Spatial and Temporal distribution of Foot and Mouth disease in cattle in Uganda from 2010 – 2021 (A retrospective study)

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Recently, the disease has emerged from new areas, with high impact, hence threatening the food security and livelihoods of different animal owners. This study described the temporal and spatial distribution of FMD in Uganda, and factors associated with its occurrence Methods : Data previously archived at the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) in Uganda, from 2010 to 2021, were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, QGIS and R software Results : A total of 22,690 FMD cases were reported in Uganda between 2010 and 2021 with an average and median of 1169 and 37 outbreaks per year respectively. In this period, FMD was reported at least once in 58 districts (43%) of all districts of the country (n = 135). The occurrence of FMD outbreaks was found to be seasonal with peak outbreaks in November and a low in August. FMD was reported all over the country, with the majority of cases 45% (10,211) reported from Eastern, 38% (8,685) from western region, 6% (1,354) from northern region and 11% (2,440) from central region. Most FMD cases were reported during the dry month of November, January, and February. Conclusion: FMD occurred in all the four regions of the country and showed statistically significant decrease in the long-term trend. Numbers of outbreaks were relatively higher during dry season. The spatial and temporal distribution identified in this study should be considered in controlling the disease. As unregulated and frequent animal movements are the likely causes of high outbreak occurrence during the dry season, animal movement regulations should be considered for the long-term control of FMD. Recommendation: Strategic vaccination of animals should commence at least a month prior to the onset dry season to ensure immunity against the virus, together with restrictions on animal movements during dry season and farmers have to be aware about the risk of unrestricted animal movement. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction Foot and mouth disease (FMD), is an economically important trans-boundary viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals. Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), the cause of the disease, belongs to the genus Aphthovirus and family Picornaviridae. The virus affects a wide range of hosts including domestic and wild ruminants and pigs. According to OIE (World Organization for Animal Health), FMD was the first viral infection of animal recognized and ranks first among the diseases of animals.(Aman et al. 2020). FMD is one of the most important livestock diseases responsible for the loss of production and productivity, trade embargoes and huge control costs across the globe (Robinson et al. 2016). Foot-and-mouth disease virus exists as seven serotypes: A, O, C, and Asia 1, SAT 1, SAT 2 and SAT 3. Six of these serotypes (except for Asia 1) are known to have circulated in East Africa (Vosloo et al. 2002). Serotype O is the most predominant serotype and serotype A is widely distributed across East Africa. Among the SATs, SAT 2 is the most predominant, while SAT 3 is the least common. Serotype C has never been reported in Tanzania but was last reported in Uganda in 1971 and in Kenya in 2004. Since then, it has not been reported in East Africa (Balinda et al. 2010). Foot and mouth disease (FMD) deeply affect the production of livestock and disrupts regional and international trade in animals and animal products. The disease is estimated to circulate in 77% of the global livestock population, in Africa, the Middle East and Asia, as well as in a limited area of South America (Disease n.d.) Outbreaks of FMD occur widely throughout East Africa with cases recorded every year in parts of Uganda. Challenges remain with the implementation of control measures, such as vaccination and movement restriction, and thus FMD remains poorly controlled in Uganda (MAAIF 2020) As a result, farmers, traders and national governments continue to incur direct and indirect costs associated with the disease annually (Baluka, Ocaido, and Mugisha 2014). Locally, FMD outbreaks affect the sale and purchase of livestock and livestock products, resulting in loss of income. Internationally, endemic countries are restricted from exporting their livestock and livestock products, resulting in loss of revenue. In addition, governments of affected countries may impose quarantine and vaccination campaigns, which are costly and may not be effective (Knight-Jones and Rushton 2013) In Uganda, control strategies for FMD outbreaks include quarantine and ring vaccination of cattle using imported trivalent vaccines (O, SAT 1 and SAT 2) (Muleme et al. 2012). However, the success of these efforts is hampered by uncontrolled animal movements, inadequate surveillance and delayed reporting of FMD outbreaks. Since vaccination against one of the seven FMDV serotypes does not protect against other serotypes (Rowlands 2008), it is important to know which serotypes are circulating. Moreover, variation between FMDV strains within a given serotype may result in poor coverage and may necessitate matching of one or more vaccine strains against the circulating FMDVs (Fenne 2017), which is still a challenge in East Africa. Uganda is currently at stage 1 of the FAO/OIE defined Progressive Control Pathway for FMD (PCP-FMD) (Namatovu et al. 2013) and to progress along this pathway, towards improved control of FMD, it is important to generate more knowledge about the epidemiology of FMD in the country. The aim of this study was determine the spatial and temporal distribution of the reported outbreaks of FMD Ugandan 2010–2021 FMD outbreaks in cattle. Methodology Study design A retrospective case series study was conducted using data from 10 years (January 2010–December 2021) of reported outbreaks archived at the National Animal Disease Diagnostic and Epidemiology Centre, in the Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industries and Fisheries (MAAIF), Uganda, to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of FMD outbreaks in cattle. Study area The study was done across Uganda's four regions (i.e., Central, Western, Eastern and Northern). Uganda is divided into four main administrative regions. Central, Western, Eastern, and Northern are these. These regions are divided further into 15 sub-regions, each of which consists of 12 districts. Smaller administrative units are created from the districts. These consist of 13 municipalities, 1 city council, and 146 counties. The Northern Region of Uganda has the greatest area with 85,391.7 sq. km. The Central Region has the most people overall. The national capital and largest city of Uganda is Kampala, the regional capital of the Central Region. Data collection and management The National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Centre (NADDEC), which conducts regular national surveillance in response to disease outbreaks, was queried for records of FMD outbreaks in Uganda between January 2010 and December 2020. To improve the sensitivity of identifying FMD outbreaks, the regional and national epidemic records were all pooled. FMD is one of the viral illnesses that the OIE has identified, and as such, all cases must be reported to the national veterinary authority of each OIE member countries as well as to the World Organization for Animal Health on a global level. Location, species at risk, index date, number of cases, number of outbreaks, number of fatalities, and number of animals at risk were among the details included in the records that were gathered. A district will be considered to have an outbreak if one or more cattle, sheep, or goats exhibit FMD symptoms there. Therefore, using outbreak data from the past 10 years (January 2010–May 2021), the FMD epidemic incidence will be calculated at the district level. Data analysis The data was managed and visualizations were created using Microsoft Excel spreadsheets (Microsoft Corporation). The incidence of outbreaks was determined using descriptive techniques. By adding up all FMD outbreaks that were reported nationwide during the study period and dividing the result by the total number of districts and the number of years, the mean FMD outbreak incidence was determined (district years). Using QGIS version 3.10.2 software, regional zones were used to depict the spatial distribution of FMD outbreaks across the study period. To see the temporal trends of the disease, a graph of the reported FMD outbreak numbers throughout the course of the 10-year research period was created. The graph was examined for signs of seasonality or a long-term pattern. By breaking down the FMD epidemic time series using the Technical Trading Rules package in R software, the three elements of the temporal additive model—long term trend, seasonality, and irregularity—were identified and estimated. 12 month moving averages were computed and presented using the number of outbreaks during the 10-year study period in order to evaluate the seasonality of FMD outbreaks. Moving averages were applied to help identify underlying trends more quickly and to lessen random fluctuation. To confirm the randomization pattern of the monthly occurrence of FMD outbreaks, the test of randomness was lastly applied. Exclusion and Inclusion Criteria Inclusion criteria Only outbreaks of FMD in cattle were documented. The information was restricted to outbreaks that took place between January 2010 and May 2021. Exclusion criteri a The study omitted records of FMD outbreaks in other animals, such as pigs, goats, etc., as well as outbreaks that started before January 2010. Ethical Consideration The proposal was approved by the Institutional Review Board of College of veterinary medicine animal resources and Biosecurity in the School of Biosecurity Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), under the Department of Biosecurity Ecosystems and Veterinary Public Health (BEP) of Makerere University for approval. Permission was sought from the office of the Commissioner Animal health (Dr. Rose Anna Ademun) who then granted official permission to NADDEC (National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center), Entebbe to access the FMD retrospective data. Results Incidence of FMD outbreaks A total of 22,690 FMD cases were reported in Uganda between 2010 and 2021 with an average and median of 179 and 34 outbreaks per year respectively. In this period, FMD was reported at least once in 58 districts (43%) out of the 136 districts in the country. Majority of the outbreaks were from Eastern Uganda 45%(10,211), Western 38% (8,685), Central 11% (2,440) and Northern 6% (1,354). The average incidence of FMD outbreaks at district level was 5.8/10 district years. The reoccurrence of FMD outbreak in the districts varies from 1 to 9 years. The average time for the reoccurrence of the disease in the same district is 4.1 years. Temporal trends of FMD Outbreak occurrences in Uganda from 2010-2021 In the period of January 2010 to December 2021, high number of FMD cases were reported in 2011 (n = 9,008 cases), 2020 (n = 7,150), 2017 (n = 2,140) and 2014 (n = 1260) while the lowest number of outbreaks were reported in 2018 (n = 25) as shown in (Figure 1.) below Analysis of temporal data showed that the months with most number of cases over the 10-year period in Ugandan districts were January, March, February and November as shown in (Figure 4). Bukedea district reported the highest number of outbreaks to have occurred in January (6,400), followed by Kasese who registered the second most outbreaks in November (6,200) as shown in (Table 1). This study has also revealed that most of the FMD cases occurred in the Eastern region with 10,211 FMD cases over the 10-year period. This is followed by western region with 8,685 FMD cases and 2.440 FMD cases from the central and least number of cases were recorded in Northern Uganda as clearly shown in (Figure 2.). Meanwhile the occurrence of FMD cases over the 10-year period are shown in Figure 3. Temporal patterns of disease outbreaks were decomposed into long-term (secular), cyclical and seasonal trends. The decomposed temporal patterns demonstrated statistically significant seasonality for FMD outbreaks, which is in line with Abdela’s (Abdela 2017) findings who pointed out season as risk factors for FMD outbreak as shown in Figure 5. 4.3 Spatial distribution of FMD outbreaks Between 2010 and 2021, a total of 22,690 cases were reported to have occurred in Uganda from 2010 to 2021 in the 134 districts of Uganda. Throughout the entire period, the district of Bukedea had the highest number of cases (6400) in 2011, followed by Kasese (6,200) cases in 2020, Bukedea (650) in 2010, Hoima (500) in 2017, Nakapiripirit (250) cases in 2021 and then Namayingo with the least number of case (01) in October 2021 as shown in Table 1. Overall, the analysis showed that districts adjacent to the border reported three times more FMD outbreaks than the districts that were not adjacent to the border. This study also shows that FMD occurrence in Uganda is endemic in the 10-year study period as shown by (Figure 6. and Figure 7.) Table 1. showing the distribution of Cases among districts with the highest number of cases from 2010 to 2021 across different months Year Month District Cases 2010 December Bukedea 650 2011 January Bukedea 6400 2013 July Isingiro 59 2014 August Kaabong 197 2015 June Isingiro 212 2016 June Buliisa 236 2017 March Hoima 500 2018 April Mukono 10 2020 November Kasese 6200 2021 July Nakapiripirit 250 Discussion This study aimed to describe the temporal and spatial distribution of FMD in Uganda from 2010 through 2021, and to determine factors that could be associated with its occurrence. Results indicated that the disease was widespread in the country during the study period, particularly in 2021 and 2011 as shown by Figure 7 and Figure 6 above. Uganda has been listed as one of the FMD endemic countries (Ayebazibwe, Tjørnehøj, Rose, et al. 2010), and the disease is continuing to cause economic and productivity losses. During the study period (2010-2021), FMD occurred to all the regions; Eastern, Northern, western and Central Uganda. Eastern region reported the highest number of cases of FMD, possibly because of the pastoral way of life that involves a lot of cattle movement and the closeness to the National Parks which increases the chances of wildlife interface with domestic animals hence, transmission of FMD. Also, Western region is recorded the second most numbers of cases and the region has remained endemic with the disease. The uncontrolled movement of animals in search of water and pasture is the main risk factor for the spread of FMD in the Eastern region due to the nomadic pastoralist way of life (Kerfua et al. 2018). Therefore, this region is prone to higher infections because animals move across the Uganda borders into Kenya where animals could have also acquired infection. The highest outbreaks were reported in 2021, recorded in Bukedea district in eastern Uganda as shown in Table 1. The result showed that FMD outbreaks occurred in more than a quarter of the districts of Uganda in the period of 2010 to 2021 reflecting the endemic nature of FMD in Uganda. Overall, the study revealed that most of the outbreaks occurred in the districts that were adjacent to international borders (Isingiro, Nakapiripirit, Kaabong, Buliisa) and most outbreaks occurred during dry season. The high occurrence of outbreaks of FMD in districts adjacent to the borders is consistent with findings by(Di Nardo et al. 2011) who reported that border regions usually suffer the burden of Transboundary livestock diseases fueled by trade (both legal and illegal) between neighboring countries. The increased number of outbreaks in this area is consistent with findings by (Picado et al. 2011) According to this study, the high number of outbreaks recorded in Isingiro and Bukedea are because they are in the cattle corridors of the country. In the cattle corridors of Uganda there are extremely high cattle density, low annual rainfall and pastoralism which involves constant movement of animals from place-to-place in search for good pasture for animals. This risk factors potentiate the spread of FMD and accounts for the high outbreaks recorded in the districts within the cattle corridors. The present study documented that about 41% of the districts in the region reported at least one FMD outbreak in 10 years. The reason for the discrepancy between the current and the previous studies (Kerfua et al. 2018) could be due to the difference in the length of the study period and data sources. The previous study was based on short and recent period outbreak history collected from the districts while the present study was based on long period and based solely on official outbreak reports, which might be affected by underreporting. This study findings indicated that the occurrence of FMD at district level is sporadic, which is in agreement with (Ayebazibwe, Tjørnehøj, Mwiine, et al. 2010), who had reported the epidemic nature of FMD in selected districts of Uganda. However, Endemicity of FMD is maintained in the region, as the outbreaks in different districts of the region do not occur at the same time. The average time for the reoccurrence of the disease in the same districts was 9 years. The reoccurrence period of FMD varies across the study districts. Some districts reported outbreaks after 1 year of quiescence(dormancy), whereas others reported an outbreak of FMD after a longer period (up to 10 years) of quiescence. The difference in the reoccurrence period between districts could be due to the difference in the degree of animal movement, level of geographical isolation by natural physical barriers, and level of herd immunity. Temporal patterns of disease outbreaks were decomposed into long-term (secular), cyclical and seasonal trends. The decomposed temporal patterns demonstrated statistically significant seasonality for FMD outbreaks, which is in line with (Robinson et al. 2016) findings who pointed out season as risk factors for FMD outbreak in a study carried. In contrast to our result, (Kerfua et al. 2018) reported that FMD outbreak incidence has neither long-term nor seasonal trend in Uganda. In the present study, the peak FMD outbreaks were recorded in November and January (the dry season) and the low in August (the rainy season). The variation of FMD outbreaks in season might be related to the variation in animal movements. Outbreak numbers increased during December, January, February and March (reaching peak in March). This might be coinciding with the increased animal transports due to the increased meat demand during the impending Christmas (at the end of December) and Easter festival (March–April) celebrations of the Christian population in Uganda, which are the two big religious festivals for Christians in Uganda in general. Similarly, peak FMD outbreaks coinciding or following special holidays have been observed in endemic countries such as Tanzania, Sri Lanka and Egypt. This has been related to animal transports in response to the increased demand of meat for the impending Easter (April) and Ramadan festival of the Muslim population celebrations. On the other hand, in most midland and highland parts of Uganda, during the rainy season of the year wide areas of farmland are planted with crops, as a result the movement of domestic animals is restricted and kept confined on small plots of grazing lands, which could be the reason for low incidence of FMD outbreaks in this season. The patterns of outbreaks in all the districts showed that the outbreaks occurred on average 3 months apart, implying probable circulation of the virus between the districts. This argument may be inconclusive given that the data for this study were very limited. The trend of FMD outbreaks from January 2010 to December 2021 indicates a slight but statistically significant decrease over the period. The observed decrease in FMD outbreak occurrence in Uganda in the recent years could be due to the effort made to ban unrestricted livestock grazing in the region that resulted in decreased free movement of animals and the routine vaccination programme by government. The possibility of decreasing outbreak reporting rate by the districts cannot also be ruled out. Therefore, it requires further study to conclude that the long-term trend of the disease is decreasing and to know the reason of the decreasing trend. However, despite the imposed quarantines and regular vaccinations in the Ugandan districts, FMD outbreaks are still frequent. This may be the result of resistance by some residents and leaders to impose quarantines for economic and political reasons. The higher number of FMD cases reported during November, could be attributed to the long dry season, where most pastoralists move with their animals in search for pastures, hence leading to new infections that are later detected in December and January. The nomadic lifestyle of some cattle keeping communities, especially eastern region (Karamajong), involves moving from one place to another in search of water and pastures. A study conducted in Ethiopia did in fact report that nomadic pastoralists in savannah settlement contribute to the spread of FMD (Tekleghiorghis et al. 2016). Limitations of the study The pace at which the districts reported outbreaks may have skewed the study's findings. If the underreporting varies among districts and over time, the impact will be more biased. The accuracy of the reported outbreak incidences may also be impacted by the fact that the majority of reported outbreaks are diagnosed based solely on clinical indicators without confirmatory diagnostic tests. Despite the potential for the aforementioned limitations, our study generally aimed to produce significant epidemiological data regarding the temporal and spatial distribution of FMD in the study area, which could be useful information to support local and national decisions for FMD control. Conclusion And Recommendation Due to a number of potential factors, including political unrest, a breakdown in FMD control measures, an inability to regulate livestock movement, changes in diagnostic procedures, and the implementation of free trade government policies in the nation, the temporal distribution of FMD occurrence in Uganda during the study period varied significantly during the various time periods (2010-2021). Due to the breakdown in cattle movement management, FMD may have spread from Karamoja, where it is endemic, to other parts of the nation. The Ugandan government must strengthen regional control programs and surveillance systems in light of the disease's documented economic impact and transboundary nature. This includes educating cattle farmers about the advantages of vaccinating their animals and encouraging their full participation in FMD control programs. It would be extremely useful to re-establish quarantine stations to track cattle movement and to produce a new vaccine with long-lasting protection and less post-vaccinal responses. Declarations I hereby confirm that all methods used in this study were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. Ethical Approval and Consent to participate The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of College of veterinary medicine animal resources and Biosecurity in the School of Biosecurity Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), under the Department of Biosecurity Ecosystems and Veterinary Public Health (BEP) of Makerere University for approval. Permission was sought from the office of the Commissioner of Animal Health (Dr. Rose Anna Ademun) who then granted official permission to NADDEC (National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center), Entebbe to access the FMD retrospective data." Consent for Publication Not Applicable Availability of data and Materials The data used to support our conclusions are presented in this publication and the related information files. Competing Interests The authors claim to have no conflicts of interest. Funding No funding was obtained for this study Author’s Contribution FLO did the data analyses and interpretation, took part in the organization of the project, and wrote the manuscript. Participating in the planning of the study, analyzing, interpreting the results, and revising the paper were JO, WO, AN, SM, CK, TO, FNM, and CK. EN and MO collected the information and edited the original draft. RAA took involved in gathering and studying the data. The final manuscript was read and approved by all writers. Acknowledgements I wish to thank Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF), Uganda. 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Thomson. 2002. “Review of the Status and Control of Foot and Mouth Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa.” OIE Revue Scientifique et Technique 21(3):437–49. doi: 10.20506/rst.21.3.1349. 31. Zhang, Liang, Jie Zhang, Hao Tai Chen, Jian Hua Zhou, Li Na Ma, Yao Zhong Ding, and Yong Sheng Liu. 2011. “Research in Advance for FMD Novel Vaccines.” Virology Journal 8:1–6. doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-8-268. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-2013492","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":151884272,"identity":"ff243849-919f-4059-8baa-381536489096","order_by":0,"name":"Justine Okello","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Makerere University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Justine","middleName":"","lastName":"Okello","suffix":""},{"id":151884275,"identity":"6f6f6660-5e4c-438c-8751-a3b1caf5a319","order_by":1,"name":"Walter Okello","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Makerere 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Uganda","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Esther","middleName":"","lastName":"Nambo","suffix":""},{"id":151884289,"identity":"b9299750-058e-4a27-a6f2-0672c89fd326","order_by":5,"name":"Michael Omodo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Animal Disease Diagnostic and Epidemiology Center, Entebbe Uganda","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michael","middleName":"","lastName":"Omodo","suffix":""},{"id":151884295,"identity":"10209ba4-4082-44e3-a33e-bd7782b8b2cc","order_by":6,"name":"Rose Anna Ademun","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rose","middleName":"Anna","lastName":"Ademun","suffix":""},{"id":151884296,"identity":"6e09c4fd-dadb-405e-b70a-ba30f2bf638a","order_by":7,"name":"Felix Lakor 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University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Andrew","middleName":"","lastName":"Nsawotebba","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2022-08-30 10:44:28","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2013492/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2013492/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":29144142,"identity":"656588ff-037e-4132-a39d-d06e86edff80","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-16 15:54:36","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29795,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnnual FMD outbreaks in Uganda from 2010 to 2021\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2013492/v1/9293979bfb03a822f141ce56.png"},{"id":29144131,"identity":"a3c32c0c-7e7e-4f14-9b50-ed381c84d87a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-16 15:54:29","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":30930,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShowing FMD Cases by region in Uganda from 2010-2021\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2013492/v1/ecf005f031f0fc12001d3ca4.png"},{"id":29144118,"identity":"800413aa-c7b7-4af2-a0d8-5845480fe8d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-16 15:54:26","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100599,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMonthly outbreak and trend of FMD outbreak from 2010 to 2021\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2013492/v1/50ed9e9dde65decea1f600a4.png"},{"id":29144141,"identity":"298f38bd-bc85-4ec2-856b-de1a44f6b9d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-16 15:54:36","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22411,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeasonal indices of monthly FMD outbreak between 2010 to 2021 in Uganda\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2013492/v1/f757dc6a437b7b57d60f7423.png"},{"id":29144145,"identity":"34db16d7-a1b2-41b0-ae10-6d4adafbed27","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-16 15:54:45","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59173,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDecomposition of time series of the observed, trend, seasonal and random patterns of FMD cases from 2010 -2021\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2013492/v1/1de9212e90ba89992a59427a.png"},{"id":29144143,"identity":"979743b2-a535-47db-8966-5a8f1f73d608","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-16 15:54:40","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":496171,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpatial distribution of Foot and Mouth disease in the districts of Uganda from 2010 to 20121\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2013492/v1/cb9c11465dde6588751e4a98.png"},{"id":29144123,"identity":"84433f09-8e70-4be8-917b-74cb7fd88a29","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-16 15:54:28","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":564862,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpatial distribution of Foot and Mouth disease in the districts of Uganda from 2010 to 20121\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2013492/v1/e43daf2f5ce41822b3dc85db.png"},{"id":45313264,"identity":"e3dc1d23-985b-4eed-ba16-70b90980fe66","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-10-27 11:37:21","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1627054,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2013492/v1/8ebe6926-00d5-4556-bce8-33bb9e87a2ed.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Spatial and Temporal distribution of Foot and Mouth disease in cattle in Uganda from 2010 – 2021 (A retrospective study)","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eFoot and mouth disease (FMD), is an economically important trans-boundary viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals. Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), the cause of the disease, belongs to the genus Aphthovirus and family Picornaviridae. The virus affects a wide range of hosts including domestic and wild ruminants and pigs. According to OIE (World Organization for Animal Health), FMD was the first viral infection of animal recognized and ranks first among the diseases of animals.(Aman et al. 2020). FMD is one of the most important livestock diseases responsible for the loss of production and productivity, trade embargoes and huge control costs across the globe \u0026nbsp;(Robinson et al. 2016). Foot-and-mouth disease virus exists as seven serotypes: A, O, C, and Asia 1, SAT 1, SAT 2 and SAT 3. Six of these serotypes (except for Asia 1) are known to have circulated in East Africa\u0026nbsp;(Vosloo et al. 2002). Serotype O is the most predominant serotype and serotype A is widely distributed across East Africa. Among the SATs, SAT 2 is the most predominant, while SAT 3 is the least common. Serotype C has never been reported in Tanzania but was last reported in Uganda in 1971 and in Kenya in 2004. Since then, it has not been reported in East Africa\u0026nbsp;(Balinda et al. 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFoot and mouth disease (FMD) deeply affect the production of livestock and disrupts regional and international trade in animals and animal products. The disease is estimated to circulate in 77% of the global livestock population, in Africa, the Middle East and Asia, as well as in a limited area of South America\u0026nbsp;(Disease n.d.)\u0026nbsp;Outbreaks of FMD occur widely throughout East Africa with cases recorded every year in parts of Uganda. Challenges remain with the implementation of control measures, such as vaccination and movement restriction, and thus FMD remains poorly controlled in Uganda\u0026nbsp;(MAAIF 2020)\u0026nbsp;As a result, farmers, traders and national governments continue to incur direct and indirect costs associated with the disease annually\u0026nbsp;(Baluka, Ocaido, and Mugisha 2014). Locally, FMD outbreaks affect the sale and purchase of livestock and livestock products, resulting in loss of income. Internationally, endemic countries are restricted from exporting their livestock and livestock products, resulting in loss of revenue. In addition, governments of affected countries may impose quarantine and vaccination campaigns, which are costly and may not be effective\u0026nbsp;(Knight-Jones and Rushton 2013)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Uganda, control strategies for FMD outbreaks include quarantine and ring vaccination of cattle using imported trivalent vaccines (O, SAT 1 and SAT 2) (Muleme et al. 2012). However, the success of these efforts is hampered by uncontrolled animal movements, inadequate surveillance and delayed reporting of FMD outbreaks. Since vaccination against one of the seven FMDV serotypes does not protect against other serotypes (Rowlands 2008), it is important to know which serotypes are circulating. Moreover, variation between FMDV strains within a given serotype may result in poor coverage and may necessitate matching of one or more vaccine strains against the circulating FMDVs \u0026nbsp;(Fenne 2017), which is still a challenge in East Africa. Uganda is currently at stage 1 of the FAO/OIE defined Progressive Control Pathway for FMD (PCP-FMD) \u0026nbsp;(Namatovu et al. 2013) and to progress along this pathway, towards improved control of FMD, it is important to generate more knowledge about the epidemiology of FMD in the country. The aim of this study was determine the spatial and temporal distribution of the reported outbreaks of FMD Ugandan 2010\u0026ndash;2021 FMD outbreaks in cattle.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy design\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA retrospective case series study was conducted using data from 10 years (January 2010\u0026ndash;December 2021) of reported outbreaks archived at the National Animal Disease Diagnostic and Epidemiology Centre, in the Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industries and Fisheries (MAAIF), Uganda, to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of FMD outbreaks in cattle.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy area\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was done across Uganda\u0026apos;s four regions (i.e., Central, Western, Eastern and Northern). Uganda is divided into four main administrative regions. Central, Western, Eastern, and Northern are these. These regions are divided further into 15 sub-regions, each of which consists of 12 districts. Smaller administrative units are created from the districts. These consist of 13 municipalities, 1 city council, and 146 counties. The Northern Region of Uganda has the greatest area with 85,391.7 sq. km. The Central Region has the most people overall. The national capital and largest city of Uganda is Kampala, the regional capital of the Central Region.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData collection and management\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Centre (NADDEC), which conducts regular national surveillance in response to disease outbreaks, was queried for records of FMD outbreaks in Uganda between January 2010 and December 2020. To improve the sensitivity of identifying FMD outbreaks, the regional and national epidemic records were all pooled. FMD is one of the viral illnesses that the OIE has identified, and as such, all cases must be reported to the national veterinary authority of each OIE member countries as well as to the World Organization for Animal Health on a global level. Location, species at risk, index date, number of cases, number of outbreaks, number of fatalities, and number of animals at risk were among the details included in the records that were gathered. A district will be considered to have an outbreak if one or more cattle, sheep, or goats exhibit FMD symptoms there. Therefore, using outbreak data from the past 10 years (January 2010\u0026ndash;May 2021), the FMD epidemic incidence will be calculated at the district level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data was managed and visualizations were created using Microsoft Excel spreadsheets (Microsoft Corporation). The incidence of outbreaks was determined using descriptive techniques. By adding up all FMD outbreaks that were reported nationwide during the study period and dividing the result by the total number of districts and the number of years, the mean FMD outbreak incidence was determined (district years). Using QGIS version 3.10.2 software, regional zones were used to depict the spatial distribution of FMD outbreaks across the study period. To see the temporal trends of the disease, a graph of the reported FMD outbreak numbers throughout the course of the 10-year research period was created. The graph was examined for signs of seasonality or a long-term pattern. By breaking down the FMD epidemic time series using the Technical Trading Rules package in R software, the three elements of the temporal additive model\u0026mdash;long term trend, seasonality, and irregularity\u0026mdash;were identified and estimated. 12 month moving averages were computed and presented using the number of outbreaks during the 10-year study period in order to evaluate the seasonality of FMD outbreaks. Moving averages were applied to help identify underlying trends more quickly and to lessen random fluctuation. To confirm the randomization pattern of the monthly occurrence of FMD outbreaks, the test of randomness was lastly applied.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExclusion and Inclusion Criteria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInclusion criteria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOnly outbreaks of FMD in cattle were documented. The information was restricted to outbreaks that took place between January 2010 and May 2021.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExclusion criteri\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study omitted records of FMD outbreaks in other animals, such as pigs, goats, etc., as well as outbreaks that started before January 2010.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Consideration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe proposal was approved by the Institutional Review Board of College of veterinary medicine animal resources and Biosecurity in the School of Biosecurity Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), under the Department of Biosecurity Ecosystems and Veterinary Public Health (BEP) of Makerere University for approval. Permission was sought from the office of the Commissioner Animal health (Dr. Rose Anna Ademun) who then granted official permission to NADDEC (National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center), Entebbe to access the FMD retrospective data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIncidence of FMD outbreaks\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 22,690 FMD cases were reported in Uganda between 2010 and 2021 with an average and median of 179 and 34 outbreaks per year respectively. In this period, FMD was reported at least once in 58 districts (43%) out of the 136 districts in the country. Majority of the outbreaks were from Eastern Uganda 45%(10,211), Western 38% (8,685), Central 11% (2,440) and Northern 6% (1,354). The average incidence of FMD outbreaks at district level was 5.8/10 district years. The reoccurrence of FMD outbreak in the districts varies from 1 to 9 years. The average time for the reoccurrence of the disease in the same district is 4.1 years.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTemporal trends of FMD Outbreak occurrences in Uganda from 2010-2021\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the period of January 2010 to December 2021, high number of FMD cases were reported in 2011 (n = 9,008 cases), 2020 (n = 7,150), 2017 (n = 2,140) and 2014 (n = 1260) while the lowest number of outbreaks were reported in 2018 (n = 25) as shown in (Figure 1.) below\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of temporal data showed that the months with most number of cases over the 10-year period in Ugandan districts were January, March, February and November as shown in (Figure 4). Bukedea district reported the highest number of outbreaks to have occurred in January (6,400), followed by Kasese who registered the second most outbreaks in November (6,200) as shown in (Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study has also revealed that most of the FMD cases occurred in the Eastern region with 10,211 FMD cases over the 10-year period. \u0026nbsp;This is followed by western region with 8,685 FMD cases and 2.440 FMD cases from the central and least number of cases were recorded in Northern Uganda as clearly shown in (Figure 2.). Meanwhile the occurrence of FMD cases over the 10-year period are shown in Figure 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTemporal patterns of disease outbreaks were decomposed into long-term (secular), cyclical and seasonal trends. The decomposed temporal patterns demonstrated statistically significant seasonality for FMD outbreaks, which is in line with Abdela\u0026rsquo;s \u0026nbsp;(Abdela 2017) findings who pointed out season as risk factors for FMD outbreak as shown in Figure 5.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.3 Spatial distribution of FMD outbreaks\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBetween 2010 and 2021, a total of 22,690 cases were reported to have occurred in Uganda from 2010 to 2021 in the 134 districts of Uganda. Throughout the entire period, the district of Bukedea had the highest number of cases (6400) in 2011, followed by Kasese (6,200) cases in 2020, Bukedea (650) in 2010, Hoima (500) in 2017, Nakapiripirit (250) cases in 2021 and then Namayingo with the least number of case (01) in October 2021 as shown in Table 1. Overall, the analysis showed that districts adjacent to the border reported three times more FMD outbreaks than the districts that were not adjacent to the border. This study also shows that FMD occurrence in Uganda is endemic in the 10-year study period as shown by (Figure 6. \u0026nbsp;and Figure 7.)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1. showing the distribution of Cases among districts with the highest number of cases from 2010 to 2021 across different months\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"657\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYear\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMonth\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistrict\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCases\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2010\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDecember\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBukedea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e650\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2011\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJanuary\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBukedea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6400\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2013\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJuly\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIsingiro\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e59\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2014\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAugust\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKaabong\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e197\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2015\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJune\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIsingiro\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e212\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2016\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJune\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBuliisa\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e236\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2017\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMarch\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHoima\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e500\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2018\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eApril\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMukono\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2020\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNovember\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKasese\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6200\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2021\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.114155251141554%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJuly\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"35.007610350076106%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNakapiripirit\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.939117199391173%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e250\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to describe the temporal and spatial distribution of FMD in Uganda from 2010 through 2021, and to determine factors that could be associated with its occurrence. Results indicated that the disease was widespread in the country during the study period, particularly in 2021 and 2011 as shown by Figure 7 and Figure 6 above. Uganda has been listed as one of the FMD endemic countries\u0026nbsp;(Ayebazibwe, Tj\u0026oslash;rneh\u0026oslash;j, Rose, et al. 2010), and the disease is continuing to cause economic and productivity losses. During the study period (2010-2021), FMD occurred to all the regions; Eastern, Northern, western and Central Uganda. Eastern region reported the highest number of cases of FMD, possibly because of the pastoral way of life that involves a lot of cattle movement and the closeness to the National Parks which increases the chances of wildlife interface with domestic animals hence, transmission of FMD. Also, Western region is recorded the second most numbers of cases and the region has remained endemic with the disease. The uncontrolled movement of animals in search of water and pasture is the main risk factor for the spread of FMD in the \u0026nbsp; Eastern region due to the nomadic pastoralist way of life\u0026nbsp;(Kerfua et al. 2018). Therefore, this region is prone to higher infections because animals move across the Uganda borders into Kenya where animals could have also acquired infection. The highest outbreaks were reported in 2021, recorded in Bukedea district in eastern Uganda as shown in Table 1. \u0026nbsp;The result showed that FMD outbreaks occurred in more than a quarter of the districts of Uganda in the period of 2010 to 2021 reflecting the endemic nature of FMD in Uganda. Overall, the study revealed that most of the outbreaks occurred in the districts that were adjacent to international borders (Isingiro, Nakapiripirit, Kaabong, Buliisa) and most outbreaks occurred during dry season. The high occurrence of outbreaks of FMD in districts adjacent to the borders is consistent with findings by(Di Nardo et al. 2011)\u0026nbsp;who reported that border regions usually suffer the burden of Transboundary livestock diseases fueled by trade (both legal and illegal) between neighboring countries. The increased number of outbreaks in this area is consistent with findings by\u0026nbsp;(Picado et al. 2011)\u0026nbsp;According to this study, the high number of outbreaks recorded in Isingiro and Bukedea are because they are in the cattle corridors of the country. In the cattle corridors of Uganda there are extremely high cattle density, low annual rainfall and pastoralism which involves constant movement of animals from place-to-place in search for good pasture for animals. This risk factors potentiate the spread of FMD and accounts for the high outbreaks recorded in the districts within the cattle corridors. The present study documented that about 41% of the districts in the region reported at least one FMD outbreak in 10 years. The reason for the discrepancy between the current and the previous studies\u0026nbsp;(Kerfua et al. 2018)\u0026nbsp;could be due to the difference in the length of the study period and data sources. The previous study was based on short and recent period outbreak history collected from the districts while the present study was based on long period and based solely on official outbreak reports, which might be affected by underreporting. This study findings indicated that the occurrence of FMD at district level is sporadic, which is in agreement with\u0026nbsp;(Ayebazibwe, Tj\u0026oslash;rneh\u0026oslash;j, Mwiine, et al. 2010), who had reported the epidemic nature of FMD in selected districts of Uganda. However, Endemicity of FMD is maintained in the region, as the outbreaks in different districts of the region do not occur at the same time. The average time for the reoccurrence of the disease in the same districts was 9 years. The reoccurrence period of FMD varies across the study districts. Some districts reported outbreaks after 1 year of quiescence(dormancy), whereas others reported an outbreak of FMD after a longer period (up to 10 years) of quiescence. The difference in the reoccurrence period between districts could be due to the difference in the degree of animal movement, level of geographical isolation by natural physical barriers, and level of herd immunity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTemporal patterns of disease outbreaks were decomposed into long-term (secular), cyclical and seasonal trends. The decomposed temporal patterns demonstrated statistically significant seasonality for FMD outbreaks, which is in line with\u0026nbsp;(Robinson et al. 2016)\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;findings who pointed out season as risk factors for FMD outbreak in a study carried. In contrast to our result,\u0026nbsp;(Kerfua et al. 2018)\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;reported that FMD outbreak incidence has neither long-term nor seasonal trend in Uganda. In the present study, the peak FMD outbreaks were recorded in November and January (the dry season) and the low in August (the rainy season). The variation of FMD outbreaks in season might be related to the variation in animal movements. Outbreak numbers increased during December, January, February and March (reaching peak in March). This might be coinciding with the increased animal transports due to the increased meat demand during the impending Christmas (at the end of December) and Easter festival (March\u0026ndash;April) celebrations of the Christian population in Uganda, which are the two big religious festivals for Christians in Uganda in general. Similarly, peak FMD outbreaks coinciding or following special holidays have been observed in endemic countries such as Tanzania, Sri Lanka and Egypt. This has been related to animal transports in response to the increased demand of meat for the impending Easter (April) and Ramadan festival of the Muslim population celebrations. On the other hand, in most midland and highland parts of Uganda, during the rainy season of the year wide areas of farmland are planted with crops, as a result the movement of domestic animals is restricted and kept confined on small plots of grazing lands, which could be the reason for low incidence of FMD outbreaks in this season. The patterns of outbreaks in all the districts showed that the outbreaks occurred on average 3 months apart, implying probable circulation of the virus between the districts. This argument may be inconclusive given that the data for this study were very limited. The trend of FMD outbreaks from January 2010 to December 2021 indicates a slight but statistically significant decrease over the period. The observed decrease in FMD outbreak occurrence in Uganda in the recent years could be due to the effort made to ban unrestricted livestock grazing in the region that resulted in decreased free movement of animals and the routine vaccination programme by government. The possibility of decreasing outbreak reporting rate by the districts cannot also be ruled out. Therefore, it requires further study to conclude that the long-term trend of the disease is decreasing and to know the reason of the decreasing trend. However, despite the imposed quarantines and regular vaccinations in the Ugandan districts, FMD outbreaks are still frequent. This may be the result of resistance by some residents and leaders to impose quarantines for economic and political reasons.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe higher number of FMD cases reported during November, could be attributed to the long dry season, where most pastoralists move with their animals in search for pastures, hence leading to new infections that are later detected in December and January. The nomadic lifestyle of some cattle keeping communities, especially eastern region (Karamajong), involves moving from one place to another in search of water and pastures. A study conducted in Ethiopia did in fact report that nomadic pastoralists in savannah settlement contribute to the spread of FMD\u0026nbsp;(Tekleghiorghis et al. 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimitations of the study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe pace at which the districts reported outbreaks may have skewed the study\u0026apos;s findings. If the underreporting varies among districts and over time, the impact will be more biased. The accuracy of the reported outbreak incidences may also be impacted by the fact that the majority of reported outbreaks are diagnosed based solely on clinical indicators without confirmatory diagnostic tests. Despite the potential for the aforementioned limitations, our study generally aimed to produce significant epidemiological data regarding the temporal and spatial distribution of FMD in the study area, which could be useful information to support local and national decisions for FMD control.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion And Recommendation","content":"\u003cp\u003eDue to a number of potential factors, including political unrest, a breakdown in FMD control measures, an inability to regulate livestock movement, changes in diagnostic procedures, and the implementation of free trade government policies in the nation, the temporal distribution of FMD occurrence in Uganda during the study period varied significantly during the various time periods (2010-2021). Due to the breakdown in cattle movement management, FMD may have spread from Karamoja, where it is endemic, to other parts of the nation. The Ugandan government must strengthen regional control programs and surveillance systems in light of the disease\u0026apos;s documented economic impact and transboundary nature. This includes educating cattle farmers about the advantages of vaccinating their animals and encouraging their full participation in FMD control programs. It would be extremely useful to re-establish quarantine stations to track cattle movement and to produce a new vaccine with long-lasting protection and less post-vaccinal responses.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eI hereby confirm that all methods used in this study were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval and Consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of College of veterinary medicine animal resources and Biosecurity in the School of Biosecurity Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), under the Department of Biosecurity Ecosystems and Veterinary Public Health (BEP) of Makerere University for approval. Permission was sought from the office of the Commissioner of Animal Health (Dr. Rose Anna Ademun) who then granted official permission to NADDEC (National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center), Entebbe to access the FMD retrospective data.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data used to support our conclusions are presented in this publication and the related information files.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors claim to have no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding was obtained for this study\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u0026rsquo;s Contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFLO did the data analyses and interpretation, took part in the organization of the project, and wrote the manuscript. Participating in the planning of the study, analyzing, interpreting the results, and revising the paper were JO, WO, AN, SM, CK, TO, FNM, and CK. EN and MO collected the information and edited the original draft. RAA took involved in gathering and studying the data. The final manuscript was read and approved by all writers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI wish to thank Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF), Uganda. I also wish to thank National Animal Disease Diagnostic and Epidemiology Centre, for providing information on Cases of FMD from 2010-2021 in cattle which made this study possible. I am grateful to all the persons who helped me during this study\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003cp\u003e1. Aman, Endris, Wassie Molla, Zeleke Gebreegizabher, and Wudu Temesgen Jemberu. 2020. \u0026ldquo;Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Foot and Mouth Disease 2. 2. Outbreaks in Amhara Region of Ethiopia in the Period 1999 to 2016.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eBMC Veterinary Research\u003c/em\u003e 16(1):1\u0026ndash;8. doi: 10.1186/s12917-020-02411-6.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2. Ayebazibwe, Chrisostom, Kirsten Tj\u0026oslash;rneh\u0026oslash;j, Frank N. Mwiine, Vincent B. Muwanika, Anna Rose Ademun Okurut, Hans R. Siegismund, and Soren Alexandersen. 2010. \u0026ldquo;Patterns, Risk Factors and Characteristics of Reported and Perceived Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) in Uganda.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eTropical Animal Health and Production\u003c/em\u003e 42(7):1547\u0026ndash;59. doi: 10.1007/s11250-010-9605-3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3. \u0026nbsp;Balinda, Sheila N., Abraham K. Sangula, Rasmus Heller, Vincent B. Muwanika, Graham J. Belsham, Charles Masembe, and Hans R. Siegismund. 2010. \u0026ldquo;Diversity and Transboundary Mobility of Serotype O Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus in East Africa: Implications for Vaccination Policies.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eInfection, Genetics and Evolution\u003c/em\u003e 10(7):1058\u0026ndash;65. doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2010.06.017.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4. Baluka, S. A., M. Ocaido, and A. Mugisha. 2014. \u0026ldquo;Prevalence and Economic Importance of Foot and Mouth Disease, and Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia Outbreaks in Cattle in Isingiro and Nakasongola Districts of Uganda.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eDiscourse Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 2(4):107\u0026ndash;17.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5. Baluka, Sylvia Angubua. 2016. \u0026ldquo;Economic Effects of Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreaks along the Cattle Marketing Chain in Uganda.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eVeterinary World\u003c/em\u003e 9(6):544\u0026ndash;53. doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2016.544-553.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6. Disease, Mouth. n.d. \u0026ldquo;Foot \u0026amp; Mouth Disease Questions \u0026amp; Answers What Is Foot and Mouth Foot \u0026amp; Mouth Disease Questions \u0026amp; Answers.\u0026rdquo; 1\u0026ndash;4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7. Domenech, Joseph, J. Lubroth, C. Eddi, V. Martin, and F. Roger. 2006. \u0026ldquo;Regional and International Approaches on Prevention and Control of Animal Transboundary and \u0026nbsp;Emerging Diseases.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 1081:90\u0026ndash;107. doi: 10.1196/annals.1373.010.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8. EU FMD, OIE, and FAO. 2016. \u0026ldquo;The Progressive Control Pathway for FMD Control (PCP-FMD).\u0026rdquo; 1\u0026ndash;17.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9. FAO. 2018. \u0026ldquo;The Global Foot and Mouth Disease.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eThe Global Foot and Mouth Diseasecontrol Strategy\u003c/em\u003e (May):2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10. Fenne, Frank. 2017. \u0026ldquo;Poxviral Zoonoses.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eHandbook of Zoonoses, Second Edition, Section B: Viral Zoonoses\u003c/em\u003e 485\u0026ndash;503. doi: 10.1201/9780203752463.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11. F\u0026egrave;vre, Eric M., Barend M. D. C. Bronsvoort, Katie A. Hamilton, and Sarah Cleaveland. 2006. \u0026ldquo;Animal Movements and the Spread of Infectious Diseases.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eTrends in Microbiology\u003c/em\u003e 14(3):125\u0026ndash;31. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2006.01.004.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12. Grubman, Marvin J., and Barry Baxt. 2004. \u0026ldquo;Foot-and-Mouth Disease.\u0026rdquo; 17(2):465\u0026ndash;93. doi: 10.1128/CMR.17.2.465.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13. Health, World Organisation for Animal. 2019. \u0026ldquo;Current Animal Health Situation Worldwide :\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;33(April):1\u0026ndash;28.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14. Kerfua, Susan D., Gabriel Shirima, Lughano Kusiluka, Chrisostome Ayebazibwe, Robert Mwebe, Sarah Cleaveland, and Daniel Haydon. 2018. \u0026ldquo;Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Four Districts Situated along the Uganda\u0026ndash;Tanzania Border: Implications for Cross-Border Efforts in Disease Control.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eOnderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research\u003c/em\u003e 85(1):1\u0026ndash;8. doi: 10.4102/ojvr.v85i1.1716.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15. Kivaria, F. M. 2003. \u0026ldquo;Foot and Mouth Disease in Tanzania: An Overview of Its National Status.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eVeterinary Quarterly\u003c/em\u003e 25(2):72\u0026ndash;78. doi: 10.1080/01652176.2003.9695147.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16. Knight-Jones, T. J. D., and J. Rushton. 2013. \u0026ldquo;The Economic Impacts of Foot and Mouth Disease - What Are They, How Big Are They and Where Do They Occur?\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003ePreventive Veterinary Medicine\u003c/em\u003e 112(3\u0026ndash;4):161\u0026ndash;73. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2013.07.013.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17. MAAIF. 2007. \u0026ldquo;Agriculture- Meat Sector Profile COMESA Common Market of East and Central Africa Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations Uganda Bureau of Statistics Uganda National Bureau of Standards.\u0026rdquo; 37.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18. MAAIF. 2020. \u0026ldquo;The Republic of Uganda Ministry of Agriculture , Animal Industry and Fisheries,Draft Anual Report.\u0026rdquo; 1\u0026ndash;150(October):150.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e19. Muleme, Michael, Robert Barigye, Margaret L. Khaitsa, Eugene Berry, Anthony W. Wamono, and Chrisostom Ayebazibwe. 2012. \u0026ldquo;Effectiveness of Vaccines and Vaccination Programs for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Uganda, 2001\u0026ndash;2010.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eTropical Animal Health and Production\u003c/em\u003e 45(1):35\u0026ndash;43. doi: 10.1007/s11250-012-0254-6.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20. Namatovu, Alice, Sabenzia Nabalayo Wekesa, Kirsten Tj\u0026oslash;rneh\u0026oslash;j, Moses Tefula Dhikusooka, Vincent B. Muwanika, Hans Redlef Siegsmund, and Chrisostom Ayebazibwe. 2013. \u0026ldquo;Laboratory Capacity for Diagnosis of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Eastern Africa: Implications for the Progressive Control Pathway.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eBMC Veterinary Research\u003c/em\u003e 9. doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-9-19.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e21. Di Nardo, A., N. J. Knowles, and D. J. Paton. 2011. \u0026ldquo;Combining Livestock Trade Patterns with Phylogenetics to Help Understand the Spread of Foot and Mouth Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eOIE Revue Scientifique et Technique\u003c/em\u003e 30(1):63\u0026ndash;85. doi: 10.20506/rst.30.1.2022.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e22. Paton, David J., Keith J. Sumption, and Bryan Charleston. 2009. \u0026ldquo;Options for Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease: Knowledge, Capability and Policy.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003ePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 364(1530):2657\u0026ndash;67. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0100.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e23. Perry, Brian, and Delia Grace. 2009. \u0026ldquo;The Impacts of Livestock Diseases and Their Control on Growth and Development Processes That Are Pro-Poor.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003ePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 364(1530):2643\u0026ndash;55. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0097.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e24. Picado, A., N. Speybroeck, F. Kivaria, R. M. Mosha, R. D. Sumaye, J. Casal, and D. Berkvens. 2011. \u0026ldquo;Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Tanzania from 2001 to 2006.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eTransboundary and Emerging Diseases\u003c/em\u003e 58(1):44\u0026ndash;52. doi: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2010.01180.x.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25. Rich, Karl M., and Brian D. Perry. 2011. \u0026ldquo;The Economic and Poverty Impacts of Animal Diseases in Developing Countries: New Roles, New Demands for Economics and Epidemiology.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003ePreventive Veterinary Medicine\u003c/em\u003e 101(3\u0026ndash;4):133\u0026ndash;47. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2010.08.002.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26. Robinson, L., T. J. D. Knight-Jones, B. Charleston, L. L. Rodriguez, C. G. Gay, K. J. Sumption, and W. Vosloo. 2016. \u0026ldquo;Global Foot-and-Mouth Disease Research Update and Gap Analysis: 7 - Pathogenesis and Molecular Biology.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eTransboundary and Emerging Diseases\u003c/em\u003e 63:63\u0026ndash;71. doi: 10.1111/tbed.12520.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e27. Rowlands, D. J. 2008. \u0026ldquo;Foot and Mouth Disease Viruses.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eEncyclopedia of Virology\u003c/em\u003e 25:265\u0026ndash;74. doi: 10.1016/B978-012374410-4.00402-7.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e28. Sumption, K., M. Rweyemamu, and W. Wint. 2008. \u0026ldquo;Incidence and Distribution of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Asia, Africa and South America; Combining Expert Opinion, Official Disease Information and Livestock Populations to Assist Risk Assessment.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eTransboundary and Emerging Diseases\u003c/em\u003e 55(1):5\u0026ndash;13. doi: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2007.01017.x.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e29. VanderWaal, Kimberly, Marie Gilbertson, Sharon Okanga, Brian F. Allan, and Meggan E. Craft. 2017. \u0026ldquo;Seasonality and Pathogen Transmission in Pastoral Cattle Contact Networks.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eRoyal Society Open Science\u003c/em\u003e 4(12). doi: 10.1098/rsos.170808.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30. Vosloo, W., A. D. S. Bastos, O. Sangare, S. K. Hargreaves, and G. R. Thomson. 2002. \u0026ldquo;Review of the Status and Control of Foot and Mouth Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eOIE Revue Scientifique et Technique\u003c/em\u003e 21(3):437\u0026ndash;49. doi: 10.20506/rst.21.3.1349.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e31. Zhang, Liang, Jie Zhang, Hao Tai Chen, Jian Hua Zhou, Li Na Ma, Yao Zhong Ding, and Yong Sheng Liu. 2011. \u0026ldquo;Research in Advance for FMD Novel Vaccines.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eVirology Journal\u003c/em\u003e 8:1\u0026ndash;6. doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-8-268.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2013492/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2013492/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Foot and Mouth disease is a notifiable trans-boundary disease, which is endemic in a large area of Sub-Saharan Africa, including Uganda. Recently, the disease has emerged from new areas, with high impact, hence threatening the food security and livelihoods of different animal owners. This study described the temporal and spatial distribution of FMD in Uganda, and factors associated with its occurrence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e: Data previously archived at the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) in Uganda, from 2010 to 2021, were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, QGIS and R software\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e: A total of 22,690 FMD cases were reported in Uganda between 2010 and 2021 with an average and median of 1169 and 37 outbreaks per year respectively. In this period, FMD was reported at least once in 58 districts (43%) of all districts of the country (n = 135). The occurrence of FMD outbreaks was found to be seasonal with peak outbreaks in November and a low in August. FMD was reported all over the country, with the majority of cases 45% (10,211) reported from Eastern, 38% (8,685) from western region, 6% (1,354) from northern region and 11% (2,440) from central region. Most FMD cases were reported during the dry month of November, January, and February.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion:\u003c/strong\u003e FMD occurred in all the four regions of the country and showed statistically significant decrease in the long-term trend. Numbers of outbreaks were relatively higher during dry season. The spatial and temporal distribution identified in this study should be considered in controlling the disease. As unregulated and frequent animal movements are the likely causes of high outbreak occurrence during the dry season, animal movement regulations should be considered for the long-term control of FMD.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRecommendation:\u003c/strong\u003e Strategic vaccination of animals should commence at least a month prior to the onset dry season to ensure immunity against the virus, together with restrictions on animal movements during dry season and farmers have to be aware about the risk of unrestricted animal movement.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Spatial and Temporal distribution of Foot and Mouth disease in cattle in Uganda from 2010 – 2021 (A retrospective study)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-11-16 15:52:10","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2013492/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"65c40929-4b1e-4598-ade3-cd9b127e2fb9","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 16th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2023-10-27T11:29:12+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-11-16 15:52:10","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-2013492","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-2013492","identity":"rs-2013492","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"7rjqhiLT3MXkJMwkYKINL","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}