Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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While Ethiopia’s urban land lease policy aims for equitable development, state ownership exacerbates neo-patrimonial dynamics, leading to distorted resource allocation and limited access for marginalized communities. Through key informant interviews and policy analysis, this study reveals how ethnic alignment and political loyalty influence land access, undermining the policy’s stated objectives. The findings highlight a disconnection between formal regulations and the lived experiences of urban residents, particularly those lacking political connections. Despite constitutional guarantees, a centralized decision-making process and limited accountability perpetuate inequality. The study concludes that institutional reforms are needed to decentralize power, enhance transparency, and integrate marginalized voices into land governance to realize equitable and sustainable urban development in Addis Ababa. This research contributes to a broader understanding of the challenges facing urban land management in neo-patrimonial contexts." } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/14-970", "name": "Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled..." } } ] } Home Browse Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Amare M, Abeje W, Mengistu F and Mamo D. Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.169813.2 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Revised Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] Moges Amare https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3718-0228 1 , Wondimu Abeje https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3644-4908 1,2 , Frew Mengistu 3 , Dejene Mamo 4 Moges Amare https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3718-0228 1 , Wondimu Abeje https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3644-4908 1,2 , Frew Mengistu 3 , Dejene Mamo 4 PUBLISHED 20 Jan 2026 Author details Author details 1 Geography and Environmental Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia 2 Rural, Regional and Local Development Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia 3 Rural, Regional and Local Development Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia 4 Accounting and Finance, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia Moges Amare Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Wondimu Abeje Roles: Supervision Frew Mengistu Roles: Supervision Dejene Mamo Roles: Supervision OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS Abstract This paper examines the complex interplay between urban land lease policy, state ownership, and neo-patrimonial practices in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. While Ethiopia’s urban land lease policy aims for equitable development, state ownership exacerbates neo-patrimonial dynamics, leading to distorted resource allocation and limited access for marginalized communities. Through key informant interviews and policy analysis, this study reveals how ethnic alignment and political loyalty influence land access, undermining the policy’s stated objectives. The findings highlight a disconnection between formal regulations and the lived experiences of urban residents, particularly those lacking political connections. Despite constitutional guarantees, a centralized decision-making process and limited accountability perpetuate inequality. The study concludes that institutional reforms are needed to decentralize power, enhance transparency, and integrate marginalized voices into land governance to realize equitable and sustainable urban development in Addis Ababa. This research contributes to a broader understanding of the challenges facing urban land management in neo-patrimonial contexts. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Urban land Lease Policy, Neo-patrimonialism, Land Ownership, Equity, Ethiopia/Addis Ababa Corresponding Author(s) Moges Amare ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Moges Amare Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Copyright: © 2026 Amare M et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Amare M, Abeje W, Mengistu F and Mamo D. Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.169813.2 ) First published: 23 Sep 2025, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.169813.1 ) Latest published: 20 Jan 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.169813.2 ) Revised Amendments from Version 1 We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to the reviewers for their invaluable and informative comments. We have employed this as a guide for substantial revision. With regard to the major comments, we have substantially reorganized the article to enhance clarity and empirical contribution. The introduction has been clearly revised to define the problem and question. We have added a theoretical framework to provide a deeper reason for examining neo-patrimonial political economy within state controlled leasehold system, strengthened by a comparative analysis. We have rewritten the methodological part to include a visual analytical framework diagram, a clear Informant interview protocol, and a sampling rationale, all of which improve transparency and rigor. We provide the findings with disaggregated analysis and thematically, and the discussion integrates findings with theoretical knowledge. We have also addressed all minor editorial issues, such as terminology, and rewritten the conclusion to point out the arguments and design policy implications rather than restating the results. We hope these comprehensive revisions have reinforced the article’s framing, methodological rigor, and analytical depth. We are grateful for the chance to resubmit it for the journal’s consideration. We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to the reviewers for their invaluable and informative comments. We have employed this as a guide for substantial revision. With regard to the major comments, we have substantially reorganized the article to enhance clarity and empirical contribution. The introduction has been clearly revised to define the problem and question. We have added a theoretical framework to provide a deeper reason for examining neo-patrimonial political economy within state controlled leasehold system, strengthened by a comparative analysis. We have rewritten the methodological part to include a visual analytical framework diagram, a clear Informant interview protocol, and a sampling rationale, all of which improve transparency and rigor. We provide the findings with disaggregated analysis and thematically, and the discussion integrates findings with theoretical knowledge. We have also addressed all minor editorial issues, such as terminology, and rewritten the conclusion to point out the arguments and design policy implications rather than restating the results. We hope these comprehensive revisions have reinforced the article’s framing, methodological rigor, and analytical depth. We are grateful for the chance to resubmit it for the journal’s consideration. See the authors' detailed response to the review by Fernando Puente-Sotomayor See the authors' detailed response to the review by Vanya Georgieva READ REVIEWER RESPONSES 1. Introduction Urban existence and its sustainable progress heavily depend on land, a scarce resource essential for virtually all urban functions ( Home, 2021 ; OECD, 2017 ). It is a vital resource comprising political, social, economic, and environmental dimensions, not only a physical space. Access to urban land and its governance are persistently controversial issues, often causing and fueling inequalities among urban residents, as manifested in economic and political conditions ( Gemeda et al., 2021 ; Zhang & Kockelman, 2015 ). History confirms land as a source of power and liberty functionality ( Aalbers & Haila, 2018 ; Foster & Warren, 2021 ), and political forces (patronage) wreak havoc on land governance of developing countries nowadays, prioritizing political gain over societal welfare ( Bryan et al., 2020 ; Milonakis & Fine, 2009 ). The distortion power of politics on urban land usage is even more severe in post-colonial countries, where political loyalty and clientelism become rife and deep-rooted, paralyzing the formal system’s function. Any form of land, urban or rural, belongs to the state in Ethiopia as stipulated in the federal constitution of Ethiopia ( FDRE 1995 , art. 40[3]). People only have usufruct rights through a leasehold mechanism, which is the dominant mode of urban land use accession. Such a system is designed mainly to balance public and market interests, to limit land contraction in a few hands and market speculation ( Teshome-Chala, 2016 ; Burroughs, 1966 ). However, the neo-patrimonial political structure embedded in the land system doesn’t support the realization of the objectives of public land ownership, undermines the legal merit system, widens discretionary decision-making in urban land, and people with political connections or loyalty will have a prior advantage over those without networks ( von Soest, 2021 ; Trantidis, 2016 ). This means that land serves as a political tool for power consolidation, rewarding supporters, and disregarding individuals not within the network radar, specifically the urban poor ( Bonga, 2021 ; Gray & Whitfield, 2014 ). Neo-patrimony amplifies discretionary political power, and the patron-client relationship becomes part of daily life in urban land management. Despite a plethora of studies on Ethiopian and African countries’ urban land policy ( Beza, 2021 ; Davies, 2008 ; Rithmire, 2013 ), which focus on mixed tenure systems or post-colonial land legacies, the empirical works fail to link their urban land policy inquiries to neo-patrimony, particularly how it operates in the urban land lease. Works in Ethiopia are similar (Adelegne Aytenew et al., 2025 ; Koroso, 2023 ); they examine urban land lease implementation, its challenges, and associated corruption, but the unique interaction among state land ownership, leasehold policy, and the neo-patrimonial dynamics is often less explored, specifically in Addis Ababa, capital of Ethiopia and the African Union, a rapidly urbanizing city where decision-making centralization and land scarcity skyrocketed. The analysis in this study emphasizes leasehold rather than freehold systems because of two fundamental reasons. Recent developments in the literature on urban land governance and the land ownership structure in Ethiopia. First, recent development in the literature regarding neo-patrimonial approaches to the urban land governance, especially in developing countries is a factor ( Marks & Baird, 2025 ; von Soest, 2021 ; Trantidis, 2016 ). Because land use rights are granted by the state to individuals, patrimonial politics results in the distribution of land use rights among those who conform to the political goals of the ruling elite. The neo patrimonial political structure influences land lease systems because the patrimonial network maintains power through mechanisms such as clientelism, undermining residents’ participation in urban governance and blocking real urban transformation ( Aytenew et al., 2025 ; Erdmann & Engel, 2007 ). In contrast, proponents of public ownership argue that central control ensures fair distribution, prevents speculative land grabbing, and promotes long-term urban planning and development ( Burroughs, 1966 ; Kivell & McKay, 1988 ). Second, land is considered state property under Ethiopian law, including Article 41 of the Constitution ( Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) Constitution, 1995 ). Land ownership is preserved as a right of the Ethiopian state. State ownership of land means that land ownership in this context is primarily carried out through a lease or rental system. Unless the land is privately owned, a freehold system cannot be alternative means to land ownership. The Ethiopian case is unique because state ownership of land exposes access to land use rights to patrimonial practices. In contrast, freehold systems ownership to land is guided by the market mechanism. To control development and generate income, most cities use leasing systems (such as in Ethiopia), where the state retains ownership of the land and grants long-term use rights for a fee rather than purchasing it completely free of charge. But freeholds or private ownerships provide maximum rights but are not typical in urban environments where the land belongs to the state. Given this backdrop, the current paper aims to examine the complex interplay between urban land lease policy, state ownership, and neo-patrimonial practices in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia by addressing the following research questions. • How state ownership of land exacerbates neo-patrimonial dynamics against the fundamental objective of Ethiopia’s urban land lease policy, which aims for equitable development? • Why neo patrimonial political practice leads to distorted land resource allocation and limited access for marginalized communities? The remainder of this article is organized as follows: Section two describes related literature review on urban land lease policy, state land ownership, and patrimonial governance, with a focus on Ethiopian urban land history and policy trajectory. Part three outlines the methodological approach. Section four comprises presentation and discussion. Finally, part five concludes with implications for policy and institutional change. 2. Literature review This section reviews three strands of related literature vital for grasping the Ethiopian urban land policy: (1) the theoretical and comparative dynamics of land policy, leasehold and freehold, (2) the concept of neo-patrimonialism in political economy, and (3) the Ethiopian historical development of land policy. By situating the leasehold state-owned system in Ethiopia within the global theoretical debate, the analysis elaborates how urban land institutions can be undermined by patrimonial logics to generate an unequal urban land allocation. 2.1 Leasehold and freehold: Comparative perspective Urban land systems have potential for shaping urban development aspects. Land tenure can be viewed as the set of laws that describe how people access, utilize, and transfer urban land. Land can be freehold (private ownership), leasehold (state ownership but temporary use rights given), or a combination of the two ( Peterson, 2006 ; Slangen & Polman, 2008 ). The division between these implies a political philosophy about the state, market, and social justice, not merely a technical matter. The freehold land system, common in the United Kingdom and the United States, is essential for fostering tenure security, rewarding investment (private), and facilitating market-based land allocation ( Krutilla et al., 1983 ). However, under conditions of weak governance, it can lead to land concentration, speculation, and uprooting of polarized urban residents, which occurs in some parts of Latin America ( Smolka, 2013 ). The UK’s experience is a good example of this. The high level of privatization shrinks social housing stock and exacerbates long-term spatial inequality ( Wolfe & Muller, 2018 ). On the other hand, states employ a leasehold approach to control land allocation and steer urban progress, for the common good of the urban community. The Dutch and Swedish experience can illustrate this. In both cases, land leases are deployed to capture land value for public reinvestment and conduct coordinated urban planning ( Meijer & Jonkman, 2020 ; Needham, 1997, 2016 ; Van Oosten et al., 2018 ). These countries possess strong institutions, with a good culture of the rule of law, and enforce the leasehold system rightfully, thereby driving equity, affordability, and enduring urban progress. The comparative analysis helps gain insight. The role of the state (politics) matters a lot in whether the leasehold system achieves its promises of utilizing urban land in an equitable manner for common gain. Quality institutions, with transparent, accountable, and rule of law, a leasehold regime functions well ( Ryan-Collins et al., 2017 ), but in a governance system dominated by patrimonial order, leaseholds fail to achieve their positives, rather become a political tool for power consolidation and governed by elite interest ( Aytenew et al., 2025 ; Goodfellow, 2017 ; Koroso, 2023 ). This is the dilemma Ethiopia faces today, and the paper aims to explore this. 2.2 Neo-patrimonial Governance and urban Land policy Neo-patrimony is a broader concept that primarily combines two sets of rules: formal bureaucratic and informal patronage rules ( Bach & Gazibo, 2012 ; Booth & Golooba-Mutebi, 2012 ; Kelsall, 2011 ). Personalistic authority guides resource allocation, including state domain urban land, and resource distribution doesn’t align with merit or policy; mainly, political network directs the rule, and urban land serves as an instrument to gain political loyalty and strengthen regime power ( Bonga, 2021 ; von Soest, 2021 ). Clients adhere to ideology to gain something in return, including benefits arising from urban land. The concept of neo-patrimonialism emerged from the explanations of Max Weber ( Becker & Vasileva, 2017 ; Herrmann, 2010 ; Njoku, 2020 ). This is the case where rulers distribute public resources as private property for those loyal to their regime. The phrase “neo” signifies the presence of formal and informal institutions in a mixed manner. Public offices and state resources are not used for the welfare of society, but rather for private and allies’ economic gain through the mechanisms of clientelism, corruption, and rent allocation, even if modern bureaucratic laws and organizational structures exist nominally. Rent produced and distributed through the lines of political office, such as land allocation, licenses, and contracts, often take official support access as the primary path to wealth and economic gain, in which the market and the formal system remain weak and ineffective ( Kelsall, 2011 , p. 11; Lodge, 2014 ; Njoku, 2020 , p. 202; Richter & Steiner, 2008 ; Vidal, 2018 ). This approach misuses public assets, hinders societal wellbeing, and leads to poverty. Urban land has increasingly become a vital asset within the environment of a patrimonial governance system, as its scarcity, high value, and capital-hoarding role make it a crucial currency for exchange between clients and patrons (office holders) ( Gray & Whitfield, 2014 ). Patrimonial networks often distort urban land allocation efforts into “rent competition arenas”, people can chiefly access it through affiliations, political ethnic, or bribes, rather than actual needs or criteria ( Benditt, 2015 ; Gbaguidi, 2022 ; Goodfellow, 2017 ; Ndi et al., 2021 ). Such a governance system strengthens the cycle continuously; officials utilize urban land to consolidate political power, which in turn strengthens political power over organizations mandated to administer urban land. The leasehold system, where the state owns urban land, is particularly prone to patrimonial exploitation. Leasehold centralizes decision-making power in the hands of officials, unlike freehold, where private ownership exists, and private property is legally protected. In the patrimonial system, officials are gatekeepers for pricing, renewing, and revoking land lease rights. This concentration of power offers opportunities for discretionary, opaque, and promotes affiliated decision-making ( Fukuyama, 2013 ). This theoretical connection exists in nascent form in the academic literature on African urban politics, specifically in the leasehold context ( Beza, 2021 ; Davies, 2008 ). This requires robust empirical work in the specific context of Ethiopian cities, such as Addis Ababa. Apparently, the literature offers a conceptual bridge on how neo-patrimony and urban land lease relate. That is, land is the primary resource politicians use to control their rents; activities such as allocation, leasing, and land redevelopment are areas where patronage converts political action into economic return. 2.3 Historical evolution of land tenure in Ethiopia: The roots of state-centric control The past has a huge legacy on the contemporary Ethiopian urban land governance, as privatization and nationalization occurred at different points in time, and centralized governance dominates the administration ( Yusuf et al., 2009 ; Gebremichael, 2017 ; Teshome-Chala, 2016 ). The governance of land across different times and regimes in Ethiopia has shown no progress, with land being employed as a political instrument, and is less likely to benefit the larger community. Officials, elites, and brokers gain disproportionate rewards from the land, particularly urban land. This section reviews land policy in Ethiopia at various periods: Imperial regimes (Pre-1974), Derg, and post-1991. 2.3.1 Imperial regimes (Pre-1974) Emperor Menelik II (Ruled from 1889-1913) was the first ruler in Ethiopia to formulate a legal framework for land governance, the ‘1907 Land Decree’, which privatized urban land in Addis Ababa, and buying and selling land was possible in the market ( Munro-Hay & Pankhurst, 1995 ). However, in practice, nobles and loyalists were the main actors and beneficiaries. If needed, one’s land can be taken by officials with due or less satisfactory compensation ( Gebremichael, 2017 ). Emperor Haile Selassie I succeeded Emperor Menelik II. The emperor codified private land ownership through the 1960s civil code, yet land had been at the heart of politics, and the landlord-tenant relationship was in operation. Students, residents, and other segments of society revolted against the king, demanding “land to the tiller” ( Gebremichael, 2017 ; Hafte Gabrihet & Pillay, 2021 ). Thus, land didn’t escape from being an instrument of politics and patronage. Officials and other affiliates could take a large tract of land for political allegiance. 2.3.2 Post-1974 Derg came to power in 1974, toppling Emperor Haile Selassie I, and lost the throne in 1991 via rebel forces led by EPRDF (Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front). Derg, a military group, adopted Marxist ideology, eradicated private ownership through Proclamation No. 47/1975, and nationalized all land, urban or rural ( Bonsa, 2012 ; Teshome-Chala, 2016 ). The regime abolished the landlord- tenant structure and distributed land for each farmer household and answered ‘land to the tiller’ questions. Though the regime eradicated the feudal system, land remains under tight and monopolized state control, absolutely prohibiting land transactions and hindering efficient land use and investment. After coming to power in 1991, EPRDF introduced a federal ethnic structure as a governance model, kept land under state domain (Lease Proclamation No.80/1993; Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia [FDRE] constitution under its art.40/3/, which was out of the expectation of domestic scholars and the international community. The expectation originated from the fact that the new regime ideologically adopted a free market economy and introduced a market-based urban land lease system, as revealed in the lease proclamation as aforementioned ( Lavers, 2018 ). This situation facilitates land to operate under a lease system, state ownership, and neo-patrimonial land governance. The protests against Addis Ababa’s master plan, 2014-2016, were a good example of the land‘s continued political influence ( Gebremichael, 2017 ; Hafte Gabrihet & Pillay, 2021 ; Teshome-Chala, 2016 ). The historical urban land review consistently shows that land has often been and is an instrument of political consolidation in Ethiopia ( Davies, 2008 ; Gebremichael, 2017 ; Koroso et al., 2020 ). The lease policy operating aims to balance state control of land with market operation ( Aytenew et al., 2025 ; Weldesilassie & Berihu Assefa, 2017 ). The empirical works in the literature, however, have not sufficiently and clearly analyzed how the neo-patrimonial political institution affects the urban land lease institution. The system’s patterns of inclusion and exclusion in Addis Ababa ought to be better explored. Comparative literature depicts divergent outcomes in varied tenure systems. In Hong Kong, Singapore, and Canberra, leasehold is predominantly public, supporting effective urban planning, generating revenue, financing public infrastructure, and leading to sustainable urban development that ensures equitable access for the urban community ( Chi-man Hui, 2004 ; Giglio et al., 2015 ). Furthermore, the state lease systems in countries such as the Netherlands and Sweden ensure affordable housing supply and curb speculative gains ( Caesar, 2016 ; Hamersma et al., 2017 ; Mandell, 2002 ). The systems introduced indexed rents and social inclusion conditions to promote public welfare over private gain. In Latin America and Africa, however, freehold has not functioned in a manner that improves the welfare of urban society. The freehold system fuels inequality and increased concentration of land in a few hands ( Aiyede & Afeaye, 2018 ; Bach, 2022 ; Kelsall, 2011 ). The poor are forced to find informal solutions that are less reliable and secure. The UK has a blended leasehold system, but freeholders escalate ground rent extraction and reinforce wealth inequality ( Andrew & Culley, 2023 ; Bright et al., 2026 ; Ward & Brill, 2024 ). This implies that leasehold arrangements expand inequality in the absence of strong, accountable, and transparent land administration. In developed countries, freehold and leasehold supported by the rule of law function well, are more predictable, have better contract enforcement, and minimal discretionary power over land allocation ( Di Matteo, 2021 ; Turner, 2017 ). Public leasehold is a technical matter, not serve as a mechanism for patronage ( Agheyisi, 2021 ; Wagah et al., 2017 ; Payne, 2001 ). Whereas in developing countries, either state becomes a radical title holder, or dual (statutory and customary) regimes are common in countries like Ghana, Uganda, and Nigeria. In contrast, the poor institutional setups, fragmented records, and high and wide discretionary decision-making power create suitable conditions for the proliferation of neo-patrimonial bargains over urban land ( Chimhowu, 2019 ; Sumbo, 2022 ; Turner, 2022 ). In many African and Asian cities, both formal leasehold and “neo-customary” systems generate tenure insecurities. Leaseholders may be unsure whether the lease terms can be renewed. Pre-urban residents lose usufruct rights when chiefs capitalized land, in African countries ( Agheyisi, 2021 ; Banerjee, 2022 ; Payne, 2001 ). The tenure insecurities selectively operate in favor of politically connected groups or individuals. 3. Methods and materials The paper employs a qualitative strategy to investigate the influence of neo-patrimonial political economy on urban land lease policy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Three data sources (land lease policy analysis, literature analysis, and semi-structured key informant interviews) are used to make the analysis rigorous and balanced. The triangulation involves policymakers and land experts from policy perspectives, a conceptual framework design based on literature, and practical experience from key informant interviews. 3.1 Research framework The article integrates data sources (policy analysis, literature review, and interviews) through an iterative back-and-forth approach to avoid rigidity, refine insights, and increase the reliability of analysis. The literature review establishes the conceptual foundation by framing neo-patrimonial order as a blend of formal and informal patronage (discretionary decision-making, clientelism) that adversely affects urban land allocation in contexts like Africa. This perspective informs lease policy analysis, which explores the 1995 Ethiopian constitution, land lease proclamations No. 80/1993, 271/2002, and 721/2011, to examine mandates given to the political elites, mayor, cabinet, and city councils. Key informant interviews generated from diverse resources, including policymakers, lease experts, civil society, mainly academic, put policy and literature ideas to the test of real-world practice. The results from the interviews are compared to the lease policy provisions to demonstrate where the legal loophole exists, distorting implementation, and then continue reassessing it against the theoretical framework. See the visual framework in Figure 1 below. Figure 1. Framework for integration of data sources. 3.2 Sources and procedures 3.2.1 Policy document analysis This involves analysis of the contemporary national constitution, including provision 40[3], land lease proclamations, the first Proclamation No. 80/1993, amended proclamation No. 271/2002, and the current No. 721/2011. The thematic analysis focuses on three linked perspectives: 1. Discursive design: investigates how the policy or legal regime constructs concepts such as equity, public interest, sustainable development, speculation reduction, and whether this ensures transparent and merit-based distribution. 2. Power mapping: identification of legal provisions that provide wider power to political elites, such as the mayor and cabinet. Articles 5/4/, 8/1/, and 18 of the current proclamation (721/2011) allow these elites to issue regulations, directives, define strategic projects, determine initial lease prices, and grant land without competition for specific issues, which they level as publicly significant projects or development initiatives. 3. Gap analysis: This mainly indicates missing provisions that should be included. To illustrate the absence of rectifying mechanisms for ethnic or political discrimination, affordable access for the low-income urban residents, and contrast these with accountability and rule of law from the literature. 3.2.2 Literature review structure The literature review aims to establish an analytical framework on three themes: theories of patrimonialism, including clientelism and rent-seeking, and to generate a comparative analysis focusing on leasehold and freehold approaches, and finally, analyzing historical and present Ethiopian political economy and land tenure. 3.2.3 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) Key actors approached through a purposive mechanism approached their offices and used snowball sampling. The purpose of the study was elaborated, secure anonymity and agreement orally. The participants of the interview were categorized into three groups: Group A includes officials, Addis Ababa Land Development and Administration Office (4), and two (2) from the Ministry of Urban Development and Infrastructure. The second group (B) comprises six (6) urban land experts, urban planners (4) urban planners from the city administration, and two (2) from the private sector consultants. The third consists of civil society (C), the Ethiopian Economic Association/Academia/, and five (5) researchers. Protocol: each interview took 45-75 minutes, depending on the circumstance and note taken. Interview guidelines were organized around the research questions sought to answer. These include: State land ownership and its objectives (prompts one) : how does state ownership of urban land influence the management of urban land lease? Does this facilitate or hinder the realization of equitable development stated in the policy? Second prompt, Discretion and decision-making power : Can you explain the entire process of lease allocation? In the lease proclamation, where do you see room for wide or arbitrary interpretation? Who are the key decision-makers in the lease process? Equity and Access (guide 3): In your experience, what factors influence accessing land lease rights? How are strategic or community need projects actually defined? Informal practice (prompt 4): What irregular norms or relationships shape how urban land lease functions beyond the formal system? Follow-up questions for probing, such as Do you have specific details? or How do you compare it to the formal procedure? Were used to elicit more narrative. 3.3 Data analysis The study employed a hybrid thematic analysis, deductive (theory) and inductive (data-driven) coding. The steps involved include: familiarization and initial coding of interviews, literature, and policy documents. It involves theme development themes, which entails categorization into candidate themes. The synthesis process incorporates evidence from the three resources, organized around three themes as shown in Table 1 . Table 1. Analytical integration of triangulated data sources. Theme Policy Theoretical lens Quotes Linked Interpretation 1. State Ownership Fuels Patrimonial Networks Art. 40(3): Land is “the common property of the Nations … and shall not be subject to sale.” Centralizes control as a state monopoly. Neo-patrimonial theory posits state monopolies over valuable resources are primary sites for rent distribution and loyalty building ( von Soest, 2021 ). Official (A2): “The state is the sole supplier. This means every request is a favor processed through the system, not a right.” CSO (C1): “Ownership isn’t with ‘the people’ but with the state apparatus, which is controlled by the ruling party. Land is the party’s biggest currency.” Official (A5): “State ownership ensures coordinated development and prevents speculation, but in practice it requires strong political guidance to prioritize public needs.” Expert (B2): “The monopoly is justified for equity, yet without transparent mechanisms it inevitably creates dependencies on decision-makers.” CSO (C2): “Public ownership sounds progressive, but it has turned land into a tool for rewarding loyalty while the poor wait indefinitely.” State ownership, in the absence of strong impersonal institutions, transforms land from a public good into a political currency. The monopoly creates a monopsony of supply, making access a privilege granted through networks rather than a right, directly fueling patron-client dynamics. While some officials defend it as necessary for planning, critics highlight its role in exclusion. 2. Discretionary Power & Centralized Decision-Making Proc. 721/2011, Art. 8(1): The “City Government may grant land … for strategic investment projects.” Ambiguous criteria. Art. 5(4): Cabinet approves directives. Discretionary clauses in weak institutional settings are levers for patrimonial power, allowing formal rules to be suspended for informal favors ( Fukuyama, 2013 ). Expert (B3): “‘Strategic’ is never defined. It’s a blanket justification for any project favored by the political leadership. The technical committee’s scoring is often overruled.” Official (A4): “We follow the ‘green line’ – informal approval from higher-ups – before any paperwork begins.” Expert (B6): “Centralization is meant to align with national priorities, but the lack of clear criteria makes every exception vulnerable to influence.” Official (A1): “Discretion allows flexibility for urgent public projects; without it, bureaucracy would stall development.” CSO (C5): “What they call ‘strategic’ is often just a code for allocating prime land to connected investors.” Formal policy institutionalizes discretion at the highest political levels (Cabinet, Mayor). This creates a dual system: a formal, technical bureaucratic track and a parallel, informal political track. The latter routinely trumps the former, rendering technical and merit-based processes symbolic. Views diverge on whether discretion serves development or patronage. 3. Ethnic & Political Alignment in Access Constitution (Art. 39) emphasizes ethnic collective rights. Lease proclamations are silent on preventing ethnic bias in urban allocation, creating a legal vacuum. In ethnically federated states, patrimonial networks often organize along ethnic lines, distributing resources to co-ethnic elites to maintain regional power bases ( Erdmann & Engel, 2007 ). Expert (B5): “Your application moves faster if you have a ‘referral’ from the relevant ethnic association or party office. It is an open secret.” CSO (C3): “If you’re from a non-dominant group, you are an outsider in your own city. The lease system replicates political boundaries on the ground.” CSO (C4): “Land is treated as the territory of the politically dominant group. If your identity card and political network don’t align with officeholder elites, you become an outsider in your city.” Expert (B1): “Ethnic federalism is constitutional, but applying it to urban land without safeguards risks turning cities into ethnic enclaves.” Official (A6): “Allocations follow legal procedures; any perception of bias comes from historical settlement patterns, not policy.” The constitutional focus on ethnic federalism interacts with patrimonial logic. Urban land access becomes a tool for managing ethnic elites and constituencies. Political loyalty and ethnic kinship become de facto criteria, facilitated by informal referrals and networks that operate in the vacuum left by the formal policy’s silence on anti-discrimination. Informants reveal contrasting views: some deny systemic bias, while others see it as entrenched. 3.4 Validation Members confirmed initial results after checking, and two from each group validated interpretive accuracy. In addition, peer briefing was conducted, analysis and coding were discussed continuously with academic colleagues experienced in qualitative methods, and a detailed research log was maintained. The codebook has been archived in Zenodo ( 10.5281/zenodo.18221025 ) to ensure transparency and replicability. 4. Results and discussion 4.1 State Ownership Fuels Patrimonial Networks Informant interviewees have different views on the state domain of urban land, and stark conflict exists. Authorities explain that state ownership of land is desirable for balanced development and helps minimize speculative control, with one official stating that state control of land “ensures coordinated development and prevents speculation, but in practice it requires strong political guidance to prioritize public interests. Another authority recognizes access as a “favor processed through the system, not a right. On the other hand, civil society representatives and land experts perceive the state monopoly of land as a facilitating to exclusionary practices, with one civil society or academia informant claiming that “ownership is not with ‘the people’ but with the state apparatus, which is controlled by the ruling regime”, and a land expert warning that “the monopoly is justified for equity, yet without transparent approaches it inevitably creates dependencies on decision makers”. Another civil society underlines the transformative effect: “Public ownership sounds progressive, but it has turned urban land into a tool for rewarding loyalty while the urban poor wait indefinately”. This diverse view depicts how state ownership of land, aimed for public interest protection, functions in reality as a “gateway” to patronage allocation. Land lease policy analysis strengthens the insights through Article 40 [3] of the Ethiopian constitution ( FDRE Constitution, 1995 ), which endows all land ownership rights in the state and “the people of Ethiopia” that prohibit sale or exchange, reinforcing complete control that confirms with interviewees’ definition of land access as “privilege” rather than a right. The lease policy frameworks, such as 80/1993, 271/2002, 721/2011, maintain the constitutional framework without the formulation of an unbiased, rule-based, and impartial urban land allocation system. The state uses ownership as a tool to strengthen political power and patron-client network; only those within the network of the political system get rewards from the lease regime. The theoretical frameworks, von Soest (2021) , Kantor (2019) , ( Koroso, 2023 ), Njoku (2020) , and Kelsall (2011) conceptualizes state control of limited resources, such as land, as a means for the distribution of rent and establishing a loyal network in a neo-patrimonial milieu. The Ethiopian land lease policy case highlights this contradiction: while use of urban land for public welfare provides a rationale for the state domain, lack of rational, impersonal institutions allows the monopoly to serve as political currency, shifting the constitutional framework into an enabler of clientelism and patronage. This interplay marks how state-centric systems can inadvertently fuel a patrimonial political order rather than limiting these patrimonial challenges to promote the common good. 4.2 Discretionary power & Centralized decision-making Interviewees consistently confirm the presence of a blended governance structure in land allocation. An authority reveals the informal mechanism by explaining, “We follow the ‘green line’, informal approval from top hierarchies, before paperwork begins, while a land expert explains how “‘strategic’ projects are never defined” and employed as “a cover justification for any development project favored by the political hierarchies’, technical aspects virtually ignored. Divergent perceptions come out on the concept of discretionary decision-making: an official reasoned it as crucial, elaborating that “discretion allows flexibility for urgent public projects; neglecting it, the formal system would hinder development,” whereas a land expert cautions that “centralization is meant to align with national priorities, but lack of clear criteria makes every exception vulnerable to influence.” A Civil Society interviewee critiques this uncertainty clearly: “What they call ‘strategic’ is often just a code for allocating prime land to connected investors.” These explanations highlight that the formal system is not operating well, is symbolic, and is plagued by patronage linkages. The policy analysis complies with this through Proclamation 721/2011, Article 8[1], which allows grants for unclear “strategic development projects that have high public significance,” and Article 5[4] gives the power of directive approval for the cabinet, institutionalizing uncertainty and political control at the top hierarchies. The presence of these specific clauses portrays intentional design that emphasized informality over formal and clear, rule-based operations ( Aiyede & Afeaye, 2018 ). The theoretical setting, Fukuyama (2013) , Aiyede & Afeaye (2018) , and Bach (2022) assert that discretionary decision-making power in less developed countries is used as an instrument for patrimonial decision-making, formal operations dominated by an informal institutional setup that function in diverse form of favor and bias. The empirical evidence shows how technical lease policy frameworks create a complex rational-legal facade that insulates a dominant patrimonial institution. This “patrimonial recapture” of bureaucratic shifts demonstrates the hybrid form of the neo-patrimonial political economy. The formal institutions provide fertile ground for informal domination rather than reducing their influence on the formal system. 4.3 Ethnic & Political alignment in access Ethnic and political affiliations have a greater influence on determining urban land distribution, as the informant participants reveal. An expert describes, “Your application moves faster if you have a ‘referral’ from a certain relevant ethnic group or party office. It is an open secret. “Civil Society informants articulate exclusion vividly, with one describing, “if you are from a non-dominant group, you are an outsider in your city,” and another stating that “land is treated as the asset of the politically dominant group. If your identity card and political network do not match those of the officeholder elites, you become an outsider.” A systematic perspective emerges as well: a land expert acknowledges a constitutional aim but warns that “ethnic federalism is constitutional, but applying it to urban land without care risks shifting cities into ethnic enclaves,” while an authority keeps that “allocation follows legal procedures; any perception of impartiality stems from the historical settlement patterns, not policy.” These empirical results highlight systemic bias in the application of the legal framework. The lease policy analysis demonstrates a critical gap: while Article 39 of the FDRE constitution focuses on collective ethnic rights, urban land policy remains silent on how to minimize discriminatory allocation, facilitating ethnic-political connections to grow unchecked. The cabinet’s mandate to define which are “strategic projects” and which are not exacerbates the patrimonial network and benefits elites disproportionately, not the poor. Erdmann and Engel (2007) , Bonga (2021) , Lodge (2014) , and Giraudy et al. (2020) theoretically note that in ethnic federal states, neo-patrimonial links often grow along ethnic spheres to gain rewards from elite decisions. The empirical work of this paper extends this claim by highlighting how the ethnic federal constitution interacts with urban land shortage to replicate ethnic boundaries spatially. This mix generates a unique neo-patrimonial order wherein formal ethnic line rights legitimize informal allocation cultures that might otherwise lack legal cover, depicting the adaptive nature of patronage logics within a mixed institutional structure. 5. Revised conclusion (Coherent with integrated findings) This article explores the complex relationships between urban lease policy conditions and neo-patrimonial practices in Addis Ababa. Through integration of urban land lease policy analysis, theoretical review, and empirical informant interviews, the study enables us to understand that the neo-patrimonial system is not only problematic but also how it distorts the goals of the lease system. The formal state land ownership and lease policy is subverted by the patrimonial logic or culture embedded in urban land governance. The main conclusion, therefore, is that the leasehold regime, designed to reduce market speculation, ensure equity, and foster sustainable urban development, has been severely captured and undermined by the prevailing neo-patrimonial politics. State land control does not diminish the negative effects of politics; rather, it facilitates scarce state resources, such as urban land, to be concentrated in the hands of cadres and other politically connected individuals, groups, or investors, and employs scarce resources for establishing patronage and power consolidation to maintain the political status quo. The formal structure of clauses, such as strategic projects that the cabinet or mayor believes have high public value, and the highly centralized governance, fuel the political patronage, and politicians gain discretionary decision-making power to allocate resources arbitrarily. The integration of the diverse resources depicts: 1. The urban lease policy provisions themselves render discretionary power, City Manager/cabinet control of major lease decisions in the city. 2. The literature review highlights why discretionary power is exploited under a poor institutional set-up for rent-seeking and political loyalty. 3. While the informant interview results clarify how the exploitation of the patrimonial system occurs in daily practices through political and ethnic affiliations, ignoring merit and technical efficiency. Therefore, this tells us that the problems of neo-patrimony extend beyond the corrupt or weak implementation of the lease policy. The policy itself is suitable and a facilitator of neo-patrimonial political orientation. This would finally severely harm the urban community, particularly the poor, from accessing urban land through formal mechanisms, except for resorting to the informal option. ○ Implication for reform : A meaningful reform that moves beyond short-term and technical solutions to the lease policy challenges. It must tackle the political-institutional roots. These could range: ○ Genuine decentralization : empowering districts, sub-city administration structures, including the local people, to reduce top leadership dominance in lease decision-making. ○ Clear lease legislation : avoid ambiguous terms that open room to wide discretionary power, such as concepts of strategic projects, grants by the cabinet or the Mayor’s decision without competition, and replace these with clear, objective criteria that tie public benefits and also enable the public to control the process. ○ Institutional firewalls/control : Create a strong, autonomous, well-resourced public body to audit and penalize wrongdoers for misuse of lease allocation connected with politics and ethnic affiliation. ○ Transparency : Sharing all lease agreements publicly must be obligatory using digital tools, disclosing winner details, justifications for deviations from the formal standard setup, if any. The reforms should not aim to eliminate state land ownership but to insulate the land governance system from patrimonial peril by designing impersonal, merit-based institutions that don’t change with officials’ desires, who aim to make public resources their personal assets. Ethical approval statement On November 1, 2024, the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the College of Development Studies, Addis Ababa University, granted ethical clearance for this study (Reference No. 092/11/2024). The approval was issued after the IRB reviewed and confirmed that the research complies with the University’s academic standards, including the study design, data collection instruments, content, and the process of obtaining informed consent from participants. The authors also confirm that this study was performed in accordance with the principles stated in the “Declaration of Helsinki”. Data availability Data is available at zenodo repository, Zenodo ( 10.5281/zenodo.18221025 ) ( Amare, 2025 ). 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Reference Source Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 2 VERSION 2 PUBLISHED 23 Sep 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Geography and Environmental Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia 2 Rural, Regional and Local Development Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia 3 Rural, Regional and Local Development Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia 4 Accounting and Finance, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia Moges Amare Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Wondimu Abeje Roles: Supervision Frew Mengistu Roles: Supervision Dejene Mamo Roles: Supervision Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Article Versions (2) version 2 Revised Published: 20 Jan 2026, 14:970 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.169813.2 version 1 Published: 23 Sep 2025, 14:970 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.169813.1 Copyright © 2026 Amare M et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Amare M, Abeje W, Mengistu F and Mamo D. Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.169813.2 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 2 VERSION 2 PUBLISHED 20 Jan 2026 Revised Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Georgieva V. Reviewer Report For: Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.195238.r451763 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-970/v2#referee-response-451763 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 02 Feb 2026 Vanya Georgieva , Agricultural University, Plovdiv, Bulgaria Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.195238.r451763 The authors have responded in a very thorough and systematic manner to the comments on the previous version of the manuscript. The methodology has been completely revised, a clear conceptual framework and a comparative element have been added, and the ... Continue reading READ ALL The authors have responded in a very thorough and systematic manner to the comments on the previous version of the manuscript. The methodology has been completely revised, a clear conceptual framework and a comparative element have been added, and the results are now presented with greater analytical depth and a stronger linkage between theory, policy and empirical evidence. In its current form, the manuscript meets the academic standards for a scholarly publication. I recommend that the article be accepted subject to the incorporation of a few minor but useful improvements: The term “third world” should be replaced with “Global South” . A short paragraph discussing the limitations of the study should be added, for example regarding the qualitative nature of the data, the size and composition of the sample, and contextual specificity. A brief discussion of the political feasibility of the proposed institutional reforms in the Ethiopian context would strengthen the concluding section. I congratulate the authors on the serious and substantive revision of the manuscript. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Agriculture; Financial sustainability; Tax policy; Environmental investments; Carbon footprint; Waste management; Economic and environmental interrelationships. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Georgieva V. Reviewer Report For: Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.195238.r451763 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-970/v2#referee-response-451763 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 23 Sep 2025 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Georgieva V. Reviewer Report For: Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.187190.r433512 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-970/v1#referee-response-433512 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 02 Jan 2026 Vanya Georgieva , Agricultural University, Plovdiv, Bulgaria Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.187190.r433512 Review The article examines how the urban land leasing system works in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and how it is influenced by neo-patrimonial practices in governance. Although the official land leasing policy aims for equitable development, in reality state ownership ... Continue reading READ ALL Review The article examines how the urban land leasing system works in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and how it is influenced by neo-patrimonial practices in governance. Although the official land leasing policy aims for equitable development, in reality state ownership of land leads to distortions - access to land depends on political connections and ethnicity rather than transparent rules. The authors conducted interviews with 17 people - officials, experts and civil society representatives. They also analysed the main land leasing law (Proclamation 721/2011), as well as the history of land use in Ethiopia from imperial times to the present day. The results show three main problems: first, that state ownership gives excessive power to officials (88% of respondents); second, that the leasing system concentrates decisions at the top, excluding experts and communities (82%); and third, that ethnicity plays a role in access to land (71%). The authors conclude that whilst the policy appears fair on paper, in practice it reinforces inequalities. They propose the need for reforms - decentralisation of power, greater transparency and inclusion of marginalised groups in land governance. In essence - a good idea for research, but poorly executed methodologically. Detailed responses to the review questions Is the work presented clearly and accurately and does it cite contemporary literature? Partially Contemporary literature is used, but a comparative perspective is lacking. There is no discussion of how the leasing system works in other countries and whether there are similar problems. The introduction mixes theoretical, contextual and methodological elements, which makes it difficult to follow the main research problem. Sections 2.2.1-2.2.3 (pages 4-5) provide an extensive history of Ethiopian land policy from Menelik II to the present. This is informative, but is too lengthy for a literature review. Some claims in the literature review are not supported by citations. For example on page 3: "Misuse of scarce public resources like urban land has become ubiquitous in third world countries, particularly in Africa" - this is a strong claim that needs solid support. Is the research design appropriate and does the work have academic value? No The methodology section is underdeveloped and confusing. Three approaches are described - interviews, policy analysis and literature review, but the overall analytical logic is not outlined. I recommend creating a new subsection (3.1) called "Research Framework" or "Conceptual Framework", which visually shows how the three methods relate to the research question. A diagram or scheme could be used. Seventeen interviews were conducted, but it is not clear how participants were selected. There is verbal consent, it is clear that the topic is sensitive - but how did the conversations themselves proceed, how were the questions structured, how long did the interview last? As for the analysis of Proclamation 721/2011 - the analytical approach is unclear - legal interpretation, discourse analysis, simply reading and commenting. My greatest concern is the lack of analytical connection between the three data sources - interviews, policy analysis and literature review. We have rather three parallel mini-studies, rather than an integrated analysis of urban land governance in Addis Ababa. Are sufficient details provided for the methods and analysis to allow their replication by others? No If another researcher wants to replicate this study, there is no way. Information is missing on what questions were asked, whether there were follow-up questions, how they were recorded - audio or notes. The selection criteria for interviewees are also unclear. The most serious problem is the analysis. In the Results section, three themes suddenly appear, presented through percentages (88%, 82%, 71%), but there is no information about where these numbers come from and how the thematic structure was extracted. There is no analytical process described that connects the raw interview data with the final themes. In its current form, the analysis of Proclamation 721/2011 is predominantly descriptive: articles from the law are quoted and their content is paraphrased. This is useful as context, but does not show how the policy text has been subjected to analytical investigation to reveal the mechanisms of neo-patrimonial power, i.e. a stronger analytical link between the policy documents and the empirical findings is needed. If applicable, are the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Not applicable The study is qualitative, which is perfectly fine for the topic. But the percentages in Table 1 do not look good given the small number of respondents. It is much more honest and adequate for this type of data to write "15 of 17", "14 of 17" and so on. Moreover, the table itself is so simplified that it almost loses meaning. In qualitative research it should show nuances - different viewpoints, hesitations, contradictions. Hardly all 15 people said the same thing about state ownership in the same way. It would be good for these differences to be visible, rather than being "crushed" down to a single percentage. Are all the source data upon which the results are based available to ensure full reproducibility? Partially A Zenodo repository is indicated (doi: 10.5281/zenodo.16939619), which is very good practice and a strong plus for the article. However, it remains unclear exactly what this resource includes - full or partial transcripts, anonymised interview excerpts, coding scheme, code dictionary, etc. It would be good to indicate in the text what type of materials have been uploaded and to what extent they allow one to trace the path from the data to the themes and conclusions. I fully understand the ethical constraints and the sensitivity of the political context, so I do not expect full transcripts to be public. But a brief clarification in the article - for example, that anonymised excerpts and a code dictionary are presented, but not full interviews, increases the sense of transparency without compromising the protection of participants. The policy documents are public - this is not a problem. The problem is in the transparency of analytical decisions. Are the conclusions made adequately supported by the results? Partially The conclusions follow from the results. The call for "structural reforms" is too general. It would be good to specify what reforms are meant - privatisation of part of urban land, stronger decentralisation, more transparent and formalised procedures, stricter accountability and control mechanisms, etc. The question also remains open as to how politically feasible such changes are in the Ethiopian context, which deserves at least brief comment. Here there is an opportunity to connect the conclusions with broader theory. Ethiopia's non-colonial history in my view deserves more attention - this is an important peculiarity compared to other African cases. The conclusion also mentions "inclusion of underrepresented groups", but does not specify who they are. General comments: The article has potential, but needs serious reworking. The methodology must be completely rewritten - not as a formal section, but as a transparent description of what has actually been done. The results would benefit from a more nuanced presentation. And the conclusions - from boldness. The topic is important and topical, especially in the context of rapid urbanisation in Africa. But to have academic value, the study must be methodologically sound and intellectually ambitious. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Not applicable Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Agriculture; Financial sustainability; Tax policy; Environmental investments; Carbon footprint; Waste management; Economic and environmental interrelationships. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Georgieva V. Reviewer Report For: Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.187190.r433512 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-970/v1#referee-response-433512 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Author Response 30 Jan 2026 Moges Amare , Geography and Environmental Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia 30 Jan 2026 Author Response Dear Professor Vanya Georgieva, We sincerely appreciate the valuable, insightful, and highly constructive comments you have provided on our manuscript. Your detailed feedback has been instrumental in identifying key areas ... Continue reading Dear Professor Vanya Georgieva, We sincerely appreciate the valuable, insightful, and highly constructive comments you have provided on our manuscript. Your detailed feedback has been instrumental in identifying key areas for improvement and will significantly enhance the overall quality of the article. We fully recognize the critical nature of your suggestions, particularly regarding the need for aggressive revision of the introduction, literature review, methods, analysis, and conclusion sections. We take these recommendations very seriously and will work diligently to address each point thoroughly in the revised version, ensuring that all concerns are met to strengthen the rigor, clarity, and contribution of the paper. Thank you for your thoughtful review. Dear Professor Vanya Georgieva, We sincerely appreciate the valuable, insightful, and highly constructive comments you have provided on our manuscript. Your detailed feedback has been instrumental in identifying key areas for improvement and will significantly enhance the overall quality of the article. We fully recognize the critical nature of your suggestions, particularly regarding the need for aggressive revision of the introduction, literature review, methods, analysis, and conclusion sections. We take these recommendations very seriously and will work diligently to address each point thoroughly in the revised version, ensuring that all concerns are met to strengthen the rigor, clarity, and contribution of the paper. Thank you for your thoughtful review. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 30 Jan 2026 Moges Amare , Geography and Environmental Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia 30 Jan 2026 Author Response Dear Professor Vanya Georgieva, We sincerely appreciate the valuable, insightful, and highly constructive comments you have provided on our manuscript. Your detailed feedback has been instrumental in identifying key areas ... Continue reading Dear Professor Vanya Georgieva, We sincerely appreciate the valuable, insightful, and highly constructive comments you have provided on our manuscript. Your detailed feedback has been instrumental in identifying key areas for improvement and will significantly enhance the overall quality of the article. We fully recognize the critical nature of your suggestions, particularly regarding the need for aggressive revision of the introduction, literature review, methods, analysis, and conclusion sections. We take these recommendations very seriously and will work diligently to address each point thoroughly in the revised version, ensuring that all concerns are met to strengthen the rigor, clarity, and contribution of the paper. Thank you for your thoughtful review. Dear Professor Vanya Georgieva, We sincerely appreciate the valuable, insightful, and highly constructive comments you have provided on our manuscript. Your detailed feedback has been instrumental in identifying key areas for improvement and will significantly enhance the overall quality of the article. We fully recognize the critical nature of your suggestions, particularly regarding the need for aggressive revision of the introduction, literature review, methods, analysis, and conclusion sections. We take these recommendations very seriously and will work diligently to address each point thoroughly in the revised version, ensuring that all concerns are met to strengthen the rigor, clarity, and contribution of the paper. Thank you for your thoughtful review. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Puente-Sotomayor F. Reviewer Report For: Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.187190.r420977 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-970/v1#referee-response-420977 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 24 Oct 2025 Fernando Puente-Sotomayor , Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.187190.r420977 Major Comments 1. Conceptual Framing and Problem Definition The article addresses a relevant and timely issue, yet the research problem is not clearly formulated. The introduction blends conceptual, contextual, and methodological aspects, which blurs the motivation of the study. ... Continue reading READ ALL Major Comments 1. Conceptual Framing and Problem Definition The article addresses a relevant and timely issue, yet the research problem is not clearly formulated. The introduction blends conceptual, contextual, and methodological aspects, which blurs the motivation of the study. The authors should explicitly identify the research gap and formulate a clear, focused research question. Furthermore, the association between neo-patrimonialism and leasehold systems requires deeper conceptual justification. It would be useful to explain why the analysis emphasizes leasehold rather than freehold systems, and how the Ethiopian case compares to other regions where land tenure systems differ. 2. Literature Review The literature review is insufficiently developed to support the article’s core hypothesis. Several affirmations lack references or appear as general statements. The reviewer suggests including comparative cases (e.g., Latin America, the UK, Sweden, or The Netherlands) to provide a balanced perspective on how leasehold and freehold systems shape urban inequalities. Some sections of the historical review could be shortened or reorganized to strengthen the analytical focus and to avoid redundancy. 3. Methodology and Data Transparency The methodological description lacks clarity. The paper would benefit from a more explicit link between the research question, data sources, and analytical procedures. Recommended improvements include: Presenting the questionnaire or guiding interview prompts used with the 17 informants. Providing a synoptic chart or diagram that connects the three main data sources (policy analysis, interviews, and literature review) with the operationalization of the research question. Explaining the sampling rationale and how representativeness or bias were addressed. The reviewer also suggests disaggregating the results by strata or interviewee type (officials, experts, CSO members). Minor Comments 4. Results and Data Presentation While the results are rich in content, their presentation is repetitive and could benefit from visual summarization. The inclusion of CAQDAS visualizations (e.g., coding diagrams, bubble charts, or thematic clusters) would make qualitative patterns more transparent. In addition, the article only presents a subset of the data. The reviewer recommends showing the full dataset, the coding workflow, and examples of actor-based or theme-based analysis. 5. Integration of Findings with Literature The discussion should better link the findings to the theoretical framework. Certain empirical insights—such as those concerning ethnic alignment and political patronage—could be discussed in light of comparative studies or previous scholarship. Contextual paragraphs that are descriptive could instead be integrated into the literature review. 6. Terminology, Style, and Editorial Remarks Replace “third world countries” with updated terminology, such as developing countries , Global South , or low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) . Correct syntax issues (e.g., “water, minerals, oil and so” → “water, minerals, oil, and so on”). Avoid redundancy between sections and clarify some reference citations. Ensure consistent numbering of tables and subheadings. 7. Conclusion The conclusion restates rather than synthesizes results. It should briefly connect the empirical findings to the theoretical debate on state-led land systems and neo-patrimonial governance, emphasizing the implications for policy reform and institutional design. Overall Assessment The manuscript makes a potentially valuable contribution to debates on urban land governance in African contexts, especially regarding the tensions between state control and neo-patrimonial practices. However, before it can be considered for publication, the article requires substantial revision in its conceptual framing, methodological articulation, and analytical rigor. Improving the integration between empirical data and theoretical insights, expanding the methodological transparency, and enhancing the clarity of presentation will significantly strengthen its scholarly contribution. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Not applicable Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Urban Centralities, Land Management, Disaster Risk Reduction I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Puente-Sotomayor F. Reviewer Report For: Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.187190.r420977 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-970/v1#referee-response-420977 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Author Response 30 Jan 2026 Moges Amare , Geography and Environmental Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia 30 Jan 2026 Author Response Dear Professor Puente-Sotomayor, We sincerely appreciate the valuable and insightful comments you have provided. Your feedback has significantly enhanced the quality of our manuscript. We find all your suggestions ... Continue reading Dear Professor Puente-Sotomayor, We sincerely appreciate the valuable and insightful comments you have provided. Your feedback has significantly enhanced the quality of our manuscript. We find all your suggestions highly relevant and will incorporate them fully into the revised version. Thank you once again for your thorough and constructive review. Dear Professor Puente-Sotomayor, We sincerely appreciate the valuable and insightful comments you have provided. Your feedback has significantly enhanced the quality of our manuscript. We find all your suggestions highly relevant and will incorporate them fully into the revised version. Thank you once again for your thorough and constructive review. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 30 Jan 2026 Moges Amare , Geography and Environmental Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia 30 Jan 2026 Author Response Dear Professor Puente-Sotomayor, We sincerely appreciate the valuable and insightful comments you have provided. Your feedback has significantly enhanced the quality of our manuscript. We find all your suggestions ... Continue reading Dear Professor Puente-Sotomayor, We sincerely appreciate the valuable and insightful comments you have provided. Your feedback has significantly enhanced the quality of our manuscript. We find all your suggestions highly relevant and will incorporate them fully into the revised version. Thank you once again for your thorough and constructive review. Dear Professor Puente-Sotomayor, We sincerely appreciate the valuable and insightful comments you have provided. Your feedback has significantly enhanced the quality of our manuscript. We find all your suggestions highly relevant and will incorporate them fully into the revised version. Thank you once again for your thorough and constructive review. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 2 VERSION 2 PUBLISHED 23 Sep 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 2 Version 2 (revision) 20 Jan 26 read Version 1 23 Sep 25 read read Fernando Puente-Sotomayor , Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador Vanya Georgieva , Agricultural University, Plovdiv, Bulgaria Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Georgieva V. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 02 Feb 2026 | for Version 2 Vanya Georgieva , Agricultural University, Plovdiv, Bulgaria 0 Views copyright © 2026 Georgieva V. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions The authors have responded in a very thorough and systematic manner to the comments on the previous version of the manuscript. The methodology has been completely revised, a clear conceptual framework and a comparative element have been added, and the results are now presented with greater analytical depth and a stronger linkage between theory, policy and empirical evidence. In its current form, the manuscript meets the academic standards for a scholarly publication. I recommend that the article be accepted subject to the incorporation of a few minor but useful improvements: The term “third world” should be replaced with “Global South” . A short paragraph discussing the limitations of the study should be added, for example regarding the qualitative nature of the data, the size and composition of the sample, and contextual specificity. A brief discussion of the political feasibility of the proposed institutional reforms in the Ethiopian context would strengthen the concluding section. I congratulate the authors on the serious and substantive revision of the manuscript. Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Agriculture; Financial sustainability; Tax policy; Environmental investments; Carbon footprint; Waste management; Economic and environmental interrelationships. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Georgieva V. Peer Review Report For: Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.195238.r451763) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-970/v2#referee-response-451763 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Georgieva V. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 02 Jan 2026 | for Version 1 Vanya Georgieva , Agricultural University, Plovdiv, Bulgaria 0 Views copyright © 2026 Georgieva V. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Review The article examines how the urban land leasing system works in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and how it is influenced by neo-patrimonial practices in governance. Although the official land leasing policy aims for equitable development, in reality state ownership of land leads to distortions - access to land depends on political connections and ethnicity rather than transparent rules. The authors conducted interviews with 17 people - officials, experts and civil society representatives. They also analysed the main land leasing law (Proclamation 721/2011), as well as the history of land use in Ethiopia from imperial times to the present day. The results show three main problems: first, that state ownership gives excessive power to officials (88% of respondents); second, that the leasing system concentrates decisions at the top, excluding experts and communities (82%); and third, that ethnicity plays a role in access to land (71%). The authors conclude that whilst the policy appears fair on paper, in practice it reinforces inequalities. They propose the need for reforms - decentralisation of power, greater transparency and inclusion of marginalised groups in land governance. In essence - a good idea for research, but poorly executed methodologically. Detailed responses to the review questions Is the work presented clearly and accurately and does it cite contemporary literature? Partially Contemporary literature is used, but a comparative perspective is lacking. There is no discussion of how the leasing system works in other countries and whether there are similar problems. The introduction mixes theoretical, contextual and methodological elements, which makes it difficult to follow the main research problem. Sections 2.2.1-2.2.3 (pages 4-5) provide an extensive history of Ethiopian land policy from Menelik II to the present. This is informative, but is too lengthy for a literature review. Some claims in the literature review are not supported by citations. For example on page 3: "Misuse of scarce public resources like urban land has become ubiquitous in third world countries, particularly in Africa" - this is a strong claim that needs solid support. Is the research design appropriate and does the work have academic value? No The methodology section is underdeveloped and confusing. Three approaches are described - interviews, policy analysis and literature review, but the overall analytical logic is not outlined. I recommend creating a new subsection (3.1) called "Research Framework" or "Conceptual Framework", which visually shows how the three methods relate to the research question. A diagram or scheme could be used. Seventeen interviews were conducted, but it is not clear how participants were selected. There is verbal consent, it is clear that the topic is sensitive - but how did the conversations themselves proceed, how were the questions structured, how long did the interview last? As for the analysis of Proclamation 721/2011 - the analytical approach is unclear - legal interpretation, discourse analysis, simply reading and commenting. My greatest concern is the lack of analytical connection between the three data sources - interviews, policy analysis and literature review. We have rather three parallel mini-studies, rather than an integrated analysis of urban land governance in Addis Ababa. Are sufficient details provided for the methods and analysis to allow their replication by others? No If another researcher wants to replicate this study, there is no way. Information is missing on what questions were asked, whether there were follow-up questions, how they were recorded - audio or notes. The selection criteria for interviewees are also unclear. The most serious problem is the analysis. In the Results section, three themes suddenly appear, presented through percentages (88%, 82%, 71%), but there is no information about where these numbers come from and how the thematic structure was extracted. There is no analytical process described that connects the raw interview data with the final themes. In its current form, the analysis of Proclamation 721/2011 is predominantly descriptive: articles from the law are quoted and their content is paraphrased. This is useful as context, but does not show how the policy text has been subjected to analytical investigation to reveal the mechanisms of neo-patrimonial power, i.e. a stronger analytical link between the policy documents and the empirical findings is needed. If applicable, are the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Not applicable The study is qualitative, which is perfectly fine for the topic. But the percentages in Table 1 do not look good given the small number of respondents. It is much more honest and adequate for this type of data to write "15 of 17", "14 of 17" and so on. Moreover, the table itself is so simplified that it almost loses meaning. In qualitative research it should show nuances - different viewpoints, hesitations, contradictions. Hardly all 15 people said the same thing about state ownership in the same way. It would be good for these differences to be visible, rather than being "crushed" down to a single percentage. Are all the source data upon which the results are based available to ensure full reproducibility? Partially A Zenodo repository is indicated (doi: 10.5281/zenodo.16939619), which is very good practice and a strong plus for the article. However, it remains unclear exactly what this resource includes - full or partial transcripts, anonymised interview excerpts, coding scheme, code dictionary, etc. It would be good to indicate in the text what type of materials have been uploaded and to what extent they allow one to trace the path from the data to the themes and conclusions. I fully understand the ethical constraints and the sensitivity of the political context, so I do not expect full transcripts to be public. But a brief clarification in the article - for example, that anonymised excerpts and a code dictionary are presented, but not full interviews, increases the sense of transparency without compromising the protection of participants. The policy documents are public - this is not a problem. The problem is in the transparency of analytical decisions. Are the conclusions made adequately supported by the results? Partially The conclusions follow from the results. The call for "structural reforms" is too general. It would be good to specify what reforms are meant - privatisation of part of urban land, stronger decentralisation, more transparent and formalised procedures, stricter accountability and control mechanisms, etc. The question also remains open as to how politically feasible such changes are in the Ethiopian context, which deserves at least brief comment. Here there is an opportunity to connect the conclusions with broader theory. Ethiopia's non-colonial history in my view deserves more attention - this is an important peculiarity compared to other African cases. The conclusion also mentions "inclusion of underrepresented groups", but does not specify who they are. General comments: The article has potential, but needs serious reworking. The methodology must be completely rewritten - not as a formal section, but as a transparent description of what has actually been done. The results would benefit from a more nuanced presentation. And the conclusions - from boldness. The topic is important and topical, especially in the context of rapid urbanisation in Africa. But to have academic value, the study must be methodologically sound and intellectually ambitious. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Not applicable Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Agriculture; Financial sustainability; Tax policy; Environmental investments; Carbon footprint; Waste management; Economic and environmental interrelationships. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 30 Jan 2026 Moges Amare, Geography and Environmental Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia Dear Professor Vanya Georgieva, We sincerely appreciate the valuable, insightful, and highly constructive comments you have provided on our manuscript. Your detailed feedback has been instrumental in identifying key areas for improvement and will significantly enhance the overall quality of the article. We fully recognize the critical nature of your suggestions, particularly regarding the need for aggressive revision of the introduction, literature review, methods, analysis, and conclusion sections. We take these recommendations very seriously and will work diligently to address each point thoroughly in the revised version, ensuring that all concerns are met to strengthen the rigor, clarity, and contribution of the paper. Thank you for your thoughtful review. View more View less Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. reply Respond Report a concern Georgieva V. Peer Review Report For: Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.187190.r433512) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-970/v1#referee-response-433512 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Puente-Sotomayor F. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 24 Oct 2025 | for Version 1 Fernando Puente-Sotomayor , Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador 0 Views copyright © 2025 Puente-Sotomayor F. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Major Comments 1. Conceptual Framing and Problem Definition The article addresses a relevant and timely issue, yet the research problem is not clearly formulated. The introduction blends conceptual, contextual, and methodological aspects, which blurs the motivation of the study. The authors should explicitly identify the research gap and formulate a clear, focused research question. Furthermore, the association between neo-patrimonialism and leasehold systems requires deeper conceptual justification. It would be useful to explain why the analysis emphasizes leasehold rather than freehold systems, and how the Ethiopian case compares to other regions where land tenure systems differ. 2. Literature Review The literature review is insufficiently developed to support the article’s core hypothesis. Several affirmations lack references or appear as general statements. The reviewer suggests including comparative cases (e.g., Latin America, the UK, Sweden, or The Netherlands) to provide a balanced perspective on how leasehold and freehold systems shape urban inequalities. Some sections of the historical review could be shortened or reorganized to strengthen the analytical focus and to avoid redundancy. 3. Methodology and Data Transparency The methodological description lacks clarity. The paper would benefit from a more explicit link between the research question, data sources, and analytical procedures. Recommended improvements include: Presenting the questionnaire or guiding interview prompts used with the 17 informants. Providing a synoptic chart or diagram that connects the three main data sources (policy analysis, interviews, and literature review) with the operationalization of the research question. Explaining the sampling rationale and how representativeness or bias were addressed. The reviewer also suggests disaggregating the results by strata or interviewee type (officials, experts, CSO members). Minor Comments 4. Results and Data Presentation While the results are rich in content, their presentation is repetitive and could benefit from visual summarization. The inclusion of CAQDAS visualizations (e.g., coding diagrams, bubble charts, or thematic clusters) would make qualitative patterns more transparent. In addition, the article only presents a subset of the data. The reviewer recommends showing the full dataset, the coding workflow, and examples of actor-based or theme-based analysis. 5. Integration of Findings with Literature The discussion should better link the findings to the theoretical framework. Certain empirical insights—such as those concerning ethnic alignment and political patronage—could be discussed in light of comparative studies or previous scholarship. Contextual paragraphs that are descriptive could instead be integrated into the literature review. 6. Terminology, Style, and Editorial Remarks Replace “third world countries” with updated terminology, such as developing countries , Global South , or low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) . Correct syntax issues (e.g., “water, minerals, oil and so” → “water, minerals, oil, and so on”). Avoid redundancy between sections and clarify some reference citations. Ensure consistent numbering of tables and subheadings. 7. Conclusion The conclusion restates rather than synthesizes results. It should briefly connect the empirical findings to the theoretical debate on state-led land systems and neo-patrimonial governance, emphasizing the implications for policy reform and institutional design. Overall Assessment The manuscript makes a potentially valuable contribution to debates on urban land governance in African contexts, especially regarding the tensions between state control and neo-patrimonial practices. However, before it can be considered for publication, the article requires substantial revision in its conceptual framing, methodological articulation, and analytical rigor. Improving the integration between empirical data and theoretical insights, expanding the methodological transparency, and enhancing the clarity of presentation will significantly strengthen its scholarly contribution. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Not applicable Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Urban Centralities, Land Management, Disaster Risk Reduction I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 30 Jan 2026 Moges Amare, Geography and Environmental Studies, Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa, 1000, Ethiopia Dear Professor Puente-Sotomayor, We sincerely appreciate the valuable and insightful comments you have provided. Your feedback has significantly enhanced the quality of our manuscript. We find all your suggestions highly relevant and will incorporate them fully into the revised version. Thank you once again for your thorough and constructive review. View more View less Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. reply Respond Report a concern Puente-Sotomayor F. Peer Review Report For: Converging Dynamics of Urban Land Lease Systems, State-Controlled Land Ownership, and Neo-patrimonial Governance: Exploring Contradictions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :970 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.187190.r420977) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-970/v1#referee-response-420977 Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. 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