Tapeworm infection affects sleep behavior in three-spined stickleback

Sleep is a highly complex and conserved biological process that affects several body functions and behaviors. Recent evidence suggests that there is a reciprocal interaction between sleep and immunity. For instance, fragmented sleep can increase the probability of parasitic infections and reduce the ability of infected hosts to fight infections. It is also known, particularly in humans and other mammals, that viral and bacterial infections alter the sleep patterns of infected individuals. However, the effects of macro-parasitic infections on sleep remain largely unknown. In this study, we investigated whether macro-parasite infections could alter the sleep of their hosts. We experimentally infected three-spined sticklebacks ( Gasterosteus aculeatus ) with the tapeworm Schistocephalus solidus and used a hidden Markov model to characterize sleep-associated behaviors in the sticklebacks. At an early time-point, 1-4 days after parasite exposure, infected fish showed no difference in sleep compared with non-exposed fish, whereas fish that were exposed but could fend off the infection slept less during the daytime. At a later time-point, 29-32 days after exposure, infected fish slept more than uninfected fish, while exposed-but-not-infected fish slept less than non-exposed fish. Using RNA-seq of brain tissue, we identified several immune- and sleep-associated genes that potentially underlie the observed behavioral changes. These results provide the first insight into the complex association between macro-parasite infection, immunity, and sleep in fish and may thus contribute to a better understanding of the reciprocal interaction between sleep and immunity.