. However, this information alone is insufficient without scientific data on which ant species are present at the sites. The most abundant and perceptible ants were identified. Ant specimens were collected with entomological aspirators, preserved in 95% ethanol, and brought to the laboratory for identification (Delabie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Ants were identified to the genus level using Nazarreta et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and common pest ants can be keyed to the species level by comparing images in AntWiki and AntWeb and using entomological keys (AntWeb 2025; Hashimoto \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Data integration involved comparing and contrasting the interview results with the ant species identified at each site.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe coding process resulted in 12 distinct themes, including specific subthemes that describe both settings and practices (Supplementary S2). Based on the themes, we further categorise them into two study objectives: perceptions and behaviours (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) and pest ant management approach (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe \u0026lsquo;ants as a context-dependent nuisance\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;mixed perception of ants as nuisance and beneficial\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;health/safety and pain\u0026rsquo; subthemes deal with how the public views ants in Malaysia. The \u0026lsquo;species mentioned frequently with local names\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;fire ants as a lay label for multiple stinging species\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;temporal activity patterns and habitat shifts\u0026rsquo; subthemes show the understanding of the public on ants\u0026rsquo; behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe \u0026lsquo;invasive/dominant species turnover\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;termite bigger problem than ants\u0026rsquo; demonstrate the public\u0026rsquo;s priority on organisms (ants or termites) that need management. The \u0026lsquo;place-based variations\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;structural/plant damage concerns\u0026rsquo; subthemes deal with the emerging concern where pest ant control should be applied. Lastly, the \u0026lsquo;preventive mindset\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;common management tactics\u0026rsquo; indicate the extent of management approaches used by the public in pest ants\u0026rsquo; control.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn general, whether insects (including ants) are considered pests largely depends on the perceptions, attitudes, and knowledge of the human inhabitants who interact with them regularly (Schoelitsz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This is also what we found in our interviews. The \u0026lsquo;context-dependent nuisance\u0026rsquo; sub-themes revealed that ants found in the kitchen area and those that bite/sting in the garden are being considered as pests. From where the ants were found, ants found outdoors were tolerated more than those found indoors. Tolerance towards these ants also depends on whether the inhabitant perceives them as a risk to their children or as poisonous. It is interesting to note that most interviewers tolerate painful bites, but not if they are poisonous, although it was unclear what the definition of \u0026lsquo;poisonous\u0026rsquo; is in their case.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur interviews revealed that although the general public lacks the knowledge to identify ant species, their understanding of the ecology and behaviour of these pests is relatively high. This is contrary to published work on pest insect identification among the general public (Schoelitsz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). For example, several species have consistent common names across the Dusun communities: \u0026lsquo;Tobohung\u0026rsquo; refers to \u003cem\u003eCamponotus\u003c/em\u003e sp., and \u0026lsquo;Sodom\u0026rsquo; to \u003cem\u003eNylanderia\u003c/em\u003e sp. Some ant species' temporal patterns were also noted by interviewers, demonstrating intimate knowledge of the pest ant community's changes. Fire ants are common names for several common stinging/biting species. In Malaysia, fire ants refer to \u003cem\u003eLeptogenys\u003c/em\u003e sp., \u003cem\u003eOecophylla smaragdina\u003c/em\u003e, and/or \u003cem\u003eSolenopsis\u003c/em\u003e sp. For sea turtle conservationists, the underground driver ants (\u003cem\u003eDorylus laevigatus\u003c/em\u003e), which prey on sea turtle eggs, are also often referred to as fire ants (Long et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). As not all fire ants can be managed with the same approach, one needs to practice caution when receiving requests to suggest a suitable management approach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interviews showed that people who find ants a nuisance are not seeking professional pest control assistance. Sugar-diet pest ants are most commonly controlled with toxic baits for area-wide management and residual spray for buildings and structures (Lee and Yang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). As pest ant problems are mostly confined to small and specific areas (\u0026lsquo;place-based variations\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;structural/plant damage concerns\u0026rsquo; subthemes), people might feel that seeking professional aid would be too costly and resort to home-based remedies to control ants. This suggests that potential pest control should develop more location-specific and cost-effective toxic baits for consumers. Another possibility is that people are not seeking professional aid because of a high preventive mindset (e.g., keeping the kitchen counter clean under the \u0026lsquo;preventive mindset\u0026rsquo; subtheme). Even though termites were not part of the research, some interviewers indicated they were more concerned about damage caused by termites. This is consistent with the larger investment in termite control approaches (e.g. Lee and Lee \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Enagbonma et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examines how people view and respond to ants in their daily lives. Despite the lack of scientific knowledge to identify specific ant species, the respondents have used traditional ecological knowledge accumulated over time to manage ants. Guided mainly by where ants occur and how painful or nuisance-causing they are, they employ preventive controls considered safe inside their homes. The danger of misconceptions such as \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003ein Malaysia, everything will be called fire ant as long as they sting/bite. That's the reason as fire ants are referred to multiple species (Leptogenys, Oecophylla or Solenopsis)\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e could lead to adverse effects in the long-term management of pest ants. For example, using wrong baits/insecticides for the actual species, harm to non-target fauna, and resurgence of pest resistance to indoor control measures. In light of this, we emphasise the need for management efforts and future studies to bridge local traditional knowledge with the scientific community, so that ant pest-management strategies are locally acceptable and effective. The implication for ant-pest management industries is that strategy should promote sustainable products and practices, guided by a sound understanding of end-user perspectives and scientific evidence.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Statements and Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Interview questions, data collection and analysis were performed by Marcela Pimid, André Ibanez, Nurul Ashikin binti Abdullah and Sze Huei Yek. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Marcela Pimid and Sze Huei Yek and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe interviewee answers and analyses from current study are available as supplementary sections of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. The Universiti Malaysia Sabah Research Ethics Committee has confirmed that no additional ethical approval is required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e We thank the local stakeholders for agreeing to be interviewed for the pest ant survey. The survey was conducted under the permission issued by the Sabah Biodiversity Centre (SaBC) (permit number: JKM/MBS.1000-2/2 JLD.20 (148)) and the Singapore National Parks permit (permit number: NP/RP24-147b), with AI, MP and SHY as local collaborators.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAngulo E, Hoffmann BD, Ballesteros-Mejia L. et al. (2022) Economic costs of invasive alien ants worldwide. Biol Invasions 24(7):2041-2060. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-022-02791-w\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAntWeb. Version 8.114. California Academy of Science, online at https://www.antweb.org. Accessed 3 December 2025.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBengtsson M. (2016) How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus Open 2:8-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npls.2016.01.001\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDelabie J, Koch E, Dodonov P. et al. (2020) Sampling and analysis methods for ant diversity assessment. In \u003cem\u003eMeasuring arthropod biodiversity: A handbook of sampling methods\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 13-54). Cham: Springer International Publishing.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEconomo EP, Narula N, Friedman NR, Weiser MD, Gu\u0026eacute;nard B (2018) Macroecology and macroevolution of the latitudinal diversity gradient in ants. Nat Commun 9(1):1778. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04218\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEnagbonma BJ, Mmushi R, Babalola OO (2025) Biotechnological utilization: the potential role of the termite gut symbiotic microbiome. Symbiosis 95(3):307-316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13199-025-01053-2\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHashimoto Y (2003) Chapter 9. Identification guide to the ant genera of Borneo. In \u003cem\u003eInventory and Collection - Total protocol for understanding of biodiversity\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 89-162). Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHill DS (1997) Pest definitions. In \u003cem\u003eThe economic importance of insects\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 51-63). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLee CY, Lee SHD (2025) Termite baiting\u0026mdash;how it changed the landscape of the pest management industry and termite research in Southeast Asia. J Econ Entomol 118(3):1029-1037. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toaf081\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLee CY, Yang CCS (2022) Biology, ecology, and management of the invasive longlegged ant, \u003cem\u003eAnoplolepis gracilipes\u003c/em\u003e. Annu Rev Entomol 67(1):43-63. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-033121-102332\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLong SL, Gan JYS, Loke WQ, Yek SH (2023) Predatory ants invading sea turtle nests on the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Insectes Soc 70(3):365-372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-023-00925-4\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNazarreta R, Buchori D, Hidayat P, Scheu S, Drescher J (2019) A guide to the ants of Jambi (Sumatra, Indonesia): Identification key to ant genera and images of the EFForTS collection. Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.14203/press.273\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eP\u0026eacute;rez-Flores O, Branstetter MG, Longino JT, Matos-Marav\u0026iacute; P, Borovanska M, Janda M (2025) A phylogenomic overview of the ant genus \u003cem\u003eTapinoma\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eFoerster, 1850 (Formicidae: Dolichoderinae), with the phylogeographic history of the ghost ant \u003cem\u003eTapinoma melanocephalum\u003c/em\u003e. Insect Syst Diversity 9(5):1-18. https://doi.org/10.1093/isd/ixaf035\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePhilip AJ, Fayle TM, Yusah KM (2018) Selectively logging old growth rain forest twice changes canopy ant species composition, while conversion to oil palm changes composition and reduces species richness and diversity. J Trop Biol Conser 15(1):139-154.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSantos MN (2016) Research on urban ants: approaches and gaps. Insectes Soc 63(3):359-371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-016-0483-1\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSayre R, Karagulle D, Frye C, Boucher T, Wolff NH, Breyer S et al (2020) An assessment of the representation of ecosystems in global protected areas using new maps of World Climate Regions and World Ecosystems. Global Ecol Conserv 21:e00860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00860.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSchoelitsz B, Meerburg BG, Takken W (2019) Influence of the public\u0026apos;s perception, attitudes, and knowledge on the implementation of integrated pest management for household insect pests. Entomol Exp Appl 167(1):14-26. https://doi.org/10.1111/eea.12739\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVan Huis A (2021) Cultural aspects of ants, bees and wasps, and their products in sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Trop Insect Sci 41(3):2223-2235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-020-00410-6\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWong MK, Economo EP, Gu\u0026eacute;nard B (2023) The global spread and invasion capacities of alien ants. Curr Biol 33(3):566-571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.12.020\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYek SH, Pathy TS, Yeo DYC, Gan JYS (2023) The effects of anthropogenic disturbance and seasonality on the ant communities of Lang Tengah Island. PeerJ Life Environ 11:e16157. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.16157\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Fire ant, Context-dependent nuisance, Household pests, Agricultural pests, Home-based remedies, Preventive practices","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8371016/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8371016/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAnts are typical household and agricultural pests in tropical regions, yet little is known about how the public perceives and manages them in Malaysia. This study investigated the public\u0026rsquo;s perception and knowledge of pest ant ecology and common management approaches. Qualitative methods using interviews were conducted with local stakeholders across sites in Peninsular and Borneo, Malaysia, to capture respondents\u0026rsquo; experiences with ants, recognition of pest species, ecological knowledge, and preferred control methods. Interviewed communities viewed ants as \u0026lsquo;context-dependent nuisances\u0026rsquo;, with household ants considered pests and requiring control. Ants found outdoors were tolerated unless perceived as \u0026lsquo;venomous\u0026rsquo;. Although respondents were unable to identify ant species, their understanding of ant ecology and behaviour was relatively high. Several species also had consistent local names, and surveyed communities demonstrated awareness of ants' temporal activity patterns. The term \u0026lsquo;fire ants\u0026rsquo; refers to multiple stinging/biting ant species. This highlighted the need for caution when recommending control strategies. Most respondents did not seek professional pest control; instead, they relied on home-based remedies or preventive practices. This integrated approach, using interviews and ant species identification, suggests the need for cost-effective, location-specific toxic baits and for improved public guidance on species-appropriate management approaches.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Knowledge and Perceptions of Pest Ants in a Tropical Context","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-18 04:48:25","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8371016/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"53aa3206-a968-44b8-bd8e-ab7802d5c2bf","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-11T19:08:44+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-18 04:48:25","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8371016","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8371016","identity":"rs-8371016","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}