Geomorphological and Geotechnical Investigations of Shallow-rainfall Induced Landslides Along Murree Expressway, a Case Study of Khajut Landslide, District Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Geomorphological and Geotechnical Investigations of Shallow-rainfall Induced Landslides Along Murree Expressway, a Case Study of Khajut Landslide, District Rawalpindi, Pakistan | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Geomorphological and Geotechnical Investigations of Shallow-rainfall Induced Landslides Along Murree Expressway, a Case Study of Khajut Landslide, District Rawalpindi, Pakistan Shahid Ahmed, Khadim Hussain, Baoliang Lu, Muhammad Ishtiaq This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3283470/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Landslide is a recurrent environmental hazard in the hilly regions and effects the socioeconomic development in Pakistan. The study area lies in the Tehsil Murree, Western Himalayas, Pakistan. The present study deals with detailed geomorphological mapping and geotechnical investigations of shallow rainfall-induced landslide i.e., Khajut Landslide, the Murree Expressway. The extensive field survey and detailed geomorphological, geological mapping and laboratory testing was carried out. Based on field observations, geotechnical investigations and longitudinal profiling, the Khajut landslide is classified as a rotational slide. The slope angle of the Khajut landslide is > 42º. The particle size distribution analysis of soil samples of Khajut landslide indicate that the landslide body consists of coarser particles i.e., sand and gravels. The average specific gravity of the soil sample collected from the Khajut landslide range from 2.89 kg/m 3 . The liquid limit of Khajut landslide soil samples ranges from 14%- 19%. The plasticity chart shows that soil is inorganic silt and inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity. The plastic limit of Khajut landslide ranges from 5%- 16%. Based on these results, it is concluded that frequent, cyclic wetting & drying during heavy rainfall strongly influence the shrink & swell behavior of the soil on the studied landslide which as a result can deform soils & damage Murree Expressway and other man-made structures. Western Himalayas Geotechnical Investigation Landslide Murree Expressway Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 INTRODUCTION When rock, rubble, or earth slides downhill due to the pull of gravity, this phenomenon is known as a landslide, Cruden & Varnes [ 1 ]. The hilly areas of Pakistan and Kashmir are prone to landslides on a regular basis, Kamp et al. Khattak et al. Basharat et al. [ 2 – 3 – 4 ]. A landslide is brought on by a combination of causes, the most common of which are heavy rain and earthquakes. The loss of life, infrastructure, agricultural land, and money are all caused by landslides in underdeveloped nations like Pakistan, Patley et al. Jadoon et al. [ 5 – 6 ]. In order to aid in the creation of safety measures, it is necessary to conduct a thorough examination of the stability of geological Formations and determine what factors are contributing to the landslides, Usama [ 7 ]. Previous research on landslides in Pakistan has mostly concentrated on hazard assessment, policy response, as well as the effects of landslides on housing, social and economic aspects in Murree. Murree Highway has a lengthy history of landslides, with frequent reports of incidents, Khan et al. [ 8 ], presented the physical characteristics of the soils of the Murree area Islam et al. [ 9 ], published short notes on landslides and their remedial measures on the Murree Expressway along the left bank of river Jhelum. Khan et al. [ 10 ], studied the landside problems along the Murree Expressway. He concludes that the major problem is the widening of the road without proper geotechnical investigation, which causes landslides along the Murree Expressway. Ahmed et al. [ 11 ], investigated slope failure and landslide mechanism around Murree town. The existence of small shear zones also decreases rocks strength and lead to their instability. The area has weak lithological beds on sheer steep slopes due to which landslides initiated in the area, Ahmed et al. [ 11 ]. Efforts to mitigate landslides in the area are only directed towards stabilization and restoration/rehabilitation works. No efforts have been taken to determine the failure mechanism of these landslides. Therefore, there is a great need to investigate and analyze the failure mechanism of these landslides in detail for the continuity of traffic on this road in future. Because of its position on the brittle Himalayan rocks, Murree is frequently hit by landslides. Murree is one of the busiest hill resorts in northern Pakistan. Landslides are an inherent dilemma of the mountainous areas, particularly Murree is one of the worst slide-affected areas of Pakistan. Natural circumstances such as Murree's immature geology and the greatest rainfall have been noted to pose a significant threat to human life, property, and infrastructure. Landslides are a constant problem in Murree, Pakistan, causing disruptions in transportation, communication and destroying homes and other buildings, Ahmed et al. [ 12 ]. Moreover, the Murree-Muzaffarabad Road provides a very important road link to Azad Kashmir and Pakistan. This road is very important both in times of peace and in times of emergencies. Keeping in view landslide problems along the Murree Expressway, case studies of the Kajut landslide have been selected for the characterization of slope failure and geotechnical investigations. Complete and accurate data on geotechnical and geological factors is crucial for accurate assessment of landslide characteristics and stability. That's why geotechnical techniques are so crucial to landslide research. These techniques accomplish their goals in a timely, accurate and reliable manner. The research of landslides relies heavily on geological field observation and geotechnical techniques, Mezerreg et al. [ 13 ]. In order to determine the causes and mechanisms of Khajut landslide, geotechnical studies were conducted. The investigations were divided into two phases. Phase 1 consists of geomorphological and geological mapping, soil sampling and profile measurements while phase 2 consists of geotechnical investigations. STUDY AREA Murree, in the sub-Himalayan highlands at 33°52′ to 33°59′ N & 73°24′ to 73°31′ E, is the hardest hit region in Pakistan by landslides. Kajut landslide, a high-risk landslide caused by shallow rainfall, was chosen as a case study, Fig. 1 . Murree is sited between 1,300 and 2,300 meters above sea level, on a lateral protrusion of the sub-Himalayan Mountains, Khan et al. [ 14 ]. Murree has hilly terrain, with somewhat steep slopes. In the top reaches, the slope is between 40 and 50 degrees, while in the middle and lower sections, it is between 30 and 35 degrees. Shear stress on the probable failure plane increases as slope gradient increases, but normal stress decreases, Malik & Farooq [ 15 ]. The Aliot Kas is particularly dangerous in its lowest points on the north-eastern side of the Murree ridge, where the slopes on both sides of the stream are extremely steep due to rapid down cutting of the stream bed and where extensive landslides are present along the stream banks. The area is significant because of the high elevation and extensive forest cover, which is dominated by blue pine forests. TECTONIC & GEOLOGICAL SETTING Murree area occupies part of the Himalayan foothills. The Murree Formation is located in the center of the syncline and the beds dip inward towards the center of the ridge on which Murree Town is situated. The Himalayas were formed when the Eurasian and Indian plates collided, Gansser, Fort, [ 16 – 17 ]. The landslide site is located in a fold and thrust area that occurred in northern Pakistan as a result of a regional strike change from north-west to north-east of the Himalayan orogenic belt Kazmi & Jan [ 18 ]. There are several subranges within the Himalayas. Parallel to sub-parallel thrust faults, known as the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), the Main Central Thrust (MCT), and the Main Mantle Thrust (MMT), form the basis for the subdivision into smaller sections. In terms of plate tectonics, the research area is located in the 'Sub-Himalayas' range, which is separated from the 'Lesser Himalayas' by the regional fault MBT. By the Miocene epoch, the deformation had spread southward from the MMT impact zone in the Early Eocene and had reached the slopes of the Himalayas, Fig. 2 . The Himalayan foothills, sometimes called the sub-Himalayas, are a collection of rocks held together by a massive thrust Gansser, [ 19 ]. Because of its location near the active Murree Thrust (also known as MBT by its local name), the Murree region is prone to earthquakes. Earthquakes of Richter magnitude 4 and 5 occur often, respectively. On average earthquakes of intensity 4–5 are recorded on the Richter scale. The complicated geological configuration in the area under investigation is a major contributor to land sliding, Fig. 3 . Most of the Murree Hills are made up of molasses sediments (siltstone and sandstone) from the Murree and Kuldana Formations (Oligocene-Miocene). The Murree Formation consists of red to reddish-grey sandstone that is fine to medium in grain size, cross-bedded, hard and compact, and can occasionally reach thicknesses of over 10 meters (Fig. 8 ). Red sandstone layers are interbedded throughout the sandstone formations. Most faults tend to propagate through the Formation's fine-grained facies because it is relatively weak in that area. Complex and extensive deformation, exacerbated in recent times by manmade influences like deforestation, development, overcrowding, etc., has left the region predisposed to landslides and other mass movement events Neiderer & Schaffner, [ 20 ]. Additionally, the Murree ridge's lithological configuration of alternating sandstone, siltstone, and clay stone strata creates a significant water storage area. Evidence for this may be seen in the numerous springs and seepages that can be found at the base of significant sandstone horizons Rafiq & Jan, [ 21 ]. In many cases, mass movements are aided by seepage because it makes it easier for rock and soil bodies to slide down slopes. METHODOLOGY In this section the methodology used to achieve the objective of this research has been discussed in detail. The following methodology was adopted for the completion of the proposed research, Fig. 4 . Field Survey A field visit was carried out for detailed landslide mapping in March 2022 to investigate the major landslides along Murree Expressway (Islamabad), Fig. 5 . During the field visit, the assessment of possible triggering factors for selected landslide was conducted through landslide mapping, geomorphological mapping and longitudinal profiling to determine the causes and remedial measures for investigated landslide. The GPS, Clinometer, Brunton compass, and Measuring tape were also used throughout the field research. During the field survey, pictures were also taken. Landslide mapping and construction of profiles We have located and mapped the unique lithological units. Where possible, the bedding attitude of the lithological units and geological Formations has been shown on the maps. Bed angles were determined using a Burton compass. In-field GPS markers have been used to demarcate the landslide's sections, Fig. 6 a. A measuring tape was used to determine the landslide's dimensions, both in length and breadth. A clinometer was used to determine the exact angle of the slope. During the fieldwork, landslip observations were also recorded. The field data collected during the field survey was used to create a longitudinal profile, Fig. 6 b. The material exposed along the landslide longitudinal and cross-sectional axes is shown in the profile, as the point at which movement began. These cross-sectional images have been used to deduce how the failure surface and the intact mass are related. Multiplying the area of the landslide deposit by its average thickness provided a reasonable estimate of the volume of the landslide. Using data collected from a longitudinal profile, the deposit's thickness was determined by fieldwork. Software used A wide range of programmes were used to accomplish some very worthwhile objectives. The data was mapped, digitized, and analyzed by using a geographic information system (GIS). Microsoft Office was used to create and show data tables and flowcharts. Adobe Photoshop was used to enhance the visualizing view of pictures and maps. Eiting, resizing and framing different photographs were also used. Illustrator and Adobe Photoshop were used to prepare landslide profiles. Laboratory soil testing Soil samples that had been disturbed were tested in lab for the landslide's index qualities. Nine separate samples of soil, each weighing 15 kilograms, were taken from various areas around the landslip and stored safely in sealed plastic bags. The University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir's geotechnical laboratory performed the analyses on the gathered samples. International guidelines were followed in conducting the following standard tests, Table. 1: sieve analysis (ASTM D-422), specific gravity (ASTM D-854), Atterberg limits critical water test (ASTM D-4318), and modified Proctor compaction test (ASTM D-698). The soil has been sampled three times. (Top, Center and Bottom) of landslide. Table 1 List of Laboratory tests performed and standards . Laboratory Test ASTM Standards Sieve Analysis ASTM D422 Specific Gravity ASTM D854 Plastic Limit ASTM D4318 Liquid Limit by Casagrande Method ASTM D4318 Proctor Compaction Test ASTM D698 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS Description of Khajut Landslide The landslide is located between longitude 73°23´5´´E and latitude of 33°52´0´´N, Fig. 7 . Geomorphological map, geotechnical map, and longitudinal cross profiles were prepared to understand the causes and failure mechanism of the Khajut landslide. The landslip is 160 meters long and 103 meters wide, and it has displaced a volume equal to around a million cubic feet which is 24720. The slope angle of the landslide is 42°. The landslide moved towards NW-SE. Characteristics of Khajut Landslide The landslide occurs within the Murree Formation of the Miocene age. As can be seen in Figs. 8 & 9 . The bulk of the landslip is composed of shale pieces interspersed with layers of sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, and clay stones. The entire area of this landslip, computed from the displacement of material from crown to toe, is 15450 square meters. The landslip was bigger because of the large layer of loose debris. The landslide is classified into three zones i.e., Depletion zone, Transition zone & Accumulation zone, Fig. 10 . Depletion Zone The region underneath the landslide primary scarp is known as the depletion zone. Towards its lower end, it is partially buried by the displaced debris. Khajut's landslide depletion zone is 60m broad and 66m long. Slope angles in this area average between 30 and 40 degrees. Clays, shale, and strata of cracked sandstone predominate in this area. The depletion zone deposits are coarser than those of the transition zone. The depletion zone has a total area of 3801.25 square meters. Material has migrated downhill without being crushed and the primary scarp is approximately vertical. Transition Zone This section represents the landslide's midsection. It protects against landslides in every possible way. The accumulation and depletion zones surround this area on each side. The breadth of the transition zone at the Khajut landslide is 90m, and its length is 40m. The overall surface area of the buffer zone is 3,783.22 square meters. Debris material made up the top part of this zone, while mud flow material made up the center part. In this area, scientists have also spotted mud fissures and expanded clay. The incline is between 25 and 30 degrees. In this area, secondary scarps also formed. Accumulation Zone This area, located near the base of the landslip, received the greatest concentration of debris. The breadth of the accumulation zone is 110 meters, and its length is 54 meters. The estimated size of the accumulation zone is 7865.59 square meters. Accumulation zone slope angles have been observed at values between 10 and 350. Boulders and finer clays coexist in the soil with much larger particles. Cross-Section of Khajut Landslide The longitudinal profiles a common tool used to show distributions of landslide characteristics such as lithology, thickness and displacement along the landslide's moving path. The cross-section of the Khajut landslide is plotted against elevation (m) on the y-axis and distance (m) on the x-axis. Along the longitudinal profile, we divided the landslide into three zones i.e., Depletion zone, Transition zone and Accumulation zone. The main purpose of drawing a longitudinal profile is to view the internal cross-section of the landslide. The subsurface geology of the Khajut landslide is consist of variegated shale, sandstone and siltstone. The average depth of the slip surface is 1.5 m. Landslide is classified as rotational slide, Fig. 11 . Physical and Mechanical Properties of Soil Different tests were carried out on the samples to identify their physical and mechanical properties. Atterberg limits, plasticity index, grain size distribution analysis, and specific gravity were among the findings produced, and these are shown below. Sieve analysis Soil classification using grain size distribution analysis yields mechanical property calculations that reveal the soil's compressibility, hydraulic conductivity, and shear characteristics. Khajut landslip samples collected from the slide's top, centre, and toe reveal that the soil is mostly gravely sand and sandy gravel in that order, Fig. 12 . Proctor compaction test The Proctor Compaction Test is a laboratory technique for empirically measuring the OMC at which a certain kind of soil will become thick and reach its maximum dry density. This test is performed by pressing a sample of soil down with a proctor. The proctor compaction test was performed on soil samples that are taken from the top, center and toe of the Khajut landslide, which shows that maximum dry density and optimum moisture content is 3.152 gm/cc, 10.5% and 3.300 gm/cc, 18.5%, Fig. 13 & Fig. 14 , and 3.262 gm/cc, 9.3% respectively, Fig. 15. The combined results for all three samples are shown in Table. 2. Table 2 Showing results for proctor compaction test of soil samples of Khajut landslide (top, center & toe). SAMPLE RESULTS MDD OMC TOP 3.152gm/c 10.5% CENTRE 3.00gm/c 18.5% TOE 3.262gm/c 9.3% Atterberg limits To illustrate the sensitivity of fine-grained soil consistency and plasticity to moisture content. Atterberg limits are defined based on the data. We know that the samples having a liquid limit (LL) between 14% and 19% and a plastic limit (PL) between 5% and 16%, is non-plastic since the plasticity index is between 2% and 9%, Fig. 16 , Fig. 17 & Fig. 18 . The results for all tested samples are shown in Table. 3. Table 3 Showing results for Atterberg limits of soil samples of Khajut landslide (top, center & toe) SAMPLE RESULTS LIQUID LIMIT (LL or w L ) % PLASTIC LIMIT (PL or Wp) % PLASTICITY INDEX (PI) % TOP 14 5 9 CENTRE 19 16 3 TOE 18 16 2 Specific gravity Specific gravity measures the quality or strength of the soil. When compared to soil with a greater specific gravity, soil with a lower specific gravity is often considered to be weaker. The ratio of a substance mass to that of water is what's meant to be understood by the term "specific gravity". The calculation for specific gravity, denoted by the formula S. G., is as follows: (W2-W1), (W4-W1), and (W3-W2). The average specific gravity of Khajut landslide soil samples is 2.89 kg/m 3 , Table. 4. Table 4 Showing Specific Gravity of Khajut Landslide. BY PYCNOMETER OBSERVATION TRIAL WT. OF OVEN DRY SAMPLE (gm) 250.70 250.70 250.1 WT. OF PYCNOMETER (gm) 376.90 378.70 379.40 WT. OF PYCNOMETER + WATER (gm) 1286.40 1280.5 1297.1 WT. OF PYCNOMETER + SOIL (gm) 627.6 629.4 629.5 WT. OF PYCNOSMETER + WATER + SOIL (gm) 1452.10 1447.2 1455.8 TEMP. OF CONTENTS IN PYCNOMETER = Tx (c.) 23 23 23 SP. GRAVITY BASED ON Tx (val) 2.95 2.98 2.74 AVERAGE SP. GRAVITY = 2.89 CONCLUSIONS In this paper, an effective and high accurate landslide study is described, which is a major cause of traffic jam along Murree expressway District Rawalpindi Pakistan. High risk landslide’s data is collected and interpreted by covering each and every aspect of the landslide. On the basis of the above investigations, we have concluded that: The Khajut landslide’s total area is 15450 m 2 having a total length of 160m with the total volume of displaced material is 24720m³. Based on field observations and longitudinal profiles, Khajut landslide is classified as a rotational landslide. The slope angle of the landslide is > 42º, hence it is concluded that the steep slope along with fragile geology is the main causative factors. Analysis of the particle size distribution of the soil samples of the Khajut landslide indicates that the landslide body consists of coarser particles i.e., sand & gravels, hence, the soil is classified as sandy gravel or sand with gravel. Soil samples taken near the Khajut landslip had specific gravities between 2.74 and 2.95, which is indicative of a rougher texture. Hence the soil posse's low compressibility and plasticity index. The liquid limit of Khajut landslide soil samples ranges from 14 to 27%. According to the plasticity chart, the soil below the line contains medium compressible and plastic inorganic clays (CL), whereas the soil above the line has low compressible and plastic inorganic clays (CL). According to the chart, the samples consist of inorganic silts and clays that have a low to moderate degree of flexibility. The low plasticity index value i.e., 2–4, of the soil sample may be due to the fine sand present in the mixture. Based on these results, it is concluded that frequent & cyclic wetting & drying during heavy rainfall strongly influence the shrink & swell behavior of the soil on the studied landslide which as a result can deform soils, damage Murree Expressway and other man-made structures. The moisture density relation of the soil sample of the Khajut landslide indicates that the soil requires more compaction effort when subjected to load. The maximum dry density (MDD) Value ranges from 3.152 to 3.30 g/cc & optimum moisture content (OMC) value i.e., 9.3 to 18.5% indicate that the soil on the Khajut landslide is sandy. Therefore, the soil of the Khajut landslide has low swelling potential hence when compacted approximately 95%, the slope failure may tend to be stable in condition. RECOMENDATIONS The Khajut landslide is characterized by a relatively higher average slope angle (42°) which seems to be the major causative factor along with the moisture. Therefore, slope modification techniques are suggested as remedial measures to control this landslide such as terracing and benching etc. Bioengineering techniques are also suggested for Khajut landslide to provide vegetation cover for moisture and erosion control along with slope stabilization. Declarations Authors declare that they have not any known competing interest. References Cruden DM, Varnes DJ (1996) Landslides: investigation and mitigation. Chapter 3-Landslide types and processes. Transp Res board special Rep 247. https://doi.org/10.3313/jls.41.5_496 Kamp U, Growley BJ, Khattak GA, Owen LA (2008) GIS-based landslide susceptibility mapping for the 2005 Kashmir earthquake region. Geomorphology 101(4):631–642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.03.003 Khattak GA, Owen LA, Kamp U, Harp EL (2010) Evolution of earthquake-triggered landslides in the Kashmir Himalaya, northern Pakistan. 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Results of the fact-finding mission, Swiss Dev. Coop, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Govt. of Switzerland Rafiq M, Jan MQ (1989) Geochemistry and petrogenesis of Ambela granitic complex, NW Pakistan. Geol Bull Univ Peshawar 22:159–179 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Reject after review 22 Jan, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 12 Sep, 2023 Reviewers invited by journal 12 Sep, 2023 Editor invited by journal 28 Aug, 2023 Editor assigned by journal 28 Aug, 2023 First submitted to journal 23 Aug, 2023 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3283470","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":232682432,"identity":"184e3f9d-d0ed-4146-91d2-acf7b488cc25","order_by":0,"name":"Shahid Ahmed","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABB0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCQY2hgS2hAQgk/1H4h8bIM3YeIBYLQwSDxvSQFoaCGthgGqRfNhwGCyIV4v87OZnDx6UpeXxz+49YJC447zd2vbDQFtqbKJxaTG4c8zcIOFcTrHEnXMJCYlnbidvO5MI1HIsLbcBlxaJBDOJxLaKxIYbOQYHEthuJ5sdAGphbDiMU4v8jPRvYC3zb+QYNiSwnUs2O/8QvxaGGzkgW3ISN9zIMWZIbDtgZ3aDgC0GN3LKJBLOpSVuBOplSDiTnGB2A2hLAh6/AB22TfJHWXLiPKAWxh8VdvZm59MfPvhQY4PbYeggEawygVjlIGBPiuJRMApGwSgYGQAA8eZsLcGOc48AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-3667-7239","institution":"The University of Azad Jammu \u0026 Kashmir","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shahid","middleName":"","lastName":"Ahmed","suffix":""},{"id":232682433,"identity":"8dd96221-7092-4b4a-ba69-19e5724d2ca2","order_by":1,"name":"Khadim Hussain","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The University of Azad Jammu \u0026 Kashmir","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Khadim","middleName":"","lastName":"Hussain","suffix":""},{"id":232682434,"identity":"0cb2e555-a098-4fee-b3e1-07d5e0a06b29","order_by":2,"name":"Baoliang Lu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chang'an University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Baoliang","middleName":"","lastName":"Lu","suffix":""},{"id":232682435,"identity":"76825b38-730c-4306-82e7-77bf19b09e59","order_by":3,"name":"Muhammad Ishtiaq","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The University of Azad Jammu \u0026 Kashmir","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muhammad","middleName":"","lastName":"Ishtiaq","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2023-08-21 19:06:48","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3283470/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3283470/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":43299953,"identity":"a74b905e-2c2d-46eb-bdb1-5eb450d3ffca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:47:06","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":20504965,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeographical location of the study area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/186a45fa1ceb34bcc00355bd.jpeg"},{"id":43300954,"identity":"6c8b9547-120d-4836-a36c-29016500b11d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 15:03:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":192132,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRegional Tectonic map of the area. (Red rectangle represents the Murree area; Adopted from Basharat et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/0bd86e125c8664f084c24aea.jpeg"},{"id":43299938,"identity":"3bc2dda5-9452-4221-bb3c-777e3fed5215","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:47:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":906591,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeological map of the study area (a) is the case study.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/1afc784f2fbc0f804c3355eb.jpeg"},{"id":43299936,"identity":"cb518f48-eb08-4c79-ac56-a61fbf1db290","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:47:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":479386,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic flow chart of the research methodology.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/d39bb0053f0649826d123fab.jpeg"},{"id":43300428,"identity":"a228cfb5-c9f5-4408-b255-a930761b2b01","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:55:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":836116,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Landslide Mapping (b) Profile measurement by using the measuring tape and Jacob’s staff.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/e6173e5544c193e8aaaffa93.jpeg"},{"id":43300424,"identity":"674e0bd0-995f-4b3c-8c27-5f2b0d454248","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:55:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":743467,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Landslide Mapping (b) Profile Construction by Using Graph Paper.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/d33ed7e70d2fbd7031c66b0f.jpeg"},{"id":43300450,"identity":"9485fe96-42ce-414e-a711-9e8d05f101dd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:55:11","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":234855,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGoogle Earth view of Khajut landslide.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/024c861867e5a900ec5bd192.jpeg"},{"id":43299949,"identity":"adc71ebb-5bf9-4ee2-b632-20d9b3be027d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:47:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":684696,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eKhajut landslide mainly consist of the cyclic deposition of shale, sandstone, siltstone, and debris material.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/7e5c822c8ad0a0cc6fa60aff.jpeg"},{"id":43300426,"identity":"c58c9155-fb5a-4b49-ac7d-7966fb9862f3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:55:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":235659,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLithological map of Khajut landslide.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/d19216ba8ddb112586e5484c.jpeg"},{"id":43300430,"identity":"5e07475b-0e9d-4b9c-8223-f7b22986ba5f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:55:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":300561,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMorphological map of Khajut landslide.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/75388db9dc7fc254a81e3dfa.jpeg"},{"id":43300427,"identity":"072184ca-b8e5-4de4-99c9-ff97db10a295","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:55:05","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":751395,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLongitudinal profile of Khajut Landslide.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/eac5319b98fab7a2e2149cc8.png"},{"id":43299941,"identity":"fc016304-bc0a-479d-bd4d-fe106a3df35e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:47:05","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":266138,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSieve analysis curve of Khajut landslide soil sample (top, center, and toe).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/28999fd729f2838f23a60811.png"},{"id":43299946,"identity":"93e7f902-9cdc-480e-8b83-6200703bb50c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:47:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":191284,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph of Proctor Compaction Test of soil sample of Khajut landslide top\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage13.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/2c57e736f25f489521160358.jpeg"},{"id":43299948,"identity":"97256390-0f9b-4f3f-ba91-758e82d6e5fc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:47:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":211343,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph of Proctor Compaction Test of soil sample of Khajut landslide center\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage14.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/053a8ecbddc60c6d46a267bd.jpeg"},{"id":43299940,"identity":"0e925165-c3fb-4f86-b262-5a47799a96d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:47:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":269510,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph of Proctor Compaction Test of soil sample of Khajut landslide (Toe).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage15.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/ac205b9136aa1765fa16c26f.jpeg"},{"id":43299944,"identity":"058ab136-89a7-4f72-9f9c-c63fec72d7db","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:47:05","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":152599,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph shows the liquid limit of the soil sample from top of Khajut landslide.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/d049c6e5c6cfd29486290dd0.png"},{"id":43299950,"identity":"729121e1-bbd6-47f5-a11a-8139b383a55f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:47:05","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"Figure 17","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":311339,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph shows the liquid limit of soil sample from center of Khajut landslide.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage17.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/614128df2f0a127aa9136fd6.png"},{"id":43300429,"identity":"f11ebff2-5e18-4ba2-ad00-043993354161","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 14:55:05","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"Figure 18","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":219280,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph shows the liquid limit of soil sample from toe of Khajut landslide.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage18.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/6412c5931bfe6c7ecb738089.png"},{"id":43300977,"identity":"47b7451b-d6e2-45e2-97e1-1897db370afa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-18 15:04:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3192787,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3283470/v1/9e77b26f-bd34-48e5-951f-b19b6ed4fd25.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eGeomorphological and Geotechnical Investigations of Shallow-rainfall Induced Landslides Along Murree Expressway, a Case Study of Khajut Landslide, District Rawalpindi, Pakistan\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eWhen rock, rubble, or earth slides downhill due to the pull of gravity, this phenomenon is known as a landslide, Cruden \u0026amp; Varnes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The hilly areas of Pakistan and Kashmir are prone to landslides on a regular basis, Kamp et al. Khattak et al. Basharat et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. A landslide is brought on by a combination of causes, the most common of which are heavy rain and earthquakes. The loss of life, infrastructure, agricultural land, and money are all caused by landslides in underdeveloped nations like Pakistan, Patley et al. Jadoon et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. In order to aid in the creation of safety measures, it is necessary to conduct a thorough examination of the stability of geological Formations and determine what factors are contributing to the landslides, Usama [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Previous research on landslides in Pakistan has mostly concentrated on hazard assessment, policy response, as well as the effects of landslides on housing, social and economic aspects in Murree. Murree Highway has a lengthy history of landslides, with frequent reports of incidents, Khan et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], presented the physical characteristics of the soils of the Murree area Islam et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], published short notes on landslides and their remedial measures on the Murree Expressway along the left bank of river Jhelum. Khan et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], studied the landside problems along the Murree Expressway. He concludes that the major problem is the widening of the road without proper geotechnical investigation, which causes landslides along the Murree Expressway. Ahmed et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], investigated slope failure and landslide mechanism around Murree town. The existence of small shear zones also decreases rocks strength and lead to their instability. The area has weak lithological beds on sheer steep slopes due to which landslides initiated in the area, Ahmed et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Efforts to mitigate landslides in the area are only directed towards stabilization and restoration/rehabilitation works. No efforts have been taken to determine the failure mechanism of these landslides. Therefore, there is a great need to investigate and analyze the failure mechanism of these landslides in detail for the continuity of traffic on this road in future. Because of its position on the brittle Himalayan rocks, Murree is frequently hit by landslides. Murree is one of the busiest hill resorts in northern Pakistan. Landslides are an inherent dilemma of the mountainous areas, particularly Murree is one of the worst slide-affected areas of Pakistan. Natural circumstances such as Murree's immature geology and the greatest rainfall have been noted to pose a significant threat to human life, property, and infrastructure. Landslides are a constant problem in Murree, Pakistan, causing disruptions in transportation, communication and destroying homes and other buildings, Ahmed et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, the Murree-Muzaffarabad Road provides a very important road link to Azad Kashmir and Pakistan. This road is very important both in times of peace and in times of emergencies. Keeping in view landslide problems along the Murree Expressway, case studies of the Kajut landslide have been selected for the characterization of slope failure and geotechnical investigations. Complete and accurate data on geotechnical and geological factors is crucial for accurate assessment of landslide characteristics and stability. That's why geotechnical techniques are so crucial to landslide research. These techniques accomplish their goals in a timely, accurate and reliable manner. The research of landslides relies heavily on geological field observation and geotechnical techniques, Mezerreg et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. In order to determine the causes and mechanisms of Khajut landslide, geotechnical studies were conducted. The investigations were divided into two phases. Phase 1 consists of geomorphological and geological mapping, soil sampling and profile measurements while phase 2 consists of geotechnical investigations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"STUDY AREA","content":"\u003cp\u003eMurree, in the sub-Himalayan highlands at 33°52′ to 33°59′ N \u0026amp; 73°24′ to 73°31′ E, is the hardest hit region in Pakistan by landslides. Kajut landslide, a high-risk landslide caused by shallow rainfall, was chosen as a case study, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Murree is sited between 1,300 and 2,300 meters above sea level, on a lateral protrusion of the sub-Himalayan Mountains, Khan et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Murree has hilly terrain, with somewhat steep slopes. In the top reaches, the slope is between 40 and 50 degrees, while in the middle and lower sections, it is between 30 and 35 degrees. Shear stress on the probable failure plane increases as slope gradient increases, but normal stress decreases, Malik \u0026amp; Farooq [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. The Aliot Kas is particularly dangerous in its lowest points on the north-eastern side of the Murree ridge, where the slopes on both sides of the stream are extremely steep due to rapid down cutting of the stream bed and where extensive landslides are present along the stream banks. The area is significant because of the high elevation and extensive forest cover, which is dominated by blue pine forests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"TECTONIC \u0026 GEOLOGICAL SETTING","content":"\u003cp\u003eMurree area occupies part of the Himalayan foothills. The Murree Formation is located in the center of the syncline and the beds dip inward towards the center of the ridge on which Murree Town is situated. The Himalayas were formed when the Eurasian and Indian plates collided, Gansser, Fort, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. The landslide site is located in a fold and thrust area that occurred in northern Pakistan as a result of a regional strike change from north-west to north-east of the Himalayan orogenic belt Kazmi \u0026amp; Jan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. There are several subranges within the Himalayas. Parallel to sub-parallel thrust faults, known as the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), the Main Central Thrust (MCT), and the Main Mantle Thrust (MMT), form the basis for the subdivision into smaller sections. In terms of plate tectonics, the research area is located in the 'Sub-Himalayas' range, which is separated from the 'Lesser Himalayas' by the regional fault MBT. By the Miocene epoch, the deformation had spread southward from the MMT impact zone in the Early Eocene and had reached the slopes of the Himalayas, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The Himalayan foothills, sometimes called the sub-Himalayas, are a collection of rocks held together by a massive thrust Gansser, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Because of its location near the active Murree Thrust (also known as MBT by its local name), the Murree region is prone to earthquakes. Earthquakes of Richter magnitude 4 and 5 occur often, respectively. On average earthquakes of intensity 4–5 are recorded on the Richter scale. The complicated geological configuration in the area under investigation is a major contributor to land sliding, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Most of the Murree Hills are made up of molasses sediments (siltstone and sandstone) from the Murree and Kuldana Formations (Oligocene-Miocene). The Murree Formation consists of red to reddish-grey sandstone that is fine to medium in grain size, cross-bedded, hard and compact, and can occasionally reach thicknesses of over 10 meters (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Red sandstone layers are interbedded throughout the sandstone formations. Most faults tend to propagate through the Formation's fine-grained facies because it is relatively weak in that area. Complex and extensive deformation, exacerbated in recent times by manmade influences like deforestation, development, overcrowding, etc., has left the region predisposed to landslides and other mass movement events Neiderer \u0026amp; Schaffner, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, the Murree ridge's lithological configuration of alternating sandstone, siltstone, and clay stone strata creates a significant water storage area. Evidence for this may be seen in the numerous springs and seepages that can be found at the base of significant sandstone horizons Rafiq \u0026amp; Jan, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. In many cases, mass movements are aided by seepage because it makes it easier for rock and soil bodies to slide down slopes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this section the methodology used to achieve the objective of this research has been discussed in detail. The following methodology was adopted for the completion of the proposed research, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eField Survey\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA field visit was carried out for detailed landslide mapping in March 2022 to investigate the major landslides along Murree Expressway (Islamabad), Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. During the field visit, the assessment of possible triggering factors for selected landslide was conducted through landslide mapping, geomorphological mapping and longitudinal profiling to determine the causes and remedial measures for investigated landslide. The GPS, Clinometer, Brunton compass, and Measuring tape were also used throughout the field research. During the field survey, pictures were also taken.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLandslide mapping and construction of profiles\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe have located and mapped the unique lithological units. Where possible, the bedding attitude of the lithological units and geological Formations has been shown on the maps. Bed angles were determined using a Burton compass. In-field GPS markers have been used to demarcate the landslide's sections, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea. A measuring tape was used to determine the landslide's dimensions, both in length and breadth. A clinometer was used to determine the exact angle of the slope. During the fieldwork, landslip observations were also recorded. The field data collected during the field survey was used to create a longitudinal profile, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb. The material exposed along the landslide longitudinal and cross-sectional axes is shown in the profile, as the point at which movement began. These cross-sectional images have been used to deduce how the failure surface and the intact mass are related. Multiplying the area of the landslide deposit by its average thickness provided a reasonable estimate of the volume of the landslide. Using data collected from a longitudinal profile, the deposit's thickness was determined by fieldwork.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoftware used\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA wide range of programmes were used to accomplish some very worthwhile objectives. The data was mapped, digitized, and analyzed by using a geographic information system (GIS). Microsoft Office was used to create and show data tables and flowcharts. Adobe Photoshop was used to enhance the visualizing view of pictures and maps. Eiting, resizing and framing different photographs were also used. Illustrator and Adobe Photoshop were used to prepare landslide profiles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLaboratory soil testing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil samples that had been disturbed were tested in lab for the landslide's index qualities. Nine separate samples of soil, each weighing 15 kilograms, were taken from various areas around the landslip and stored safely in sealed plastic bags. The University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir's geotechnical laboratory performed the analyses on the gathered samples. International guidelines were followed in conducting the following standard tests, Table. 1: sieve analysis (ASTM D-422), specific gravity (ASTM D-854), Atterberg limits critical water test (ASTM D-4318), and modified Proctor compaction test (ASTM D-698). The soil has been sampled three times. (Top, Center and Bottom) of landslide.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eList of Laboratory tests performed and standards\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaboratory Test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM Standards\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSieve Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM D422\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM D854\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlastic Limit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM D4318\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiquid Limit by Casagrande Method\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM D4318\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProctor Compaction Test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM D698\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS \u0026 DISCUSSIONS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDescription of Khajut Landslide\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe landslide is located between longitude 73\u0026deg;23\u0026acute;5\u0026acute;\u0026acute;E and latitude of 33\u0026deg;52\u0026acute;0\u0026acute;\u0026acute;N, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. Geomorphological map, geotechnical map, and longitudinal cross profiles were prepared to understand the causes and failure mechanism of the Khajut landslide. The landslip is 160 meters long and 103 meters wide, and it has displaced a volume equal to around a million cubic feet which is 24720. The slope angle of the landslide is 42\u0026deg;. The landslide moved towards NW-SE.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCharacteristics of Khajut Landslide\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe landslide occurs within the Murree Formation of the Miocene age. As can be seen in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e. The bulk of the landslip is composed of shale pieces interspersed with layers of sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, and clay stones. The entire area of this landslip, computed from the displacement of material from crown to toe, is 15450 square meters. The landslip was bigger because of the large layer of loose debris. The landslide is classified into three zones i.e., Depletion zone, Transition zone \u0026amp; Accumulation zone, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDepletion Zone\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe region underneath the landslide primary scarp is known as the depletion zone. Towards its lower end, it is partially buried by the displaced debris. Khajut's landslide depletion zone is 60m broad and 66m long. Slope angles in this area average between 30 and 40 degrees. Clays, shale, and strata of cracked sandstone predominate in this area. The depletion zone deposits are coarser than those of the transition zone. The depletion zone has a total area of 3801.25 square meters. Material has migrated downhill without being crushed and the primary scarp is approximately vertical.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eTransition Zone\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis section represents the landslide's midsection. It protects against landslides in every possible way. The accumulation and depletion zones surround this area on each side. The breadth of the transition zone at the Khajut landslide is 90m, and its length is 40m. The overall surface area of the buffer zone is 3,783.22 square meters. Debris material made up the top part of this zone, while mud flow material made up the center part. In this area, scientists have also spotted mud fissures and expanded clay. The incline is between 25 and 30 degrees. In this area, secondary scarps also formed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAccumulation Zone\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis area, located near the base of the landslip, received the greatest concentration of debris. The breadth of the accumulation zone is 110 meters, and its length is 54 meters. The estimated size of the accumulation zone is 7865.59 square meters. Accumulation zone slope angles have been observed at values between 10 and 350. Boulders and finer clays coexist in the soil with much larger particles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCross-Section of Khajut Landslide\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe longitudinal profiles a common tool used to show distributions of landslide characteristics such as lithology, thickness and displacement along the landslide's moving path. The cross-section of the Khajut landslide is plotted against elevation (m) on the y-axis and distance (m) on the x-axis. Along the longitudinal profile, we divided the landslide into three zones i.e., Depletion zone, Transition zone and Accumulation zone. The main purpose of drawing a longitudinal profile is to view the internal cross-section of the landslide. The subsurface geology of the Khajut landslide is consist of variegated shale, sandstone and siltstone. The average depth of the slip surface is 1.5 m. Landslide is classified as rotational slide, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePhysical and Mechanical Properties of Soil\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDifferent tests were carried out on the samples to identify their physical and mechanical properties. Atterberg limits, plasticity index, grain size distribution analysis, and specific gravity were among the findings produced, and these are shown below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eSieve analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSoil classification using grain size distribution analysis yields mechanical property calculations that reveal the soil's compressibility, hydraulic conductivity, and shear characteristics. Khajut landslip samples collected from the slide's top, centre, and toe reveal that the soil is mostly gravely sand and sandy gravel in that order, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eProctor compaction test\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Proctor Compaction Test is a laboratory technique for empirically measuring the OMC at which a certain kind of soil will become thick and reach its maximum dry density. This test is performed by pressing a sample of soil down with a proctor. The proctor compaction test was performed on soil samples that are taken from the top, center and toe of the Khajut landslide, which shows that maximum dry density and optimum moisture content is 3.152 gm/cc, 10.5% and 3.300 gm/cc, 18.5%, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, and 3.262 gm/cc, 9.3% respectively, Fig.\u0026nbsp;15. The combined results for all three samples are shown in Table. 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShowing results for proctor compaction test of soil samples of Khajut landslide (top, center \u0026amp; toe).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSAMPLE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRESULTS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMDD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOMC\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTOP\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.152gm/c\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCENTRE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.00gm/c\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTOE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.262gm/c\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.3%\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAtterberg limits\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo illustrate the sensitivity of fine-grained soil consistency and plasticity to moisture content. Atterberg limits are defined based on the data. We know that the samples having a liquid limit (LL) between 14% and 19% and a plastic limit (PL) between 5% and 16%, is non-plastic since the plasticity index is between 2% and 9%, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e. The results for all tested samples are shown in Table. 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShowing results for Atterberg limits of soil samples of Khajut landslide (top, center \u0026amp; toe)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSAMPLE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRESULTS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLIQUID LIMIT (LL or w\u003csub\u003eL\u003c/sub\u003e) %\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePLASTIC LIMIT (PL or Wp) %\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePLASTICITY INDEX (PI) %\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTOP\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCENTRE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTOE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eSpecific gravity\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecific gravity measures the quality or strength of the soil. When compared to soil with a greater specific gravity, soil with a lower specific gravity is often considered to be weaker. The ratio of a substance mass to that of water is what's meant to be understood by the term \"specific gravity\". The calculation for specific gravity, denoted by the formula S. G., is as follows: (W2-W1), (W4-W1), and (W3-W2). The average specific gravity of Khajut landslide soil samples is 2.89 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, Table. 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShowing Specific Gravity of Khajut Landslide.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBY PYCNOMETER\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOBSERVATION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTRIAL\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWT. OF OVEN DRY SAMPLE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(gm)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e250.70\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e250.70\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e250.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWT. OF PYCNOMETER\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(gm)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e376.90\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e378.70\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e379.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWT. OF PYCNOMETER\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;WATER\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(gm)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1286.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1280.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1297.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWT. OF PYCNOMETER\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SOIL\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(gm)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e627.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e629.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e629.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWT. OF PYCNOSMETER\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;WATER\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SOIL\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(gm)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1452.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1447.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1455.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTEMP. OF CONTENTS IN PYCNOMETER\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Tx\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(c.)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSP. GRAVITY BASED ON Tx\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(val)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.95\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.74\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAVERAGE SP. GRAVITY\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.89\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this paper, an effective and high accurate landslide study is described, which is a major cause of traffic jam along Murree expressway District Rawalpindi Pakistan. High risk landslide\u0026rsquo;s data is collected and interpreted by covering each and every aspect of the landslide.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOn the basis of the above investigations, we have concluded that:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Khajut landslide\u0026rsquo;s total area is 15450 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e having a total length of 160m with the total volume of displaced material is 24720m\u0026sup3;. Based on field observations and longitudinal profiles, Khajut landslide is classified as a rotational landslide. The slope angle of the landslide is \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;42\u0026ordm;, hence it is concluded that the steep slope along with fragile geology is the main causative factors. Analysis of the particle size distribution of the soil samples of the Khajut landslide indicates that the landslide body consists of coarser particles i.e., sand \u0026amp; gravels, hence, the soil is classified as sandy gravel or sand with gravel. Soil samples taken near the Khajut landslip had specific gravities between 2.74 and 2.95, which is indicative of a rougher texture. Hence the soil posse's low compressibility and plasticity index. The liquid limit of Khajut landslide soil samples ranges from 14 to 27%. According to the plasticity chart, the soil below the line contains medium compressible and plastic inorganic clays (CL), whereas the soil above the line has low compressible and plastic inorganic clays (CL). According to the chart, the samples consist of inorganic silts and clays that have a low to moderate degree of flexibility. The low plasticity index value i.e., 2\u0026ndash;4, of the soil sample may be due to the fine sand present in the mixture. Based on these results, it is concluded that frequent \u0026amp; cyclic wetting \u0026amp; drying during heavy rainfall strongly influence the shrink \u0026amp; swell behavior of the soil on the studied landslide which as a result can deform soils, damage Murree Expressway and other man-made structures. The moisture density relation of the soil sample of the Khajut landslide indicates that the soil requires more compaction effort when subjected to load. The maximum dry density (MDD) Value ranges from 3.152 to 3.30 g/cc \u0026amp; optimum moisture content (OMC) value i.e., 9.3 to 18.5% indicate that the soil on the Khajut landslide is sandy. Therefore, the soil of the Khajut landslide has low swelling potential hence when compacted approximately 95%, the slope failure may tend to be stable in condition.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RECOMENDATIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Khajut landslide is characterized by a relatively higher average slope angle (42\u0026deg;) which seems to be the major causative factor along with the moisture. Therefore, slope modification techniques are suggested as remedial measures to control this landslide such as terracing and benching etc. Bioengineering techniques are also suggested for Khajut landslide to provide vegetation cover for moisture and erosion control along with slope stabilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAuthors declare that they have not any known competing interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCruden DM, Varnes DJ (1996) Landslides: investigation and mitigation. Chapter 3-Landslide types and processes. 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Geol Bull Univ Peshawar 22:159\u0026ndash;179\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-geo-engineering","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"geoe","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Geo-Engineering](https://link.springer.com/journal/40703)","snPcode":"40703","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40703/3","title":"International Journal of Geo-Engineering","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Open","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Western Himalayas, Geotechnical Investigation, Landslide, Murree Expressway","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3283470/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3283470/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eLandslide is a recurrent environmental hazard in the hilly regions and effects the socioeconomic development in Pakistan. The study area lies in the Tehsil Murree, Western Himalayas, Pakistan. The present study deals with detailed geomorphological mapping and geotechnical investigations of shallow rainfall-induced landslide i.e., Khajut Landslide, the Murree Expressway. The extensive field survey and detailed geomorphological, geological mapping and laboratory testing was carried out. Based on field observations, geotechnical investigations and longitudinal profiling, the Khajut landslide is classified as a rotational slide. The slope angle of the Khajut landslide is \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;42\u0026ordm;. The particle size distribution analysis of soil samples of Khajut landslide indicate that the landslide body consists of coarser particles i.e., sand and gravels. The average specific gravity of the soil sample collected from the Khajut landslide range from 2.89 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. The liquid limit of Khajut landslide soil samples ranges from 14%- 19%. The plasticity chart shows that soil is inorganic silt and inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity. The plastic limit of Khajut landslide ranges from 5%- 16%. Based on these results, it is concluded that frequent, cyclic wetting \u0026amp; drying during heavy rainfall strongly influence the shrink \u0026amp; swell behavior of the soil on the studied landslide which as a result can deform soils \u0026amp; damage Murree Expressway and other man-made structures.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Geomorphological and Geotechnical Investigations of Shallow-rainfall Induced Landslides Along Murree Expressway, a Case Study of Khajut Landslide, District Rawalpindi, Pakistan","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2023-09-18 14:47:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3283470/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Reject after review","date":"2024-01-22T19:46:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2023-09-13T03:33:04+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2023-09-13T03:28:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"International Journal of Geo-Engineering","date":"2023-08-28T10:13:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2023-08-28T09:40:03+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Geo-Engineering","date":"2023-08-23T08:29:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-geo-engineering","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"geoe","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Geo-Engineering](https://link.springer.com/journal/40703)","snPcode":"40703","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40703/3","title":"International Journal of Geo-Engineering","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Open","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"cd4ebd64-868d-47fe-80e1-4409c6be079d","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 18th, 2023","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2023-09-18T14:47:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2023-09-18 14:47:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3283470","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3283470","identity":"rs-3283470","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"_2-kVJe1T_tPrBINL-cwx","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}