High-frequency and high-amplitude sounds enhance bird deterrence: A case study of the Black- necked Crane

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Birds are closely related to human life, and bird deterrence technology is not only a necessary measure to maintain human health and economic security but also an important means to protect birds. Although sound-based bird deterrence has been widely used, the effects of different frequencies and combinations have not been systematically explored. The Black-necked Crane ( Grus nigricollis ), a nationally protected wildlife species, shares some of its habitats with human agricultural activities. This study designed sounds of various frequencies and combinations and conducted deterrence experiments on Black-necked Cranes at their wintering sites in northeastern Yunnan Province, exploring how sound frequency and combinations affect the behavioral responses, evasion distances, and escape speeds of the cranes. The results indicate that: (1) in terms of behavioral response intensity, evasion distance, and escape speed, sounds with high frequency and high variability significantly outperformed other sounds (n=479, p < 0.001); (2) there were no significant differences in the response of Black-necked Cranes of different flock types and age combinations to sounds. The study recommends using high-frequency, highly variable sounds for short-term control of Black-necked Cranes. Additionally, this research demonstrates that using either high frequency or high variability combinations can achieve efficient bird deterrence in the short term, and provides a scientific basis for developing and refining bird deterrence strategies for other bird species. Biological sciences/Ecology/Behavioural ecology Biological sciences/Zoology/Animal behaviour Black-necked Crane Human-Wildlife Conflict Acoustic Deterrence Conservation Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1 Introduction In pursuit of the global sustainable development, "protecting animals to maintain harmonious coexistence between humans and nature" has emerged as an essential prerequisite. [ 1 ]. With the expansion of human activities, the living spaces of wildlife have been compressed, leading to intensified conflicts between humans and animals [ 2 ]. This not only jeopardizes the conservation of wildlife but also threatens the safety of human production and livelihoods. Birds are a species intricately linked to human life, exerting profound influences in fields such as aircraft, agriculture, and urban development [ 3 ].For example, birds might consume substantial quantities of crops, potentially leading to complete harvest failures [ 4 ]; birds may also spread diseases and affect environmental hygiene, posing a threat to people's health [ 5 , 6 ]. By employing bird repellent methods, we can mitigate the disruptions and losses caused by birds, while simultaneously contributing positively to bird conservation. From traditional scarecrow [ 7 ] to drone bird repellent [ 8 ], the ways humans repel birds have gradually diversified. Current bird repellent technologies primarily encompass visual deterrents, acoustic devices, lighting systems, olfactory repellents, and protective netting [ 9 ]. Among these, the sound-based bird repellent method constitutes a significant approach [ 10 ]. Sounds employed in bird repellent include gunshots [ 11 , 12 , 13 ], fireworks and firecrackers [ 14 ], gas cannons [ 15 , 16 ], sounds emitted by targeted species' predators [ 17 ], frightened or warning calls of the target bird species to be repelled [ 18 ], irregular electromagnetic sounds, and other piercing sounds [ 19 ]. Although birds have been found to quickly adapt or return to the area once the sound stops [ 22 ], sound-based bird repellent methods remain one of the most commonly used techniques due to their quick effectiveness and ease of operation [ 20 , 21 ]. In the previous sound design of bird repellent methods, the following aspects still lack systematic research. (1) Sound frequency: Various studies suggest that both high-frequency and low-frequency sounds can enhance the effectiveness of bird repellent. For instance, ultrasonic waves and sounds approaching the ultrasonic range have been commonly incorporated into bird repellent devices [ 23 ] Conversely, some research indicates that birds have a strong reaction to low-frequency sounds, such as fire alarms [ 24 ]. Therefore, we hypothesize that when the frequency of bird repellent sounds approaches the auditory threshold of birds, the repellent effect may be enhanced. (2) The pattern of sound combinations, including the extent of frequency change, the transition speed between different frequencies, and the presence of regularity, may all affect bird repellent effectiveness. We anticipate that rapidly fluctuating and unpredictable acoustic stimuli may more effectively capture birds' attention, elicit escape responses, and reduce their adaptability.[ 25 ]. (3) Bird repellent devices are usually designed to target multiple species, while variation in species-specific response [ 26 ] flock composition, as well as age cohorts [ 27 , 28 ] can lead to significantly different reactions to identical auditory stimuli. Consequently, it is imperative to design bird repellent strategies that account for the specific species and their population characteristics. The black-necked crane ( Grus nigricollis ) is a Class I protected wild animal in China and is categorized as Near Threatened (NT) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)[ 29 ]. It is mainly distributed in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau [ 30 ], and inhabitant at plateau marshes, lakes, riverbanks, and agriculture land [ 31 , 32 ]. During the wintering period, black-necked cranes often feed in farmland to consume potatoes, barley, buckwheat, oats, radishes, and grass roots [ 33 ]. This foraging behavior can lead to crop damage, particularly as the population size increases [ 30 ] and the activity range expands [ 34 ]. Consequently, the conflict between humans and cranes over food and land is also increasingly prominent [ 35 ]. Therefore, the implementation of appropriate sound-based repellent methods can alleviate conflicts between humans and cranes. Therefore, we designed a serious of sound frequencies and combinations and conducted behavioral experiments in a black-necked crane wintering area in northeastern Yunnan Province. This study aims to explore how the frequency and combination of sounds affect the behavior, escape time, escape initiation distance, and escape speed of black-necked cranes. Additionally, we explore whether different flock types and age exhibit varied response to these auditory stimuli. This study will provide scientific commendations for the local conservation of black-necked cranes and also offer a reference for the development and improvement of bird repellent strategies for other bird species. 2 Methods 2.1 Study Area The study area is located in Daxiandang Village, Wuzhai Township, Yongshan County, Zhaotong City, northeastern Yunnan Province, China (N27°36′32″-27°35′18″, E103°24′2″-103°27′16″). The region exhibits a typical alpine climate and prone to frost and ice, with an annual average temperature of 6.2°C. The average temperature in the hottest month, July, is 20°C, while in the coldest month, January, it falls to -5°C. The area experiences an average of 60.6 frosty days and a frost period of 242 days annually, with 184.8 foggy days. The predominant vegetation type in the region is alpine meadow, with buckwheat, oats, and potatoes being the primary crops cultivated. This location serves as a stable wintering ground for Black-necked Cranes, with the wintering period extending from late October to middle April of the following year [ 36 ]. The experiments for this study were conducted from March 10 to March 22, 2024. During this period, we observed between 30 to 85 Black-necked Cranes residing in the area. During the day, the cranes predominantly engaged in activities as either non-breeding flocks (Flock) or breeding flocks (Family group). The Flock typically consisted of 10 to 55 individuals, all of which were non-breeding individuals aged 2 years or older (Juvenile and above in age). The Family groups ranged from 2 to 5 individuals, composed of two adult cranes and one to three subadults (Juvenile). The flock cranes frequently split and reformed, with variable numbers and unstable activity range. In contrast, Family groups generally had stable membership compositions and home range. 2.2 Sound Design A total of four types of sounds were prepared (Figure.1) Type A represents a continuous constant frequency sound, for which we selected three frequencies in ascending order: 200 Hz (Group A1), 6400 Hz (A2), and 12800 Hz (A3). Type B was designed to assess the impact of frequency range. It included three subgroups where frequencies of 200 and 6400 Hz (B1), 6400 and 12800 Hz (B2), and 200 and 12800 Hz (B3), with alternated every 5 seconds (Fig. 1 B). Type C featured audio fluctuating within a specific range. The three subgroups were 200–6400 Hz, 6400–12800 Hz, and 200-12800 Hz. Within each range, five frequencies were selected from low to high, each continued for 1/6 of a second. Group D used the same frequency combinations as Group C, but each audio was played for one second, with each set lasting 5 seconds followed by a 10-second pause before repeating the cycle. Sound designs were created using Adobe Audition 2022 software, which involved combining single audio tracks. 2.3 Field Experiments The experiment area conducted in agriculture land and wetlands where Black-necked Cranes were foraging. The audio was played using a standard portable loudspeaker (Shenzhen Oppo Technology Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China). Prior observations were used to predict the areas where cranes would forage, the device was positioned within the area before the cranes entered. During the placement of the device, efforts were made to utilize concealed routes to avoid entering the visual field of the Black-necked Cranes. The sound was initiated when Black-necked Cranes were within 10 meters of the speaker, with each sound played for one minute and intervals of at least 30 minutes between experiments. The experimental groups were conducted in a crossover manner. Prior to sound playback, the type of sound, time, group type, and the number of adults and juveniles were recorded. When the sound playback commenced, observations were made on the age characteristics of the subjects, all behaviors and events from the moment the audio began to the end of playback, and the escape initiation distance. Crane behavioral responses were categorized into six types: flying, walking, jumping, wing-flapping, alerting, and foraging. The response time refers to the interval between sound start to a specific behavior. Movement is defined when ① habitat type changes; ② the movement distance without intermediate behaviors exceeds 30m; ③ flying behavior is involved. The new location is defined as the position where Black-necked Cranes stop moving and start another behavior, such as foraging. The escape initiation distance is defined as the straight-line distance from the original location to the new location. If the Black-necked Cranes disappear from the observer's field of view due to reasons such as crossing over a ridge, the escape initiation distance is defined as the distance between the last visible position and the original position. 2.4 Statistical Analysis In this study, behavioral response, escape initiation distance, and escape initiation distance were used as metrics to evaluate the effectiveness of the audio stimuli. Based on the intensity of the response, behaviors such as flying, walking, jumping, wing-flapping, alerting, and foraging were assigned scores of 10, 7, 5, 5, 3, and 0 respectively, with the highest observed score taken as the measure. To analyze the response of Black-necked Cranes to different sounds, the Kruskal-Wallis test was used to determine if there were significant differences in behavior scores, response times, and escape initiation distances. To explore differences in responses between adults and juveniles, as well as between family groups and flocks to different sounds, the Wilcoxon rank-sum test was employed to test for significant differences in behavior scores, escape initiation distances, and escape speeds. Additionally, multiple comparisons were conducted using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) method. The escape speed was calculated as the ratio of distance to time. All statistical analyses were performed using R software, version 4.4.3[ 37 ]. 3 Results This study conducted experimental research from March 10–22, 2024. Each sound subgroup was tested an average of 12 times, resulting in 143 experimental trials. A total of 5150 records of Black-necked Cranes, including 4197 adults and 953 juveniles accumulated, with 2992 pieces of behavioral data, with 2469 records of adults and 523 of juveniles. 3.1 Impact of Different Sound Types on the Behavior, Escape Initiation Distance, and Escape Speed of Black-Necked Cranes Among the 12 sound types tested, those with the highest frequencies—A3, B3, C3, and D3—triggered the most intense behavioral responses, followed by D2 (Fig. 2a). A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2, and D1 elicited less pronounced behavioral reactions. Specifically, Group A3 and B3 demonstrated superior performance in terms of escape distance, showing significant differences compared to other groups except D3(Fig. 2b). The sound types A3 and D3 exhibited significantly higher escape speeds compared to the other 10 sound types(Fig. 2c). 3.2 The Impact of Different Sound Types on Juveniles and Adult No significant differences responses between juvenile and adults were observed. In juveniles and adults, there were significant differences in behavior and escape initiation distance in response to A2 and A3 sound (Fig. 3aei). In type B sounds (Fig. 3bfj), both juveniles and adults showed significant differences only in escape initiation distance (Fig. 3f) between B1 and B3. For type C sounds (Fig. 3cgk), both juveniles and adults exhibited significant differences only in behavior scores (Fig. 3c) between C1 and C3. In type D sounds (Fig. 3dhl), both juveniles and adults demonstrated significant differences in both escape initiation distance (Fig. 3h) and escape speed (Fig. 3l) between D1 and D3. 3.3 The Impact of Different Sound Types on Family Groups and Flocks Family groups and flocks exhibited no significant differences in behavior assignment, escape initiation distance or escape speed within each sound type. Under type A sounds (Fig. 4aei), both family groups and flocks demonstrated significant differences in behavior (Fig. 4a), escape initiation distance (Fig. 4e), and escape speed (Fig. 4i) between A3 and both A1 and A2. In type B sounds (Fig. 4bfj), significant differences were observed in escape initiation distance (Fig. 4f) and escape speed (Fig. 4j) between B3 and both B1 and B2. For type C sound (Fig. 4cgk) s, significant differences were only observed in behavior scores (Fig. 4c) between C3 and both C1 and C2. Under type D sounds (Fig. 4dhl), neither family groups nor flocks showed significant differences in behavior (Fig. 4d), escape initiation distance (Fig. 4h), or escape speed (Fig. 4l). 4 Discussion 4.1 The pitch and range of sound frequencies significantly impact on the response of Black-necked Cranes. This study has demonstrated that high-frequency sounds significantly surpass low- and mid-frequency sounds in repelling Black-necked Cranes when exposed to single-frequency stimuli. Sound combinations encompassing a high frequency range manifest a substantially superior deterrence effect compared to those within low or medium frequency ranges. However, the temporal characteristics and variations in these sound combinations exert minimal influence on the birds' behavioral response intensity, escape initiation distance, or escape velocity. The enhanced deterrence effect observed with high-frequency sounds may arise from avian sensitivity to such frequencies, potentially rendering these auditory stimuli more effective in eliciting alert and evasive behaviors in birds [ 38 ]. While the temporal aspects and variations in sound combinations did not notably impact the escape behaviors of Black-necked Cranes in this study, sound combinations with a higher frequency range yielded notably improved bird deterrence outcomes. 4.2 Black-necked Cranes of different flock types and ages respond similarly to sound. This study revealed that both family groups and flocks, as well as juveniles and adults, displayed consistent responses to sound stimuli. We hypothesize that, as a typical flocking species, the behavioral and physiological reactions of Black-necked Cranes are shaped by their natural proclivity for consistency. Such flocking behavior not only facilitates rapid responses to predators but also enhances cooperation during essential activities like foraging and migration. Furthermore, this research was conducted towards the end of the wintering period, during which juveniles had progressively acclimated to the winter environment. Under adult guidance, their behavioral patterns matured, increasingly mirroring those of the adults. 4.3 Application Recommendation This study indicated that artificially designed sounds can be highly effective for the short-term displacement of Black-necked Cranes and potentially other bird species. The findings underscore the importance of considering not only the frequency but also the variations in sound frequency when designing bird-deterring sounds. It is noteworthy that, in the presence of food resources, displaced Black-necked Cranes may return to the site in less than 20 minutes following the cessation of sound playback. For practical applications aimed at achieving long-term deterrence, it is essential to develop more complex and variable sound stimuli that continuously, or integrating additional bird deterrence techniques, such as visual disturbances or chemical agents to enhance the overall effectiveness of the deterrence strategy. Moreover, it is imperative to consider the potential impacts on other wildlife and ecosystems. When implementing sound interference strategies, care must be taken to minimize unnecessary disturbances or harm to non-target species. 4.4 Limitations and Future Directions The results of this study may be influenced by various factors, including differences in the experimental environment, individual variations, and the performance of the sound equipment utilized. This study focused solely on the effects of different sound frequencies and combinations, without evaluating variables such as sound intensity and playback duration. Future research could explore varying sound intensities and durations, as well as extend investigations into ultrasonic frequencies and random noise. With ongoing technological advancements and deeper research, we can gain a more precise understanding of the mechanisms by which sound influences the behavior of different species. This knowledge provides a scientific foundation for devising more effective conservation measures and designing species-specific bird deterrence strategies. Additionally, sound-related research can offer valuable tools and methodologies for fields such as ecology and ethology, further enriching our understanding of animal behavior and ecosystem dynamics. Declarations Author contributions Conceptualization, Wen Xiao; Methodology, Wen Xiao; Resources, Na Li; Software, Chang-Jin Liu; Visualization, Hong-Bin Ma; Writing – original draft, Zi-Juan Dong; Writing – review & editing, Kun Tan. All authors will be informed about each step of manuscript processing including submission, revision, revision reminder, etc. via emails from our system or assigned Assistant Editor. Acknowledgments The successful completion of this research could not have been possible without the substantial support and assistance from Datang Yongshan Wind Power Co., Ltd., specifically through their Laoluliangzi Wind Farm Winter Black-necked Crane Monitoring Service Project. We extend our heartfelt gratitude for their contributions. The project team provided invaluable data and resources, enabling us to gain a deeper understanding of the behavioral patterns of the Black-necked Crane and their responses to various sound repelling techniques. Data Availability The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References VERKUIJL C, J SEBO, J GREEN. Animal welfare matters for sustainable development: UNEA 5.2 is an opportunity for governments to recognize that. 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Im pacts of ambient noise on bird song and adaptation strategies of birds[J]. Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2011,30(04):831-836. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 22 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 22 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 13 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 25 Jan, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Jan, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 13 Nov, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 13 Nov, 2024 Editor invited by journal 11 Nov, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 08 Nov, 2024 First submitted to journal 15 Oct, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Tan","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACZoYPMCZjgwQDAzsB9TxALYwzIAyoFmYitDDzILQwENZiz372sLFNhZ29PXvvsweMOyyi+ZuZn0n8YLDLw2kLT15ycs6Z5MQenuPmBoxnJHJnHGYzk+xhSC7G7bAc48O5bcwJPBJpbNJ/2yRyGw4zmEnwMBxIbMClhf+N8WHLf/X2PPLP2CQYgVrmH2b/JvkHnxaJHONkxobDjD0SbBAtGw7zmEnjteXGG2PDnmPHE3vOpEG0bDzMU2wtY5CMUwt7f46xxI+aanv29mMgLXW58463b7z5psIOpxasgEWCwYAU9UDA/IGwmlEwCkbBKBhBAABq10v4ma7nlwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Eastern-Himalaya Biodiversity Research, Dali University, Dali, Yunnan 671003, China.","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kun","middleName":"","lastName":"Tan","suffix":""},{"id":380773048,"identity":"e5767e65-f50f-4383-92f7-b1493a5de2c7","order_by":2,"name":"Hong-Bin Ma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Eastern-Himalaya Biodiversity Research, Dali University, Dali, Yunnan 671003, China.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hong-Bin","middleName":"","lastName":"Ma","suffix":""},{"id":380773049,"identity":"ab45e088-8792-4e7a-873e-b0d59ff77154","order_by":3,"name":"Chang-Jin Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Eastern-Himalaya Biodiversity Research, Dali University, Dali, Yunnan 671003, China.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chang-Jin","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":380773050,"identity":"df758b66-dfa7-4bec-9b12-6a4d7dc79b72","order_by":4,"name":"Na Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Eastern-Himalaya Biodiversity Research, Dali University, Dali, Yunnan 671003, China.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Na","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":380773051,"identity":"561d868c-97e1-41ec-8dce-19c1d0481df9","order_by":5,"name":"Wen Xiao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Eastern-Himalaya Biodiversity Research, Dali University, Dali, Yunnan 671003, China.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wen","middleName":"","lastName":"Xiao","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-15 07:38:28","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266569/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266569/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-13737-2","type":"published","date":"2025-08-22T16:29:15+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":71143042,"identity":"375626cb-e4ec-456a-af37-51e4d05e1d6b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-11 14:04:02","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":245548,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAcoustic spectrograms of experiment sound types\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA1.200Hz；A2.6400Hz；A3.12800Hz；B1.200-6400Hz；B2.6400-12800Hz；B3.200-12800Hz；C1.200-6400Hz；C2.6400-12800Hz；C3.200-12800Hz；D1.200-6400Hz；D2.6400-12800Hz；D3.200-12800Hz；\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"FIG1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266569/v1/eddfa3dd083ce6423c4320b5.png"},{"id":71143041,"identity":"cc411ad6-57d5-46f5-bb0c-47d4b9c29d67","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-11 14:04:01","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":140547,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of different sound types on behavior assignment, escape initiation distance, and escape speed\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"FIG2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266569/v1/8df49869d54e88acb4ecfd3a.png"},{"id":71144558,"identity":"7015bb5b-f664-4c80-a324-de29b29f50d5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-11 14:12:02","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":174141,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different sound types on juveniles and adults\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(Note: Red and blue represent juvenile and adult groups, respectively.)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"FIG3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266569/v1/2080540eccdbd07c74890eaf.png"},{"id":71144556,"identity":"78236f5a-b6fc-40a8-826c-18327426815b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-11 14:12:02","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":173327,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of different sound types on family groups and flocks\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(Note: Green and blue represent family groups and flocks, respectively.)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"FIG4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266569/v1/568817e8348d6a07b4571c57.png"},{"id":89847174,"identity":"26a78603-a202-470d-8cb3-38cd1bd515cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 16:41:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1299429,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266569/v1/2d2d4ff7-e71d-4c11-a914-01e6c033cfdb.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"High-frequency and high-amplitude sounds enhance bird deterrence: A case study of the Black- necked Crane","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn pursuit of the global sustainable development, \"protecting animals to maintain harmonious coexistence between humans and nature\" has emerged as an essential prerequisite. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. With the expansion of human activities, the living spaces of wildlife have been compressed, leading to intensified conflicts between humans and animals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. This not only jeopardizes the conservation of wildlife but also threatens the safety of human production and livelihoods. Birds are a species intricately linked to human life, exerting profound influences in fields such as aircraft, agriculture, and urban development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].For example, birds might consume substantial quantities of crops, potentially leading to complete harvest failures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]; birds may also spread diseases and affect environmental hygiene, posing a threat to people's health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. By employing bird repellent methods, we can mitigate the disruptions and losses caused by birds, while simultaneously contributing positively to bird conservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom traditional scarecrow [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e] to drone bird repellent [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], the ways humans repel birds have gradually diversified. Current bird repellent technologies primarily encompass visual deterrents, acoustic devices, lighting systems, olfactory repellents, and protective netting [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Among these, the sound-based bird repellent method constitutes a significant approach [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Sounds employed in bird repellent include gunshots [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], fireworks and firecrackers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], gas cannons [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], sounds emitted by targeted species' predators [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], frightened or warning calls of the target bird species to be repelled [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], irregular electromagnetic sounds, and other piercing sounds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Although birds have been found to quickly adapt or return to the area once the sound stops [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], sound-based bird repellent methods remain one of the most commonly used techniques due to their quick effectiveness and ease of operation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the previous sound design of bird repellent methods, the following aspects still lack systematic research. (1) Sound frequency: Various studies suggest that both high-frequency and low-frequency sounds can enhance the effectiveness of bird repellent. For instance, ultrasonic waves and sounds approaching the ultrasonic range have been commonly incorporated into bird repellent devices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] Conversely, some research indicates that birds have a strong reaction to low-frequency sounds, such as fire alarms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, we hypothesize that when the frequency of bird repellent sounds approaches the auditory threshold of birds, the repellent effect may be enhanced. (2) The pattern of sound combinations, including the extent of frequency change, the transition speed between different frequencies, and the presence of regularity, may all affect bird repellent effectiveness. We anticipate that rapidly fluctuating and unpredictable acoustic stimuli may more effectively capture birds' attention, elicit escape responses, and reduce their adaptability.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. (3) Bird repellent devices are usually designed to target multiple species, while variation in species-specific response [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] flock composition, as well as age cohorts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] can lead to significantly different reactions to identical auditory stimuli. Consequently, it is imperative to design bird repellent strategies that account for the specific species and their population characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe black-necked crane (\u003cem\u003eGrus nigricollis\u003c/em\u003e) is a Class I protected wild animal in China and is categorized as Near Threatened (NT) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. It is mainly distributed in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e], and inhabitant at plateau marshes, lakes, riverbanks, and agriculture land [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. During the wintering period, black-necked cranes often feed in farmland to consume potatoes, barley, buckwheat, oats, radishes, and grass roots [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. This foraging behavior can lead to crop damage, particularly as the population size increases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] and the activity range expands [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Consequently, the conflict between humans and cranes over food and land is also increasingly prominent [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the implementation of appropriate sound-based repellent methods can alleviate conflicts between humans and cranes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, we designed a serious of sound frequencies and combinations and conducted behavioral experiments in a black-necked crane wintering area in northeastern Yunnan Province. This study aims to explore how the frequency and combination of sounds affect the behavior, escape time, escape initiation distance, and escape speed of black-necked cranes. Additionally, we explore whether different flock types and age exhibit varied response to these auditory stimuli. This study will provide scientific commendations for the local conservation of black-necked cranes and also offer a reference for the development and improvement of bird repellent strategies for other bird species.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe study area is located in Daxiandang Village, Wuzhai Township, Yongshan County, Zhaotong City, northeastern Yunnan Province, China (N27\u0026deg;36\u0026prime;32\u0026Prime;-27\u0026deg;35\u0026prime;18\u0026Prime;, E103\u0026deg;24\u0026prime;2\u0026Prime;-103\u0026deg;27\u0026prime;16\u0026Prime;). The region exhibits a typical alpine climate and prone to frost and ice, with an annual average temperature of 6.2\u0026deg;C. The average temperature in the hottest month, July, is 20\u0026deg;C, while in the coldest month, January, it falls to -5\u0026deg;C. The area experiences an average of 60.6 frosty days and a frost period of 242 days annually, with 184.8 foggy days. The predominant vegetation type in the region is alpine meadow, with buckwheat, oats, and potatoes being the primary crops cultivated.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis location serves as a stable wintering ground for Black-necked Cranes, with the wintering period extending from late October to middle April of the following year [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. The experiments for this study were conducted from March 10 to March 22, 2024. During this period, we observed between 30 to 85 Black-necked Cranes residing in the area. During the day, the cranes predominantly engaged in activities as either non-breeding flocks (Flock) or breeding flocks (Family group). The Flock typically consisted of 10 to 55 individuals, all of which were non-breeding individuals aged 2 years or older (Juvenile and above in age). The Family groups ranged from 2 to 5 individuals, composed of two adult cranes and one to three subadults (Juvenile). The flock cranes frequently split and reformed, with variable numbers and unstable activity range. In contrast, Family groups generally had stable membership compositions and home range.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Sound Design\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA total of four types of sounds were prepared (Figure.1) Type A represents a continuous constant frequency sound, for which we selected three frequencies in ascending order: 200 Hz (Group A1), 6400 Hz (A2), and 12800 Hz (A3). Type B was designed to assess the impact of frequency range. It included three subgroups where frequencies of 200 and 6400 Hz (B1), 6400 and 12800 Hz (B2), and 200 and 12800 Hz (B3), with alternated every 5 seconds (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB). Type C featured audio fluctuating within a specific range. The three subgroups were 200\u0026ndash;6400 Hz, 6400\u0026ndash;12800 Hz, and 200-12800 Hz. Within each range, five frequencies were selected from low to high, each continued for 1/6 of a second. Group D used the same frequency combinations as Group C, but each audio was played for one second, with each set lasting 5 seconds followed by a 10-second pause before repeating the cycle. Sound designs were created using Adobe Audition 2022 software, which involved combining single audio tracks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Field Experiments\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe experiment area conducted in agriculture land and wetlands where Black-necked Cranes were foraging. The audio was played using a standard portable loudspeaker (Shenzhen Oppo Technology Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China). Prior observations were used to predict the areas where cranes would forage, the device was positioned within the area before the cranes entered. During the placement of the device, efforts were made to utilize concealed routes to avoid entering the visual field of the Black-necked Cranes. The sound was initiated when Black-necked Cranes were within 10 meters of the speaker, with each sound played for one minute and intervals of at least 30 minutes between experiments. The experimental groups were conducted in a crossover manner.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior to sound playback, the type of sound, time, group type, and the number of adults and juveniles were recorded. When the sound playback commenced, observations were made on the age characteristics of the subjects, all behaviors and events from the moment the audio began to the end of playback, and the escape initiation distance. Crane behavioral responses were categorized into six types: flying, walking, jumping, wing-flapping, alerting, and foraging. The response time refers to the interval between sound start to a specific behavior. Movement is defined when ① habitat type changes; ② the movement distance without intermediate behaviors exceeds 30m; ③ flying behavior is involved. The new location is defined as the position where Black-necked Cranes stop moving and start another behavior, such as foraging. The escape initiation distance is defined as the straight-line distance from the original location to the new location. If the Black-necked Cranes disappear from the observer\u0026apos;s field of view due to reasons such as crossing over a ridge, the escape initiation distance is defined as the distance between the last visible position and the original position.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this study, behavioral response, escape initiation distance, and escape initiation distance were used as metrics to evaluate the effectiveness of the audio stimuli. Based on the intensity of the response, behaviors such as flying, walking, jumping, wing-flapping, alerting, and foraging were assigned scores of 10, 7, 5, 5, 3, and 0 respectively, with the highest observed score taken as the measure. To analyze the response of Black-necked Cranes to different sounds, the Kruskal-Wallis test was used to determine if there were significant differences in behavior scores, response times, and escape initiation distances. To explore differences in responses between adults and juveniles, as well as between family groups and flocks to different sounds, the Wilcoxon rank-sum test was employed to test for significant differences in behavior scores, escape initiation distances, and escape speeds. Additionally, multiple comparisons were conducted using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) method. The escape speed was calculated as the ratio of distance to time. All statistical analyses were performed using R software, version 4.4.3[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study conducted experimental research from March 10\u0026ndash;22, 2024. Each sound subgroup was tested an average of 12 times, resulting in 143 experimental trials. A total of 5150 records of Black-necked Cranes, including 4197 adults and 953 juveniles accumulated, with 2992 pieces of behavioral data, with 2469 records of adults and 523 of juveniles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Impact of Different Sound Types on the Behavior, Escape Initiation Distance, and Escape Speed of Black-Necked Cranes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong the 12 sound types tested, those with the highest frequencies\u0026mdash;A3, B3, C3, and D3\u0026mdash;triggered the most intense behavioral responses, followed by D2 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2a). A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2, and D1 elicited less pronounced behavioral reactions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecifically, Group A3 and B3 demonstrated superior performance in terms of escape distance, showing significant differences compared to other groups except D3(Fig.\u0026nbsp;2b). The sound types A3 and D3 exhibited significantly higher escape speeds compared to the other 10 sound types(Fig.\u0026nbsp;2c).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 The Impact of Different Sound Types on Juveniles and Adult\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant differences responses between juvenile and adults were observed. In juveniles and adults, there were significant differences in behavior and escape initiation distance in response to A2 and A3 sound (Fig. 3aei). In type B sounds (Fig. 3bfj), both juveniles and adults showed significant differences only in escape initiation distance (Fig. 3f) between B1 and B3. For type C sounds (Fig. 3cgk), both juveniles and adults exhibited significant differences only in behavior scores (Fig. 3c) between C1 and C3. In type D sounds (Fig. 3dhl), both juveniles and adults demonstrated significant differences in both escape initiation distance (Fig. 3h) and escape speed (Fig. 3l) between D1 and D3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 The Impact of Different Sound Types on Family Groups and Flocks\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFamily groups and flocks exhibited no significant differences in behavior assignment, escape initiation distance or escape speed within each sound type. Under type A sounds (Fig. 4aei), both family groups and flocks demonstrated significant differences in behavior (Fig. 4a), escape initiation distance (Fig. 4e), and escape speed (Fig. 4i) between A3 and both A1 and A2. In type B sounds (Fig. 4bfj), significant differences were observed in escape initiation distance (Fig. 4f) and escape speed (Fig. 4j) between B3 and both B1 and B2. For type C sound (Fig. 4cgk) s, significant differences were only observed in behavior scores (Fig. 4c) between C3 and both C1 and C2. Under type D sounds (Fig. 4dhl), neither family groups nor flocks showed significant differences in behavior (Fig. 4d), escape initiation distance (Fig. 4h), or escape speed (Fig. 4l).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 The pitch and range of sound frequencies significantly impact on the response of Black-necked Cranes.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has demonstrated that high-frequency sounds significantly surpass low- and mid-frequency sounds in repelling Black-necked Cranes when exposed to single-frequency stimuli. Sound combinations encompassing a high frequency range manifest a substantially superior deterrence effect compared to those within low or medium frequency ranges. However, the temporal characteristics and variations in these sound combinations exert minimal influence on the birds' behavioral response intensity, escape initiation distance, or escape velocity. The enhanced deterrence effect observed with high-frequency sounds may arise from avian sensitivity to such frequencies, potentially rendering these auditory stimuli more effective in eliciting alert and evasive behaviors in birds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. While the temporal aspects and variations in sound combinations did not notably impact the escape behaviors of Black-necked Cranes in this study, sound combinations with a higher frequency range yielded notably improved bird deterrence outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Black-necked Cranes of different flock types and ages respond similarly to sound.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study revealed that both family groups and flocks, as well as juveniles and adults, displayed consistent responses to sound stimuli. We hypothesize that, as a typical flocking species, the behavioral and physiological reactions of Black-necked Cranes are shaped by their natural proclivity for consistency. Such flocking behavior not only facilitates rapid responses to predators but also enhances cooperation during essential activities like foraging and migration. Furthermore, this research was conducted towards the end of the wintering period, during which juveniles had progressively acclimated to the winter environment. Under adult guidance, their behavioral patterns matured, increasingly mirroring those of the adults.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Application Recommendation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study indicated that artificially designed sounds can be highly effective for the short-term displacement of Black-necked Cranes and potentially other bird species. The findings underscore the importance of considering not only the frequency but also the variations in sound frequency when designing bird-deterring sounds. It is noteworthy that, in the presence of food resources, displaced Black-necked Cranes may return to the site in less than 20 minutes following the cessation of sound playback. For practical applications aimed at achieving long-term deterrence, it is essential to develop more complex and variable sound stimuli that continuously, or integrating additional bird deterrence techniques, such as visual disturbances or chemical agents to enhance the overall effectiveness of the deterrence strategy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, it is imperative to consider the potential impacts on other wildlife and ecosystems. When implementing sound interference strategies, care must be taken to minimize unnecessary disturbances or harm to non-target species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Limitations and Future Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this study may be influenced by various factors, including differences in the experimental environment, individual variations, and the performance of the sound equipment utilized. This study focused solely on the effects of different sound frequencies and combinations, without evaluating variables such as sound intensity and playback duration. Future research could explore varying sound intensities and durations, as well as extend investigations into ultrasonic frequencies and random noise.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith ongoing technological advancements and deeper research, we can gain a more precise understanding of the mechanisms by which sound influences the behavior of different species. This knowledge provides a scientific foundation for devising more effective conservation measures and designing species-specific bird deterrence strategies. Additionally, sound-related research can offer valuable tools and methodologies for fields such as ecology and ethology, further enriching our understanding of animal behavior and ecosystem dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, Wen Xiao; Methodology, Wen Xiao; Resources, Na Li; Software, Chang-Jin Liu; Visualization, Hong-Bin Ma; Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Zi-Juan Dong; Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing, Kun Tan.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors will be informed about each step of manuscript processing including submission, revision, revision reminder, etc. via emails from our system or assigned Assistant Editor.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe successful completion of this research could not have been possible without the substantial support and assistance from Datang Yongshan Wind Power Co., Ltd., specifically through their Laoluliangzi Wind Farm Winter Black-necked Crane Monitoring Service Project. We extend our heartfelt gratitude for their contributions. The project team provided invaluable data and resources, enabling us to gain a deeper understanding of the behavioral patterns of the Black-necked Crane and their responses to various sound repelling techniques.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVERKUIJL C, J SEBO, J GREEN. Animal welfare matters for sustainable development: UNEA 5.2 is an opportunity for governments to recognize that. 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Global Ecology and Conservation, 2023, 46: e02614.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLI ZH M, LI F S. Black-necked Crane Research. Shanghai Science and Technology Education Press, Shanghai,2005.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eR Core Team (2024). _R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing_. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. \u0026lt;https://www.R-project.org/\u0026gt;.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJI T, ZHANG Y Y. Im pacts of ambient noise on bird song and adaptation strategies of birds[J]. Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2011,30(04):831-836.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Black-necked Crane, Human-Wildlife Conflict, Acoustic Deterrence, Conservation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266569/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266569/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eUnder the global vision of sustainable development, the harmonious coexistence of humans and wildlife has become a crucial topic. Birds are closely related to human life, and bird deterrence technology is not only a necessary measure to maintain human health and economic security but also an important means to protect birds. Although sound-based bird deterrence has been widely used, the effects of different frequencies and combinations have not been systematically explored. The Black-necked Crane (\u003cem\u003eGrus nigricollis\u003c/em\u003e), a nationally protected wildlife species, shares some of its habitats with human agricultural activities. This study designed sounds of various frequencies and combinations and conducted deterrence experiments on Black-necked Cranes at their wintering sites in northeastern Yunnan Province, exploring how sound frequency and combinations affect the behavioral responses, evasion distances, and escape speeds of the cranes. The results indicate that: (1) in terms of behavioral response intensity, evasion distance, and escape speed, sounds with high frequency and high variability significantly outperformed other sounds (n=479, p \u0026lt; 0.001); (2) there were no significant differences in the response of Black-necked Cranes of different flock types and age combinations to sounds. The study recommends using high-frequency, highly variable sounds for short-term control of Black-necked Cranes. Additionally, this research demonstrates that using either high frequency or high variability combinations can achieve efficient bird deterrence in the short term, and provides a scientific basis for developing and refining bird deterrence strategies for other bird species.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"High-frequency and high-amplitude sounds enhance bird deterrence: A case study of the Black- necked Crane","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-12-11 14:03:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266569/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-04-22T09:03:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-13T14:26:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"291333400125414955602137116086912801120","date":"2025-04-04T05:04:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-01-25T17:03:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"239612433950037413535186797102673621615","date":"2025-01-15T16:27:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-11-13T16:35:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-11-13T16:23:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2024-11-11T12:03:03+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-11-08T11:39:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2024-10-15T07:35:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"4ffc7628-6457-4f8d-b78e-19943c687bd2","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 11th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":40550792,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology/Behavioural ecology"},{"id":40550793,"name":"Biological sciences/Zoology/Animal behaviour"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-25T16:33:50+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5266569","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-13737-2","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2025-08-22 16:29:15","publishedOnDateReadable":"August 22nd, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-12-11 14:03:57","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-025-13737-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-13737-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5266569","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5266569","identity":"rs-5266569","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}