Treatment of Pharmaceutical Wastewater Using Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus Ostreatus)

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Sackey, Delphine Koudadje, Joseph A. Bentil This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7314669/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Pharmaceutical wastewater contains hazardous contaminants, including analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs, which pose significant environmental and health risks. Conventional treatment methods are often costly and inefficient, necessitating sustainable alternatives. This study evaluated the biosorption potential of whole-cell and powdered oyster mushrooms ( Pleurotus ostreatus ) for removing diclofenac, paracetamol, and ibuprofen from pharmaceutical wastewater. The mushroom spawn, Pleurotus ostreatus was obtained from Robert Enterprise which is an accredited supplier of mushrooms in Ashanti Region, Ghana. The mushrooms were cultivated, processed into whole-cell and powdered forms, and used as biosorbents in varying dosages (3 g and 6 g) and contact times (3 and 6 days). The results showed that powdered oyster mushrooms had higher removal efficiencies compared to whole-cell mushrooms, attributed to their increased surface area and enhanced adsorption capacity. Optimal removal was achieved at 3 g of powdered mushroom and 3 days of treatment, with diclofenac exhibiting the highest removal rates (87.11%), followed by paracetamol (60.98%) and ibuprofen (53.20%) for pharmaceutical industry A and 67.39% of diclofenac followed by 56.76% of paracetamol and 40.90 removed for pharmaceutical industry B. Increasing biosorbent weight and contact time beyond the optimal levels led to reduced efficiency due to binding site saturation and particle aggregation. The findings suggest that Pleurotus ostreatus is a viable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective biosorbent for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional methods. However, further research is required to optimize large-scale applications and assess biosorbent regeneration potential. Biological sciences/Biotechnology Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Powdered oyster mushroom mushroom whole-cell biosorption Pleurotus ostreatus pharmaceutical wastewater treatment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Numerous contaminants are being released into the environment more frequently as a result of industrialisation and rapid population growth. Pharmaceuticals are particularly concerning because of their extensive usage, large quantities in various ecosystems, and possible ecological hazards (Nunes et al., 2014 ; Al-howri et al., 2024 ). They are categorised as emerging pollutants (Shah & Shah, 2020 ). Manufacturing facilities, medical facilities, agricultural practices, domestic use, and inappropriate disposal are some of the ways that these complex organic molecules end up in the environment (Liang & Yan, 2015 ; Ashfaq et al., 2017 ). Pharmaceutical wastewater is a significant environmental concern due to the complex and hazardous nature of the contaminants it contains (Singh, 2023 ). Out of all the many industries, the pharmaceutical sector is thought to be responsible for 22% of all industrial freshwater use, producing wastewater that is either disposed of directly or not appropriately treated before disposal (Eniola et al., 2022 ). These wastewaters are produced by a variety of pharmaceutical processes and are characterized by high levels of suspended particles, dissolved solids (salts), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (Guo et al., 2017 ; Shi et al., 2017 ). Pharmaceutical wastewater frequently contains spent solvents, catalysts, additives, reactants, analgesics, antidepressants, antibiotics, and anti-inflammatory drugs etc (Shah & Shah, 2020 ; Samal et al., 2022 ). Significant effects on aquatic ecosystems and human health can result from the presence of pharmaceutical substances in the environment, even at low concentrations (Ashfaq et al., 2017 ; Samal et al., 2022 ). This includes the potential development of antibiotic-resistant pathogens (Malik et al., 2023 ; Pal, 2018 ; Ashfaq et al., 2017 ). Thus, before the wastewater is discharged, it is essential to design and implement efficient treatment techniques to eliminate these contaminants (Shi et al., 2017 ). Pharmaceutical wastewater is frequently unsuitable for conventional biological treatment techniques because the contaminants, especially heavy metal ions, can be persistent in biological systems and non-biodegradable. (Pal, 2018 ; Tiwari et al., 2016 ; Eniola et al., 2022 ). This may result in the release of pharmaceutical effluent that is partially treated into the environment, which could have severe consequences (Tiwari et al., 2016 ). To solve this issue, several advanced treatment technologies have been investigated, such as integrated systems, oxidation processes, membrane filtration, and adsorption (Guo et al., 2017 ). These advanced technologies have led to highly effective wastewater treatment (Wang et al., 2023 ; Samal et al., 2022 ; Eniola et al., 2022 ). However, many of these technologies require substantial energy, raw materials, and financial resources, making them costly and often unsustainable (Guo et al., 2017 ; Ghazal et al., 2022 ). Additionally, some advanced treatment processes may generate secondary pollutants, further complicating environmental management (Zaied et al., 2020 ). Given these challenges, there is a growing need for alternative, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective approaches that can achieve comparable or improved efficiency (Birniwa et al., 2023 ). The application of fungus for environmental remediation, known as mycoremediation, has drawn interest as a potentially effective method for handling pharmaceutical effluent (Akerman-sanchez & Rojas-jimenez, 2021 ; Dalecka et al., 2020 ). The capacity of fungi, especially mushrooms, to break down complex organic contaminants, such as pharmaceuticals and their byproducts, is well documented (Lucas et al., 2018 ; Malik et al., 2023 ). Studies have indicated that mushrooms can effectively break down pharmaceutical pollutants found in wastewater (Naghdi et al., 2018 ). For instance, Trametes versicolor has been shown to effectively remove pharmaceutical active compounds from veterinary hospital wastewater, achieving significant degradation rates in non-sterile conditions (Badia-Fabregat et al. , 2015). The strong binding ability of adsorbents to pharmaceutical compounds has made adsorption a potent tool for decontaminating pharmaceutical wastewater. The low cost, reusability of adsorbents, and ease of handling make adsorption more significant than other technologies (Eniola et al., 2022 ). Hence, this study seeks to evaluate and compare the efficiency of whole-cell and powdered oyster mushrooms ( Pleurotus ostreatus ) as a biosorbent for treating pharmaceutical wastewater. Materials and Methods Study Area Pharmaceutical Wastewater Sample Collection and Analysis Sampling Procedure The samples were taken from a withholding tank, which has been constructed for withholding effluent from production. High-density polyethylene bottle (HDPE) was used for the collection of effluent from pharmaceutical companies due to their chemical resistance and durability and also their ability to withstand a wide range of chemicals and are also less prone to breakage compared to glass bottles. The composite sampling method was used to collect the samples. The samples were collected from different depths of the withholding tanks and mixed together to give a representative sample. The samples were preserved in an ice chest with ice blocks to prevent any biochemical reaction, and later transported to KNUST for laboratory analysis. Chemicals and Reagents Sigma-Aldrich (Dorset, UK) supplied tramadol hydrochloride (CAS #: 36282-47-0, > 99 percent pure) and diazepam (CAS #:439-14-5, 98 percent pure), whereas Fluka (Steinheim, Germany) supplied amoxicillin trihydrate (CAS #: 267-87-780, 98 percent pure). Acetaminophen, ibuprofen, cefuroxime, and penicillin V were all donated by Pokupharma Ltd., Ghana. Merck supplied HPLC grade methanol (CAS #: 67-56-1, > 99.9% pure) and acetonitrile (CAS #: 75-05-8, > 99.9% pure). Distilled water was bought from KNUST Central Laboratory. Methanol was used to make the stock solutions, which were maintained frozen at − 18°C. Analytical Procedure for Pharmaceutical Contaminants Determination Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE) and Analysis The solid-phase extraction procedure described by Azanu et al (2016) was modified and used in this study. Water samples were cleaned up and concentrated on Oasis HLB (hydrophilic-lipophilic balance, 200 mg sorbent, 30 m, 6 cm3) cartridge supplied by Water Oasis (SPE) (Massachusetts, USA), and 2 mL MeOH, after that 2 mL distilled water, was used to condition the SPE cartridge. At a flow rate of 1.5 mL/min, 500 mL of water samples were put into SPE columns. Dried SPE columns were washed with 3 mL of 5% MeOH. After permitting the sorbent under a vacuum to dry for a few minutes, the antibiotics were eluted with 3 mL MeOH at a flow rate of about 1 mL min − 1. Eluates were dried at 30°C with a moderate nitrogen flow before being reconstituted in 1 mL 1% MeOH and injected into brown flat cap HPLC vials for analysis. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Analysis for four analgesics; Ibuprofen, Tramadol, Diclofenac, and Paracetamol With a Wave Quest CE4300 UV/Vis Detector, a Cecil-Adept Binary Pump HPLC was used to develop the method for analyzing the analgesics (Cambridge, UK). The chromatographic separation of diclofenac was achieved using a Zorbax Column (C18, 4.6 mm × 250 mm, 5 µm, Agilent Technologies Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA) while for tramadol, ibuprofen, and paracetamol was achieved using a SunFire Column (C18, 4.6 mm × 150 mm, 5 µm, Waters, Milford, MA, USA) preceded by a guard column (SunFire, C18, 4.6 mm × 10 mm, 5 µm, Waters, Milford, MA, USA) at 30°C. The mobile phase used was 40: 60 (v/v), 0.1 M sodium acetate buffer (pH = 4): methanol and was pumped at 0.8 mL/min. A volume of 10 uL was injected into the HPLC for analysis. Preparation of Oyster Mushroom Whole Cell and Powder for Treatment The mushroom spawn, Pleurotus ostreatus was obtained from Robert Enterprise which is an accredited supplier of mushrooms in Ashanti region, Ghana. Mushroom cultivation and fructification methods were followed, according to Nongthombam et al. ( 2021 ). The oyster mushroom was cultivated on sawdust supplemented with rice bran and calcium carbonate (Fig. 1 ). The substrate was composted for 28 days, followed by substrate sterilization, inoculation with Pleurotus ostreatus spawn and incubation. After incubating at 25°C for 40 days, the mushrooms were harvested and cleaned. A portion was cut into small pieces to serve as the whole cell and the other portion was sun-dried, milled into powder, and sieved to achieve a fine particle size below 0.15 mm for biosorption tests (Fig. 2 ). Pharmaceutical Wastewater Treatment The powdered mushroom and the mushroom whole cell (3 g and 6 g) were used as biosorbents to treat 150 mL of the pharmaceutical wastewater for 72 h and 144 h, with treatments performed in triplicate (Fig. 3). The concentration of pharmaceutical compounds in the wastewater was measured before and after treatment to assess the biosorption efficiency of the mushroom. The percentage removal of pharmaceutical compounds was calculated using the following equation: \(\:\%\:Removal=\frac{Initial\:concentration-final\:concentration}{Initial\:concentration}\times\:100\) ……… Eq. 1 Data Analysis SPSS (version 27.0) and Microsoft Excel were used for statistical analysis of the data. To identify significant differences between treatment groups (p < 0.05), Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test was used after two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Results and discussion Pharmaceutical composition of the Raw wastewater Out of the four pharmaceutical compounds tested, three were present. The pharmaceutical compounds in the two pharmaceutical industrial wastewater samples exhibited notable concentration variations. They surpassed the allowable limits established by Ghana's Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which prohibits detectable concentrations of these pharmaceuticals in wastewater discharge (0.00 mg/L) (Fig. 4 ). Diclofenac (547.96 mg/L to 1191 mg/L) had the highest concentration, followed by paracetamol (40 mg/L to 60 mg/L) and ibuprofen (5.75 mg/L to 8.43 mg/L). Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used for its analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic effects (Gazal and Al-Samadani, 2017 ). Shore et al. ( 2014 ) and Singh ( 2023 ) reported that diclofenac is one of the most hazardous medications, causing kidney damage in fish and contributing to the fall of vulture populations by bioaccumulation in their food supply. Paracetamol is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic, and its high quantities in pharmaceutical effluent are not uncommon (Nunes et al., 2014 ). In wastewater, paracetamol can cause long-term damage to aquatic life, impacting fish and invertebrate liver and kidney function (Żur et al., 2018 ; Al-howri et al., 2024 ). Exposure to ibuprofen causes acute and long-term toxicity in aquatic organisms, including decreased growth, survival, and reproduction in species like Daphnia magna , lysosomal membrane instability, oxidative stress, and genotoxic effects in mussels and clams (Parolini, 2020 ). Ashfaq et al. ( 2017 ) conducted an ecological risk assessment using the risk quotient (RQ) method, based on the highest measured concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds in wastewater. Their findings revealed that paracetamol had an RQ of 64 for Daphnia , diclofenac had an RQ of 12,600 for Oncorhynchus mykiss , and ibuprofen posed the greatest risk with an RQ of 167,300 for Oryzias latipes . These results suggest that pharmaceutical contaminants pose a significant threat to aquatic ecosystems. EPA- Environmental Protection Agency (Ghana) standard values for effluent discharge in Ghana adapted from Ghana Standard for Environment and Health Protect Requirements for Effluent Discharge (GS 1212, 2019) 3.2 Pharmaceutical composition of the treated wastewater The treatment of the two pharmaceutical industrial wastewaters using powdered mushroom (MP) and mushroom whole cell (MWC) demonstrated varying removal efficiencies for paracetamol, ibuprofen, diclofenac (Tables 1 and 2 ). For both wastewaters, MP outperformed the MWC likely due to its significantly higher surface area, which provided more binding sites for pharmaceutical compounds, and improved the efficacy of biosorption. Table 1 Percentage removal of pharmaceutical compounds across treatments using powdered and whole-cell oyster mushroom (Pharmaceutical industry 1) Treatments Time (days) Weight (g) Paracetamol (%) Ibuprofen (%) Diclofenac (%) MP 3 3 60.98 53.20 87.11 MWC 3 3 54.72 27.87 63.13 MP 3 6 28.88 34.13 83.11 MWC 3 6 21.28 8.27 54.46 MP 6 3 55.38 49.33 86.72 MWC 6 3 48.15 17.60 61.32 MP 6 6 26.89 33.17 84.09 MWC 6 6 16.43 11.60 49.11 MP: mushroom powder; MWC: mushroom whole cell Compared to the whole-cell form's compact structure, its fine particles dispersed more readily in the wastewater, increasing interaction with pollutants and lowering mass transfer limitations, consistent with findings that highlight the importance of the surface area in enhancing bioremediation processes (Pereira et al., 2023 ; Langenhoff et al., 2013 ). Higher weight (6 g) and longer treatment time (6 days) decreased removal efficiency which can be attributed to the saturation of binding sites on the mushroom biomass over time (Nathan et al., 2021 ; Kariuki et al., 2017 ). Increased biosorbent may cause biosorbent particles to overlap or aggregate, decreasing their effective surface area and the number of binding sites accessible for adsorption (Yildirim et al., 2020 ; Ramirez Calderon et al. , 2020). Similar trends have been reported by Khitous et al. ( 2016 ) and Latha et al. ( 2023 ), highlighting that beyond an optimal biosorbent dosage, the removal efficiency decreased. MP treatment showed the highest removal for Paracetamol (56.76%), Ibuprofen (40.90%) and Diclofenac (67.39%) for pharmaceutical industry 1 and Paracetamol (60.98%), Ibuprofen (53.20%) and Diclofenac (87.11%) for Pharmaceutical industry 2 both at 3 g and 3 days. Akhtar et al. ( 2016 ) and Jung et al., ( 2013 ) highlighted that biosorption efficiency depends on the molecular size and hydrophobicity of the pharmaceutical compound. Table 2 Percentage removal of pharmaceutical compounds across treatments using powdered and whole-cell oyster mushroom (Pharmaceutical industry 2) Treatments Time (days) Weight (g) Paracetamol (%) Ibuprofen (%) Diclofenac (%) MP 3 3 56.76 40.90 67.39 MWC 3 3 40.42 36.40 49.14 MP 3 6 26.90 34.97 63.68 MWC 3 6 18.40 22.70 45.75 MP 6 3 48.55 31.08 59.50 MWC 6 3 31.61 18.81 44.88 MP 6 6 34.07 22.49 53.12 MWC 6 6 11.49 18.00 42.13 MP: mushroom powder; MWC: mushroom whole cell Ibuprofen's moderate hydrophobicity might explain its partial adsorption (Nguyen et al., 2014 ). Diclofenac showed the highest percentage removal with all treatments, indicating that the mushroom had a high affinity for this drug. This aligns with the findings of Palli et al. ( 2017 ) where Pleurotus ostreatus demonstrated complete removal of diclofenac. Similarly, Lucas et al. ( 2018 ) reported that diclofenac had the highest sorption in fungal biomass, up to 9153.2 ng/g. The high sorption efficiency can be attributed to diclofenac's hydrophobic character, reflected by its high partition coefficient facilitating interaction with fungal biomass (Lucas et al., 2018 ). The samples from both pharmaceutical industries show a statistically significant p-value of 0.02 among all the pharmaceutical compositions analysed (Paracetamol, Ibuprofen and Diclofenac), which indicates that when they are all kept in the same withholding tank they could react and increase the toxicity of the effluent and when discharge into the ecosystem they could cause more harm. Generally, the samples, time of treatment and weight of the sample were statistically significant p-value of 0.00 which indicated that the time of treatment, samples and weight of the mushroom used for treatment can influence the capability of the mushroom to remove the pharmaceutical contaminants in the effluent. Conclusion This study evaluated the effectiveness of whole-cell and powdered oyster mushrooms ( Pleurotus ostreatus ) as biosorbents for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment. The results demonstrated that both forms of the mushroom were capable of removing diclofenac, paracetamol, and ibuprofen from wastewater, with powdered oyster mushroom showing superior removal efficiency. The highest removal rates for Pokupharma were observed for diclofenac (87.11%), followed by paracetamol (60.98%) and ibuprofen (53.20%), and for Amponsah Efah, diclofenac (67.39%), followed by paracetamol (56.76%) and ibuprofen (40.90%), highlighting differences in biosorption based on molecular properties and hydrophobicity. The biosorption efficiency was influenced by both biosorbent weight and contact time. Increasing biosorbent dosage and longer treatment time decrease removal efficiency likely due to the saturation of binding sites and aggregation of biosorbent particles. Optimal removal was achieved at 3 g biosorbent weight and 3 days of contact time, suggesting that precise parameter optimization is necessary for effective application. Compared to conventional treatment methods, biosorption with Pleurotus ostreatus offers a promising eco-friendly approach that requires minimal energy input and avoids the generation of secondary pollutants. However, further studies are needed to assess the long-term performance, reusability of the biosorbent, and its application in large-scale wastewater treatment systems. Declarations Competing interests : the authors declare no competing interests. Consent to publish : Since this study is not attempting to re-publish/publish any third party or author's previously published material, this section does not apply. Consent to participate : All the authors have accepted for the publication in the journal Funding: This study was funded by the KNUST Research Fund 7 (KReF 7). Data availability statement : Data is available upon request from the author with email address [email protected] . Ethics declaration : Not applicable Authors’ contribution : L.N.A.S., J.A.B.- Conceptualization, Collection of literature, data analysis, supervision and review of the manuscript. 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Organic micropollutants paracetamol and ibuprofen—toxicity, biodegradation, and genetic background of their utilization by bacteria. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 25 (22), 21498–21524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2517-x (2018). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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Sackey","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA90lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZsYGBh4eCQY29saGAxIVDAwGxGvhOXzwgcUZYrSAAA+IkEhLNqhsI0KLOTtz44c3Mhb5fAw5ZhI35x2WN2dvPsDwo2IbTi2WzYzNknN4JCzbGM6YSc7cdthwZ8+xBMaeM7dxajE4zNggDfSLARtjj5m05LbDjBtu5BgwM7bh1dL8G6yFmcdM+u+cw/bEaGmD2MLGlmwg2XA4kSgtlnNAWniYDz6QOJaevOHMsYSDeP1y/vjjG2976gzk5z8ERmWNte2G480HH/yowK0FDBh74MxmMHkAv3oQ+AFn1RFWPApGwSgYBSMOAAA7qlZs722uxgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lyndon","middleName":"N.A.","lastName":"Sackey","suffix":""},{"id":509454899,"identity":"cd37857f-4fb7-410e-a7d2-ddca473a8aec","order_by":1,"name":"Delphine Koudadje","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Delphine","middleName":"","lastName":"Koudadje","suffix":""},{"id":509454900,"identity":"e88a0130-9514-443b-b7cd-ae4c0bfc2604","order_by":2,"name":"Joseph A. Bentil","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joseph","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Bentil","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-07 04:53:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7314669/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7314669/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":90585171,"identity":"69c58273-0d1c-4a1e-b232-31707977457a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-04 11:14:55","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":71269,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultivation of mushrooms\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7314669/v1/d13180852f51a89c07d21132.jpg"},{"id":90585174,"identity":"934fcc23-a2a9-4ff8-afa3-6a657c0488c4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-04 11:14:55","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":12448,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePowdered and whole-cell mushrooms\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7314669/v1/9581508f9d1333a7d7338ddc.jpg"},{"id":90586345,"identity":"a32841e7-14b1-4b94-a013-20fda28cd137","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-04 11:30:55","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49039,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTreatment of samples with whole-cell\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7314669/v1/3ac08261e62069dc151f774b.jpg"},{"id":95313685,"identity":"d760b841-42e9-4772-a07f-06731028bc5a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:51:51","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1026948,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7314669/v1/8c1635a9-cdd8-4fab-9120-2a91b41310cf.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Treatment of Pharmaceutical Wastewater Using Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus Ostreatus)","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eNumerous contaminants are being released into the environment more frequently as a result of industrialisation and rapid population growth. Pharmaceuticals are particularly concerning because of their extensive usage, large quantities in various ecosystems, and possible ecological hazards (Nunes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Al-howri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). They are categorised as emerging pollutants (Shah \u0026amp; Shah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Manufacturing facilities, medical facilities, agricultural practices, domestic use, and inappropriate disposal are some of the ways that these complex organic molecules end up in the environment (Liang \u0026amp; Yan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ashfaq et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Pharmaceutical wastewater is a significant environmental concern due to the complex and hazardous nature of the contaminants it contains (Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Out of all the many industries, the pharmaceutical sector is thought to be responsible for 22% of all industrial freshwater use, producing wastewater that is either disposed of directly or not appropriately treated before disposal (Eniola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These wastewaters are produced by a variety of pharmaceutical processes and are characterized by high levels of suspended particles, dissolved solids (salts), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Shi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Pharmaceutical wastewater frequently contains spent solvents, catalysts, additives, reactants, analgesics, antidepressants, antibiotics, and anti-inflammatory drugs etc (Shah \u0026amp; Shah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Samal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Significant effects on aquatic ecosystems and human health can result from the presence of pharmaceutical substances in the environment, even at low concentrations (Ashfaq et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Samal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This includes the potential development of antibiotic-resistant pathogens (Malik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Pal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Ashfaq et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, before the wastewater is discharged, it is essential to design and implement efficient treatment techniques to eliminate these contaminants (Shi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Pharmaceutical wastewater is frequently unsuitable for conventional biological treatment techniques because the contaminants, especially heavy metal ions, can be persistent in biological systems and non-biodegradable. (Pal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Tiwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Eniola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This may result in the release of pharmaceutical effluent that is partially treated into the environment, which could have severe consequences (Tiwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). To solve this issue, several advanced treatment technologies have been investigated, such as integrated systems, oxidation processes, membrane filtration, and adsorption (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). These advanced technologies have led to highly effective wastewater treatment (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Samal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Eniola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, many of these technologies require substantial energy, raw materials, and financial resources, making them costly and often unsustainable (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ghazal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, some advanced treatment processes may generate secondary pollutants, further complicating environmental management (Zaied et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Given these challenges, there is a growing need for alternative, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective approaches that can achieve comparable or improved efficiency (Birniwa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The application of fungus for environmental remediation, known as mycoremediation, has drawn interest as a potentially effective method for handling pharmaceutical effluent (Akerman-sanchez \u0026amp; Rojas-jimenez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Dalecka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The capacity of fungi, especially mushrooms, to break down complex organic contaminants, such as pharmaceuticals and their byproducts, is well documented (Lucas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Malik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have indicated that mushrooms can effectively break down pharmaceutical pollutants found in wastewater (Naghdi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, Trametes versicolor has been shown to effectively remove pharmaceutical active compounds from veterinary hospital wastewater, achieving significant degradation rates in non-sterile conditions (Badia-Fabregat \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2015). The strong binding ability of adsorbents to pharmaceutical compounds has made adsorption a potent tool for decontaminating pharmaceutical wastewater. The low cost, reusability of adsorbents, and ease of handling make adsorption more significant than other technologies (Eniola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, this study seeks to evaluate and compare the efficiency of whole-cell and powdered oyster mushrooms (\u003cem\u003ePleurotus ostreatus\u003c/em\u003e) as a biosorbent for treating pharmaceutical wastewater.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy Area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePharmaceutical Wastewater Sample Collection and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSampling Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe samples were taken from a withholding tank, which has been constructed for withholding effluent from production. High-density polyethylene bottle (HDPE) was used for the collection of effluent from pharmaceutical companies due to their chemical resistance and durability and also their ability to withstand a wide range of chemicals and are also less prone to breakage compared to glass bottles. The composite sampling method was used to collect the samples. The samples were collected from different depths of the withholding tanks and mixed together to give a representative sample. The samples were preserved in an ice chest with ice blocks to prevent any biochemical reaction, and later transported to KNUST for laboratory analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eChemicals and Reagents\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSigma-Aldrich (Dorset, UK) supplied tramadol hydrochloride (CAS #: 36282-47-0, \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;99 percent pure) and diazepam (CAS #:439-14-5, 98 percent pure), whereas Fluka (Steinheim, Germany) supplied amoxicillin trihydrate (CAS #: 267-87-780, 98 percent pure). Acetaminophen, ibuprofen, cefuroxime, and penicillin V were all donated by Pokupharma Ltd., Ghana. Merck supplied HPLC grade methanol (CAS #: 67-56-1, \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;99.9% pure) and acetonitrile (CAS #: 75-05-8, \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;99.9% pure). Distilled water was bought from KNUST Central Laboratory. Methanol was used to make the stock solutions, which were maintained frozen at \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;18\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnalytical Procedure for Pharmaceutical Contaminants Determination\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSolid-Phase Extraction (SPE) and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe solid-phase extraction procedure described by Azanu et al (2016) was modified and used in this study. Water samples were cleaned up and concentrated on Oasis HLB (hydrophilic-lipophilic balance, 200 mg sorbent, 30 m, 6 cm3) cartridge supplied by Water Oasis (SPE) (Massachusetts, USA), and 2 mL MeOH, after that 2 mL distilled water, was used to condition the SPE cartridge. At a flow rate of 1.5 mL/min, 500 mL of water samples were put into SPE columns. Dried SPE columns were washed with 3 mL of 5% MeOH. After permitting the sorbent under a vacuum to dry for a few minutes, the antibiotics were eluted with 3 mL MeOH at a flow rate of about 1 mL min\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1. Eluates were dried at 30\u0026deg;C with a moderate nitrogen flow before being reconstituted in 1 mL 1% MeOH and injected into brown flat cap HPLC vials for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHigh Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Analysis for four analgesics; Ibuprofen, Tramadol, Diclofenac, and Paracetamol\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith a Wave Quest CE4300 UV/Vis Detector, a Cecil-Adept Binary Pump HPLC was used to develop the method for analyzing the analgesics (Cambridge, UK). The chromatographic separation of diclofenac was achieved using a Zorbax Column (C18, 4.6 mm \u0026times; 250 mm, 5 \u0026micro;m, Agilent Technologies Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA) while for tramadol, ibuprofen, and paracetamol was achieved using a SunFire Column (C18, 4.6 mm \u0026times; 150 mm, 5 \u0026micro;m, Waters, Milford, MA, USA) preceded by a guard column (SunFire, C18, 4.6 mm \u0026times; 10 mm, 5 \u0026micro;m, Waters, Milford, MA, USA) at 30\u0026deg;C. The mobile phase used was 40: 60 (v/v), 0.1 M sodium acetate buffer (pH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4): methanol and was pumped at 0.8 mL/min. A volume of 10 uL was injected into the HPLC for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePreparation of Oyster Mushroom Whole Cell and Powder for Treatment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe mushroom spawn, \u003cem\u003ePleurotus ostreatus\u003c/em\u003e was obtained from Robert Enterprise which is an accredited supplier of mushrooms in Ashanti region, Ghana. Mushroom cultivation and fructification methods were followed, according to Nongthombam et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The oyster mushroom was cultivated on sawdust supplemented with rice bran and calcium carbonate (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The substrate was composted for 28 days, followed by substrate sterilization, inoculation with \u003cem\u003ePleurotus ostreatus\u003c/em\u003e spawn and incubation. After incubating at 25\u0026deg;C for 40 days, the mushrooms were harvested and cleaned. A portion was cut into small pieces to serve as the whole cell and the other portion was sun-dried, milled into powder, and sieved to achieve a fine particle size below 0.15 mm for biosorption tests (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePharmaceutical Wastewater Treatment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe powdered mushroom and the mushroom whole cell (3 g and 6 g) were used as biosorbents to treat 150 mL of the pharmaceutical wastewater for 72 h and 144 h, with treatments performed in triplicate (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). The concentration of pharmaceutical compounds in the wastewater was measured before and after treatment to assess the biosorption efficiency of the mushroom. The percentage removal of pharmaceutical compounds was calculated using the following equation:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\%\\:Removal=\\frac{Initial\\:concentration-final\\:concentration}{Initial\\:concentration}\\times\\:100\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip; Eq.\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSS (version 27.0) and Microsoft Excel were used for statistical analysis of the data. To identify significant differences between treatment groups (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test was used after two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePharmaceutical composition of the Raw wastewater\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOut of the four pharmaceutical compounds tested, three were present. The pharmaceutical compounds in the two pharmaceutical industrial wastewater samples exhibited notable concentration variations. They surpassed the allowable limits established by Ghana's Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which prohibits detectable concentrations of these pharmaceuticals in wastewater discharge (0.00 mg/L) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Diclofenac (547.96 mg/L to 1191 mg/L) had the highest concentration, followed by paracetamol (40 mg/L to 60 mg/L) and ibuprofen (5.75 mg/L to 8.43 mg/L). Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used for its analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic effects (Gazal and Al-Samadani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Shore et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and Singh (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) reported that diclofenac is one of the most hazardous medications, causing kidney damage in fish and contributing to the fall of vulture populations by bioaccumulation in their food supply. Paracetamol is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic, and its high quantities in pharmaceutical effluent are not uncommon (Nunes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In wastewater, paracetamol can cause long-term damage to aquatic life, impacting fish and invertebrate liver and kidney function (Żur et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Al-howri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Exposure to ibuprofen causes acute and long-term toxicity in aquatic organisms, including decreased growth, survival, and reproduction in species like \u003cem\u003eDaphnia magna\u003c/em\u003e, lysosomal membrane instability, oxidative stress, and genotoxic effects in mussels and clams (Parolini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Ashfaq et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) conducted an ecological risk assessment using the risk quotient (RQ) method, based on the highest measured concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds in wastewater. Their findings revealed that paracetamol had an RQ of 64 for \u003cem\u003eDaphnia\u003c/em\u003e, diclofenac had an RQ of 12,600 for \u003cem\u003eOncorhynchus mykiss\u003c/em\u003e, and ibuprofen posed the greatest risk with an RQ of 167,300 for \u003cem\u003eOryzias latipes\u003c/em\u003e. These results suggest that pharmaceutical contaminants pose a significant threat to aquatic ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA- Environmental Protection Agency (Ghana) standard values for effluent discharge in Ghana adapted from Ghana Standard for Environment and Health Protect Requirements for Effluent Discharge (GS 1212, 2019)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.2 Pharmaceutical composition of the treated wastewater\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe treatment of the two pharmaceutical industrial wastewaters using powdered mushroom (MP) and mushroom whole cell (MWC) demonstrated varying removal efficiencies for paracetamol, ibuprofen, diclofenac (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). For both wastewaters, MP outperformed the MWC likely due to its significantly higher surface area, which provided more binding sites for pharmaceutical compounds, and improved the efficacy of biosorption.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage removal of pharmaceutical compounds across treatments using powdered and whole-cell oyster mushroom (Pharmaceutical industry 1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTime\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(days)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParacetamol\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIbuprofen\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiclofenac\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eMP: mushroom powder; MWC: mushroom whole cell\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompared to the whole-cell form's compact structure, its fine particles dispersed more readily in the wastewater, increasing interaction with pollutants and lowering mass transfer limitations, consistent with findings that highlight the importance of the surface area in enhancing bioremediation processes (Pereira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Langenhoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Higher weight (6 g) and longer treatment time (6 days) decreased removal efficiency which can be attributed to the saturation of binding sites on the mushroom biomass over time (Nathan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kariuki et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Increased biosorbent may cause biosorbent particles to overlap or aggregate, decreasing their effective surface area and the number of binding sites accessible for adsorption (Yildirim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ramirez Calderon \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2020). Similar trends have been reported by Khitous et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Latha et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), highlighting that beyond an optimal biosorbent dosage, the removal efficiency decreased. MP treatment showed the highest removal for Paracetamol (56.76%), Ibuprofen (40.90%) and Diclofenac (67.39%) for pharmaceutical industry 1 and Paracetamol (60.98%), Ibuprofen (53.20%) and Diclofenac (87.11%) for Pharmaceutical industry 2 both at 3 g and 3 days. Akhtar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Jung et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted that biosorption efficiency depends on the molecular size and hydrophobicity of the pharmaceutical compound.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage removal of pharmaceutical compounds across treatments using powdered and whole-cell oyster mushroom (Pharmaceutical industry 2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTime\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(days)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParacetamol\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIbuprofen\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiclofenac\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eMP: mushroom powder; MWC: mushroom whole cell\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIbuprofen's moderate hydrophobicity might explain its partial adsorption (Nguyen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Diclofenac showed the highest percentage removal with all treatments, indicating that the mushroom had a high affinity for this drug. This aligns with the findings of Palli et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) where \u003cem\u003ePleurotus ostreatus\u003c/em\u003e demonstrated complete removal of diclofenac. Similarly, Lucas et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) reported that diclofenac had the highest sorption in fungal biomass, up to 9153.2 ng/g. The high sorption efficiency can be attributed to diclofenac's hydrophobic character, reflected by its high partition coefficient facilitating interaction with fungal biomass (Lucas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe samples from both pharmaceutical industries show a statistically significant p-value of 0.02 among all the pharmaceutical compositions analysed (Paracetamol, Ibuprofen and Diclofenac), which indicates that when they are all kept in the same withholding tank they could react and increase the toxicity of the effluent and when discharge into the ecosystem they could cause more harm. Generally, the samples, time of treatment and weight of the sample were statistically significant p-value of 0.00 which indicated that the time of treatment, samples and weight of the mushroom used for treatment can influence the capability of the mushroom to remove the pharmaceutical contaminants in the effluent.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated the effectiveness of whole-cell and powdered oyster mushrooms (\u003cem\u003ePleurotus ostreatus\u003c/em\u003e) as biosorbents for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment. The results demonstrated that both forms of the mushroom were capable of removing diclofenac, paracetamol, and ibuprofen from wastewater, with powdered oyster mushroom showing superior removal efficiency. The highest removal rates for Pokupharma were observed for diclofenac (87.11%), followed by paracetamol (60.98%) and ibuprofen (53.20%), and for Amponsah Efah, diclofenac (67.39%), followed by paracetamol (56.76%) and ibuprofen (40.90%), highlighting differences in biosorption based on molecular properties and hydrophobicity. The biosorption efficiency was influenced by both biosorbent weight and contact time. Increasing biosorbent dosage and longer treatment time decrease removal efficiency likely due to the saturation of binding sites and aggregation of biosorbent particles. Optimal removal was achieved at 3 g biosorbent weight and 3 days of contact time, suggesting that precise parameter optimization is necessary for effective application. Compared to conventional treatment methods, biosorption with \u003cem\u003ePleurotus ostreatus\u003c/em\u003e offers a promising eco-friendly approach that requires minimal energy input and avoids the generation of secondary pollutants. However, further studies are needed to assess the long-term performance, reusability of the biosorbent, and its application in large-scale wastewater treatment systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e: the authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e: Since this study is not attempting to re-publish/publish any third party or author's previously published material, this section does not apply.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e: All the authors have accepted for the publication in the journal\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e This study was funded by the KNUST Research Fund 7 (KReF 7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e: Data is available upon request from the author with email address [email protected].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics declaration\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors’ contribution\u003c/strong\u003e: L.N.A.S., J.A.B.- Conceptualization, Collection of literature, data analysis, supervision and review of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eD.K.-Conceptualization, Collection of literature, data analysis and manuscript draft\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkerman-sanchez, G. \u0026amp; Rojas-jimenez, K. 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Organic micropollutants paracetamol and ibuprofen\u0026mdash;toxicity, biodegradation, and genetic background of their utilization by bacteria. \u003cem\u003eEnviron. Sci. Pollut. Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e25\u003c/b\u003e (22), 21498\u0026ndash;21524. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2517-x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11356-018-2517-x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Powdered oyster mushroom, mushroom whole-cell, biosorption, Pleurotus ostreatus, pharmaceutical, wastewater treatment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7314669/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7314669/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePharmaceutical wastewater contains hazardous contaminants, including analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs, which pose significant environmental and health risks. Conventional treatment methods are often costly and inefficient, necessitating sustainable alternatives. This study evaluated the biosorption potential of whole-cell and powdered oyster mushrooms (\u003cem\u003ePleurotus ostreatus\u003c/em\u003e) for removing diclofenac, paracetamol, and ibuprofen from pharmaceutical wastewater. The mushroom spawn, \u003cem\u003ePleurotus ostreatus\u003c/em\u003e was obtained from Robert Enterprise which is an accredited supplier of mushrooms in Ashanti Region, Ghana. The mushrooms were cultivated, processed into whole-cell and powdered forms, and used as biosorbents in varying dosages (3 g and 6 g) and contact times (3 and 6 days). The results showed that powdered oyster mushrooms had higher removal efficiencies compared to whole-cell mushrooms, attributed to their increased surface area and enhanced adsorption capacity. Optimal removal was achieved at 3 g of powdered mushroom and 3 days of treatment, with diclofenac exhibiting the highest removal rates (87.11%), followed by paracetamol (60.98%) and ibuprofen (53.20%) for pharmaceutical industry A and 67.39% of diclofenac followed by 56.76% of paracetamol and 40.90 removed for pharmaceutical industry B. Increasing biosorbent weight and contact time beyond the optimal levels led to reduced efficiency due to binding site saturation and particle aggregation. The findings suggest that \u003cem\u003ePleurotus ostreatus\u003c/em\u003e is a viable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective biosorbent for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional methods. However, further research is required to optimize large-scale applications and assess biosorbent regeneration potential.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Treatment of Pharmaceutical Wastewater Using Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus Ostreatus)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-04 11:14:50","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7314669/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"46d5f1dc-944b-4e63-a2b7-07309d70ea61","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 4th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":54107870,"name":"Biological sciences/Biotechnology"},{"id":54107871,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-06T06:38:43+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-04 11:14:50","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7314669","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7314669","identity":"rs-7314669","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}