VERAONET: A Virtual Ecosystem for Rewards and Archaeological Operations Network

VERAONET: A Virtual Ecosystem for Rewards and Archaeological Operations Network | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article VERAONET: A Virtual Ecosystem for Rewards and Archaeological Operations Network Omer Aziz, Muhammad Shoaib Farooq, Adel khelifi, Abdullah Omer This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7074716/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 27 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in npj Heritage Science → Version 1 posted 17 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The digital preservation of cultural heritage has advanced considerably through blockchain technologies , offering secure, immutable, and decentralized management of museum records. However, traditional blockchain frameworks suffer from scalability limitations, leading to high transaction costs, network congestion, and inefficient resource utilization—particularly in virtual museum environments with dynamic user activity. To address these challenges, we propose VERAONET (Virtual Ecosystem for Rewards and Archaeological Operations Network), a novel Layer-2 blockchain framework designed specifically for digital heritage applications. VERAONET introduces a pluggable consensus architecture, enabling dynamic switching between Proof of Work (PoW), Adjustable PoW (APoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), and Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) mechanisms in response to real-time network conditions. The framework was evaluated in two experimental environments: a Ganache-based local simulation (10–500 users) and a Geth virtual testbed (50–10,000 users). Results indicate that PoS and DPoS significantly outperformed PoW and APoW under high-load conditions, reducing latency, gas consumption, and chain bloat. Conversely, PoW and APoW proved effective in low-traffic, high-security scenarios. The adaptive consensus algorithm enhanced transaction finality and resource efficiency, demonstrating strong suitability for dynamic virtual museum ecosystems. VERAONET thus provides a scalable, sustainable, and cost-effective blockchain infrastructure tailored for cultural heritage preservation. Future work will focus on integrating AI-driven optimizations, supporting cross-chain interoperability, and embedding decentralized governance models. Layer-2 Solutions Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) Proof of Stake (PoS) Adjustable Proof of Work (APow) Sidechains Archaeological Workflows Milestone-Based Rewards Digital Provenance Gas Cost Reduction Artifact Documentation Sustainable Blockchain Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 27 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in npj Heritage Science → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 11 Aug, 2025 Reviews received at journal 04 Aug, 2025 Reviews received at journal 28 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 28 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 27 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 18 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 14 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 13 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 13 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Jul, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 11 Jul, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 09 Jul, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 09 Jul, 2025 First submitted to journal 08 Jul, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7074716","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":485159804,"identity":"4b6bb7a7-9c23-4b27-9306-124cc26d7cf2","order_by":0,"name":"Omer Aziz","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC++ONDQc+VNjIsTEzH3wAEUsA4gO4tRjwHD54cMaZNGN+9rZkAyCfCC0SacmHedsOJ87sOaMmQZwWhhyDgzPY0owNbuSwVfPm/GHgZ88xYC44g8cvDGcMDnzgsZEzuJF77DbvNgMGyZ43BswzbuCxhbEHaIsEyJa8NLAWoHUGzDwf8Ghh5jE4DESJG27kmBWDtNgT1MLGlnCYJwHsfTNmsC0SIC34HMbDfODgjAOQQJacu82YR+LMs4LDM/B430D+YfOHj/8gUfnh7TY5Of725I2PC47h1oIBeEDEYRI0QAEz6VpGwSgYBaNgGAMAdqNZ0yNgYYEAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Management and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Omer","middleName":"","lastName":"Aziz","suffix":""},{"id":485159805,"identity":"158fe734-c594-4ddd-814b-f81c403b49f3","order_by":1,"name":"Muhammad Shoaib Farooq","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Management and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muhammad","middleName":"Shoaib","lastName":"Farooq","suffix":""},{"id":485159806,"identity":"38d3871b-f411-4cd8-b1b3-575d6798b26d","order_by":2,"name":"Adel khelifi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Abu Dhabi University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adel","middleName":"","lastName":"khelifi","suffix":""},{"id":485159807,"identity":"8a86aba8-272a-4440-8145-ba36b67fe72b","order_by":3,"name":"Abdullah Omer","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Software Technologies","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdullah","middleName":"","lastName":"Omer","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-08 12:08:42","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7074716/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7074716/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s40494-026-02366-1","type":"published","date":"2026-04-27T15:58:14+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108437797,"identity":"2d549c33-579d-4c68-9513-c7e84e091d41","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 16:03:29","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":491383,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"VERAONET.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7074716/v1_covered_d08896d4-d726-4817-b8b3-005037d46e18.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"VERAONET: A Virtual Ecosystem for Rewards and Archaeological Operations Network","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-heritage-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"hsci","sideBox":"Learn more about [Heritage Science](http://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40494","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40494/3","title":"npj Heritage Science","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Layer-2 Solutions, Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS), Proof of Stake (PoS), Adjustable Proof of Work (APow), Sidechains, Archaeological Workflows, Milestone-Based Rewards, Digital Provenance, Gas Cost Reduction, Artifact Documentation, Sustainable Blockchain","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7074716/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7074716/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"The digital preservation of cultural heritage has advanced considerably through blockchain technologies , offering secure, immutable, and decentralized management of museum records. 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