Sediment Variant during the Northeast Monsoon: A Comparative Analysis of Natural-Based Erosion Protection Structures

Sediment Variant during the Northeast Monsoon: A Comparative Analysis of Natural-Based Erosion Protection Structures | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Sediment Variant during the Northeast Monsoon: A Comparative Analysis of Natural-Based Erosion Protection Structures Puteri Nurfarah Adawiyah Taslin, Siti Nur Hanani Zainuddin, Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6219024/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Sandy beaches are highly susceptible to erosion due to their loose sediment, which is easily displaced by waves, tides, and storms. This issue is particularly evident along the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, especially at Pantai Batu Rakit, Terengganu, an unprotected shoreline facing the South China Sea. The area experiences severe erosion due to intense Northeast Monsoon impacts, despite various mitigation efforts and hard engineering structures. To address this, a study was conducted to examine sediment dynamics during the monsoon and assess the effectiveness of erosion protection measures, including the nature-based Effective Fence (E-Fence). Sediments were collected from both protected (E-Fence) and unprotected areas, and grain size distribution was analyzed using conventional sieving methods. The findings reveal that the E-Fence effectively minimizes erosion by trapping and accumulating sediments, thereby reducing wave impact. Notably, zones with the E-Fence contained a higher proportion of coarser sediments, indicating enhanced energy dissipation. This reduction in wave energy is crucial for mitigating severe erosion impacts and preserving coastal morphology. The results highlight the E-Fence’s potential in strengthening coastal resilience and protecting vulnerable shorelines. Beyond immediate benefits, the study supports further research into sustainable coastal defense mechanisms. Future investigations should explore the long-term effectiveness of E-Fences and their integration with other coastal protection strategies. Sediment Dynamics Sandy Beach Shoreline Protection Erosion Effective Fence (E-Fence) Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1.0 Introduction The Northeast Monsoon, particularly significant along the east coast of Malaysia, including Terengganu, is a climatic phenomenon characterized by prevailing winds blowing from the northeast (Ariffin et al., 2019). Lasting from November to March, this monsoon season brings heavy rainfall and strong winds, resulting in heightened erosion and sediment transport along coastal areas. Terengganu, with its extensive coastline and reliance on marine resources and tourism, faces notable impacts from these seasonal weather patterns (Ariffin et al., 2019). Understanding the dynamics of sediment transport during this period is crucial for mitigating erosion, preserving coastal ecosystems, and protecting infrastructures vital to the region's economy and livelihoods. Sediment transport plays a fundamental role in shaping coastal landscapes, influencing beach morphology, sedimentation rates in estuaries, and sediment-related hazards such as shoreline retreat and sedimentation of navigation channels (Ismail et al., 2020). Moreover, sediments serve as habitats for various marine organisms and contribute to the overall ecological balance of coastal ecosystems. Therefore, comprehending the grain size, sedimentation patterns, and processes of sediment movement during the monsoon season is essential for sustainable coastal management and biodiversity conservation (Nelson et al., 2019). The presence of anthropogenic activities along the coastline can significantly alter sediment dynamics during the Northeast Monsoon (Harris et al., 2024 ). Coastal development, including infrastructure construction, dredging, and sand mining, can disrupt natural sediment transport processes and exacerbate erosion in vulnerable areas (El Behja et al., 2025 ). Deforestation and land use changes in coastal watersheds can increase sediment runoff into rivers and coastal waters, intensifying sedimentation rates and exacerbating coastal erosion. Climate change-induced sea-level rise and changes in storm patterns further compound the challenges associated with sediment dynamics, leading to increased erosion and coastal vulnerability along the east coast of Malaysia. In response to these challenges, erosion protection structures emerge as critical defence mechanisms (Magdalena et al., 2025 ). These structures, ranging from natural barriers such as mangroves to engineered solutions such as seawalls and breakwaters, serve to mitigate the impacts of erosion by dissipating wave energy, stabilizing shorelines, and trapping sediments (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2020). In Terengganu, where coastal communities rely on infrastructures such as ports, fishing harbours, and tourism facilities, the implementation of erosion protection structures is vital for safeguarding these assets against the erosive forces unleashed by the monsoon season (Zulfakar et al., 2020). Specifically, the Effective Fence, also known as E-Fence, was introduced at Pantai Batu Rakit to help manage sediment loss in this vulnerable area. Coastal erosion is a major concern in monsoon-dominated regions, where strong wave energy and storm surges drive significant sediment displacement. Traditional hard engineering structures like seawalls and breakwaters often disrupt natural sediment transport, leading to unintended consequences such as downdrift erosion and loss of beach sediment. Nature-based solutions (NbS), such as sand-trapping fences, offer a more sustainable and adaptive approach, yet their effectiveness under extreme monsoon conditions remains underexplored. This study introduces the Effective Fence (E-Fence), an innovative erosion protection structure designed to enhance sediment retention while preserving natural shoreline dynamics. Unlike conventional sediment barriers, the E-Fence employs a strategically designed zigzag configuration to optimize sand accumulation, dissipate wave energy, and mitigate erosion. By analysing grain size distribution and sedimentation patterns between protected and unprotected zones, this research investigates how the E-Fence influences sediment transport processes. The findings reveal that monsoonal waves play a crucial role in carrying offshore sediment toward the shore, where the E-Fence facilitates deposition by reducing wave velocity and turbulence (Talukder et al., 2021 ). The structure helps retain coarser sediments in the backshore while finer particles remain suspended and are transported seaward. This redistribution of sediment alters beach morphology over time, contributing to enhanced coastal sedimentation pattern (Thi et al., 2025 ). These insights provide a deeper understanding of monsoon-driven sediment transport and highlight the E-Fence’s potential as a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative for erosion mitigation and coastal resilience. 1.1 What is an Effective Fence (E-Fence) as an erosion protection structure? Sand-trapping fences are one of the other prevalent nature-based solutions that were used to play a crucial role in promoting dune toe growth along sandy shorelines for coastal protection (Eichmanns & Schüttrumpf, 2022 ). Sand trapping is known for its essential component in maintaining coastal integrity. Sand-trapping fences, a commonly used nature-based technique, play a crucial role in promoting the growth of dune toes along sandy coastlines, thereby enhancing coastal protection (Charbonneau et al. ,2021). These fences primarily serve to combat the persistent erosion of dunes, safeguarding vulnerable areas and shielding them from the relentless onslaught of wind-blown sand (Eichmanns & Schüttrumpf, 2020 ; Sedrati, 2018 ). In this case, an effective fence is introduced or better known as the “E-Fence”. The E-Fence is a specialized erosion protection structure that has been designed to combat soil erosion, particularly in regions that are vulnerable to wind erosion (Zainuddin et al., 2024 ). The primary function of an E-Fence is to act as a barrier that reduces wind speed, thereby diminishing the erosive force of the wind on the soil surface. This is crucial in preventing the displacement and loss of topsoil, which can have severe implications for agricultural productivity and ecological balance. E-Fences are typically constructed from materials named “Kayu Seraya” that can effectively interrupt and reduce wind and wave velocity. The design of an E-Fence often incorporates a series of vertical slats, mesh, or other permeable barriers. These structures allow some airflow while significantly reducing wind and wave speed at ground level, which is critical for their effectiveness in erosion control. The installation of E-Fences is strategically planned to optimize their impact on reducing wind and wave erosion. They are commonly placed along field edges, around construction sites, or in areas with loose, dry soil. The height and spacing of the fence are tailored to the specific wind conditions and the type of soil erosion being addressed. By slowing down the wind near the soil surface, E-Fences reduce the available energy to lift and transport soil particles. Additionally, these fences trap and accumulate soil particles that are carried by the wind and waves, gradually forming a protective layer of soil or sand on the windward side of the fence. Zainuddin ( 2022 ) examined the effectiveness of the E-Fence at Ma' Daerah, Malaysia, for dune restoration. The Ma' Daerah coast on the east coast of Malaysia has been experiencing rapid erosion caused by monsoonal storms and a lack of protection. This coastal area is surrounded by lowland forests and is exposed to high waves during monsoons. The average wind speed ranges from 4.0 to 8.0m/s. The study emphasized the importance of a zigzag sand trapping (E-Fence) with 5cm x 8cm x 3m for dune restoration. The results, obtained by analysing the beach volume and slope using Profiler-XL 3.2, demonstrated successful dune restoration. The wind velocities decrease from the swash zone to the backshore, with prevailing winds coming from the northeast. However, some rows of sand traps were recently lost due to insufficient embedding in the ground, as only 1m out of the 3m sand traps were buried. These losses occurred because of the high-wave attack. Sand-trapping fence configurations play a crucial role in initiating foredune development (Eichmanns & Schüttrumpf, 2021 ). Hence, the zigzag pattern has been found to be more effective in trapping sand in the short term compared to the traditional straight fence design, likely because it can catch windblown sand from different angles, leading to increased accumulation (Charbonneau & Wnek, 2016 ; Jackson & Nordstrom, 2018 ) which has been used as the E-Fence pattern. While straight fences offer speed and cost-effectiveness, zigzag fences provide superior sand-trapping performance (Liu et al. ,2023). Double fence systems have demonstrated greater success in mitigating wind velocity and managing wind-transported sand particles compared to single barriers (Wang et al. ,2017). However, the back fence may not gather much sand in certain situations, and if the sand dunes are narrow, constructing the back fence may not be necessary (Tong & Lin, 2016 ). Additionally, positioning fences perpendicular to the dominant wind direction optimizes sand capture rates (Eichmanns & Schüttrumpf, 2021 ). The size, geometry (porosity and height), and distribution of fence openings influence sand-trapping efficiency through wind turbulence, but their impact is overshadowed by porosity (Liu et al. ,2023). Porosity plays a key role in determining where sand deposits and how efficiently it is captured (Ning et al. ,2020). However, the low porosity of the fences led to erosion at its base due to the formation of a recirculating bubble. To address this issue, researchers recommend reducing the porosity to 50% or 60%, slowing down the wind, and promoting sand accumulation (Tong & Lin, 2016 ). Nonetheless, if the porosity is too low, all the sand settles in the front, resulting in uneven dunes and potential fence collapse under the weight of the sand (Huang & Yim, 2014 ). The dimensions of the E-Fence, particularly their height, play a crucial role in determining the effectiveness of sand capture and the subsequent development of dunes (Eichmanns & Schüttrumpf, 2020 ; Ning et al. ,2020). For the opening characteristic, fences featuring angular apertures, such as vertical or horizontal slits, demonstrate greater effectiveness in capturing sand compared to those with rounded openings, such as circular holes (Li & Sherman, 2015 ). Sand fences not only help to stabilize existing dune structures but also foster the development of new dunes by offering a permeable barrier to wind-driven sand particles (Harris et al. ,2020) so does the E-Fence. Frequently utilized degradable materials for sand fences include wooden planks, bamboo slats, brushwood, and chestnut palings, while the use of synthetic fabrics is less common (Eichmanns & Schüttrumpf, 2021 ). These environmentally friendly options offer a sustainable approach to coastal protection by promoting dune stability without introducing long-lasting artificial materials into the ecosystem. Lastly, the benefits of E-Fences are numerous. They are relatively easy to install and maintain, making them a cost-effective solution compared to other erosion control measures. Their design and materials can be adapted to various environments and specific needs, making them versatile in combating wind erosion in different settings. Beyond their primary function of erosion control, E-Fences help preserve soil health and prevent the loss of topsoil, which is vital for maintaining agricultural productivity and ecosystem stability. They also contribute to reducing dust pollution, providing significant health and environmental benefits. Overall, effective fences are a practical and efficient solution for controlling wind erosion. They protect soil resources, maintain environmental quality, and offer a sustainable approach to managing erosion in areas that are susceptible to wind damage. Their implementation can lead to long-term benefits for agriculture, infrastructure, and natural habitats. 2.0 Study area As shown in Fig. 1 and according to Bagheri et al. (2019), the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, which includes the state of Terengganu, spans approximately 860 kilometers. This coast is primarily characterized by sandy beaches, featuring a straight shoreline in the north and spiral-shaped bays in the south. According to Bagheri et al. (2021), Kuala Terengganu is located within the state of Terengganu, the southwestern part of the South China Sea that is known for its largest semi-enclosed marginal sea in the Western Pacific Ocean. The state is bordered by Kelantan to the northwest and Pahang to the southwest. Terengganu, with its equatorial climate, experiences significant effects on its wave climate and hydrological regime due to monsoons (Bagheri et al. ,2019). Consequently, the Terengganu coastline is influenced by two monsoon seasons, specifically the Northeast monsoon and the Southwest monsoon. The research area can be found on the east coast of Kuala Terengganu, Peninsular Malaysia, situated between longitudes 103°2.760'E and 103°2.940'E and latitudes 5° 27.150'N and 5° 27.060'N (Pantai Batu Rakit). The Pantai Batu Rakit area was selected for this study to implement the sand-trapping E-Fence for several reasons. First, the study area has a straight shoreline and faces the South China Sea, which is susceptible to erosion (Anuar & Latiff, 2017). During the northeast monsoon, erosion may be exacerbated due to the area's unprotected, open nature, making it vulnerable to further erosion in the absence of coastal defences. Another reason is the need for nature-based protection measures that benefit various stakeholders in the area. By employing sand-trapping methods instead of constructing hard coastal structures, the local fishing community can benefit from designated boat docking areas. Additionally, this approach enables the preservation and maintenance of food stalls that are situated near the beach, promoting local businesses and recreational activities. Sand fences were constructed at frontal ocean dunes to prevent erosion from a wave over wash and were implemented sufficiently landward from the berm crest to reduce frequent wave attacks at both sites. These sand-trapping E-Fences were made from vertical wooden slats that are linked together as well as being supported by wooden posts. Basically, E-Fences are quite affordable to build and construct, as well as being environmentally beneficial. There are various configurations that have been used to trap sand, but a zigzag pattern is considered in this study. A zigzag pattern has proven to accumulate sand at a high rate within a short time as referred to in many case studies. 3.0 Methodology This section outlines the specific procedures and techniques utilized in the study, including sediment collection, and analytical methods. These steps were carefully chosen to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the findings, providing a solid foundation for assessing the impact of the E-Fence on coastal sediment dynamics. Sediments were collected to get D50 data. The particle diameter at 50% in the cumulative distribution is called the median diameter or medium value. In this case, a D50 value of 3µm means that 50% of the particles in the sample are larger than 3µm, while the remaining 50% are smaller. The purpose of collecting the sediments; 59 (1) to differentiate sizes of sediments during northeast (2) to differentiate sediments size between protected zone (fence) and undisturbed zone (non-fence). To collect the sediments, two transects which are in a fenced area and an unprotected area were chosen. Overall, for Batu Rakit there are nine transects, however, the transects that will be used are transect 9 (unprotected) and transect 5 (protected by a fence). The selection of this transect is not random but this transect area is selected due to the activation of sediment and to obtain the difference of sediments between the area that is covered by fences where the open area is without any protection. Several approaches have been developed to assess grain size distribution, including sieving, pebble counting, laser diffraction, dynamic light scattering, image analysis, sedimentation tests, and hydrometers (Sulaiman et al. ,2021). However, for this study, a conventional sieving method was employed, which determines passed-weight percentages for grain size distribution (Garefalakis et al. ,2023). Before sieving, sediments were collected to differentiate sizes between the protected (fence) and undisturbed (non-fence) zones. Four transects were chosen, two in the fenced area and two in the unprotected area. Sediments were collected at 5m intervals from the backshore to the low tide area on the selected transects using a ladle, plastic wrap, paper tape, marker, and measuring tape. The ladle served to dredge the sand, and plastics were labelled, and taped every 5m. The collected sand, which was estimated to weigh over 100 grams, was dried in a 60°C oven for 72 hours to reach constant weight and zero water content for dry sieving. Sieving, a mechanical process based on particle size, was conducted using a sieve shaker with 7 series of sieves ranging from 2000 µm to less than 63 µm. The sieving lasted for 15 minutes, and throughout the process, sediments were filtered through the sieve mesh. The weight of the sample in each sieve was recorded, and sediment categorization was determined, using GRADISTAT to which to analyses ang obtain the grain size data from various measurement methods. 4.0 Results & Discussion 4.1 Sediment transport pattern This section investigates the performance evaluation of sediment transport in terms of sediment morphology. The grain size distribution can depict the condition of grain sizes, whether they are influenced by strong wave energy or not. Two distinct zones (backshore and foreshore) with varying bed sediment characteristics were selected along sand-trapping E-Fence transects to identify grain size distribution in these areas. The grain size distribution was classified according to the Wentworth scale. Figures 2 show a comparison of sediment size classes between the non-protected fence area and the protected fence area, with related observed D50 values from the backshore to the area after the E-Fence. At 0m on the backshore, the fence-protected transect shows a pattern resembling the non-protected area. In the backshore area at 0m, grain distribution tended to be smaller in the non-protected transect area (Transects 1 and 8, > 250 µm (fine sand)), compared to the E-Fence area, which had similar sizes around 250 µm and approached 500 µm (medium sand) by November 2023. At 5m in the backshore area, the cumulative grain size distributions showed a similar pattern between areas with and without the protection of the E-Fence, dominant in the range of 250 µm – 500 µm. However, on Transect 6, the grain size was generally larger within the E-Fence, tending toward coarser sand. In the 10m to 15m range, grain distribution differed notably between areas with and without E-Fence protection. In unprotected areas, the most dominant grain sizes ranged from 250 µm (fine sand) up to 500 µm (medium sand) in the last three months of sampling. Conversely, areas intercepted by the E-Fence showed a variety of grain sizes, ranging from 250 µm (fine sand) to 2000 µm (very coarse sand). Field data from sand samples that are collected under the influence of the implemented sand fence are likely to show changes in both grain composition and particle size of beach sediments in front of and behind the fence, suggesting that the E-Fence is sorting and filtering the sand passing through it. 4.2 Sediment Variant with & without Erosion Protection Structures The effectiveness of the E-Fence in reducing the impact of wave strength can be further demonstrated using data from sediment grain sizes in the study area. This analysis provides a comprehensive understanding of the role E-Fence structures play in coastal protection. As stated in the Results section, the sediment grain sizes protected by the E-Fence are dynamic and coarser compared to areas not protected by the E-Fence (Figs. 2 ). This variation occurs due to the significant impact of turbulent waves in the E-Fence area. Turbulence is one of the main hydrodynamic factors that can cause changes in the amount and suspension of surface sediment (Pang et al., 2020 ). Protected areas experience a reduction in wave energy compared to conditions without protection (Wang et al., 2023 ). This reduction in wave energy results in the upward coarsening of sediment sizes during wave-driven transport (Rafati et al., 2020 ). The dynamic and coarse sediment sizes observed provide evidence that the presence of the E-Fence effectively reduces the impact of wave energy. This reduction in wave energy is crucial as it helps to mitigate more severe erosion impacts. Moreover, the data underlines the practical benefits of implementing such structures, demonstrating their potential to enhance coastal resilience. This not only highlights the practical benefits of implementing such structures but also supports ongoing research and development in sustainable coastal defense mechanisms. The findings emphasize the importance of E-Fences in preserving coastal morphology and protecting vulnerable shorelines from the detrimental effects of strong wave actions. Beach morphology was computed using beach profiles in each study area to validate data and determine whether the beach is eroding or accumulating over time. To verify data and ascertain if the beach is eroding or accumulating over time, beach morphology was calculated using beach profiles in each study region. Overall, a notable rate of erosion was noted in the E-Fence area, as indicated by the pattern in Fig. 3 (Batu Rakit). The profiles in front of the E-Fence (foreshore) and behind it (backshore) showed clear variances in the beach profile data. Erosion behind the E-Fence was observed in both the protected and unprotected sections during a 6-month monitoring period (September 2023–February 2024). All transects showed significant erosion but Transects 1 and 8, which are not protected by E-Fence, were more affected. For the backshore area, which is behind the E-Fence, both in the protected and unprotected zones, severe erosion has been observed (Fig. 3 ). Severe erosion has been noticed in both the protected and unprotected zones of the backshore area, which is behind the E-Fence (Fig. 3 ). With November drawing near and the Northeast monsoon season beginning, the erosion gets worse and starts to affect Malaysia's east coast. However, the erosion in the unprotected parts and the E-Fence protected areas differs significantly. Throughout the month, notable erosion occurred in Transect 1 (the area without E-Fence protection), where a drastic change in the backshore slope was observed. In contrast, transect 2 to the Transect 7 (E-Fence protected areas) experienced continuous but small-scale sediment loss, with erosion from month to month not as severe as in Transect 1. This suggests that while the E-Fence does not completely prevent erosion, it significantly mitigates its severity. Furthermore, vegetation collapse behind the E-Fence was pronounced over the last three months (December 2023 to February 2024). Collapse in unprotected areas was notably more severe compared to E-Fence areas, particularly in January 2024 along Transect 8. For the foreshore area, which is the area after the E-Fence, significant differences in accretion and erosion were observed between areas with and without E-Fence protection (refer Fig. 4.4). Based on observations, the shortest beach profiles were recorded in January 2024 during the monsoon season, meanwhile the longest beach profiles line can be found during November 2023. The E-Fence-protected area exhibited higher beach profiles compared to the unprotected area, especially between Transect 1 and Transect 3 in October 2023. This is because the energy impact from incoming waves was reduced when the waves intercepted the E-Fence, resulting in slower wave energy and less sediment being carried away. As a result, the sediment was more likely to be deposited there. However, it seems that these natural sand barriers are essential for shielding the dune and upper backshore from wave effects. Their efficacy suggests that such techniques could be applied in other coastal areas that are at risk. The goal of installing E-Fences was to stop sand from being shipped out to sea. However, erosion deteriorated during the 6-month sample period, emphasizing the significance of considering several factors. 4.3 Sediment Transport As for the analysis of sediment transport dynamics specifically focusing on the study site at Pantai Batu Rakit, which data documented during the Northeast Monsoon season, a seasonal phenomenon, which normally occurring from November to March, was characterized by strong northeasterly winds and heavy rainfall, which significantly influence the coastal sediment dynamics and beach morphology. During the monsoon, increased wave energy drives sediment transport processes, particularly influencing grain size distribution along the shoreline. High-energy waves and turbulent conditions mobilize and transport finer sediments, such as silts and clays, offshore, where they are carried by backwash currents and settle in deeper waters. Consequently, this offshore transport leaves behind coarser sediments ranging from medium sand (0.2 mm) to very coarse sand (up to 2 mm), which accumulate on the beach face and form a steeper profile. This process leads to a marked shift in sediment composition, as coarser grains become more prevalent in the swash and backshore zones, while finer particles are increasingly absent from these areas. Figure 4 show the illustration on the wind and wave direction during the northeast monsoon that leads to the sediment transport movement. Several primary factors have been identified as contributing to the severe erosion in the study area. A significant factor is the geomorphology of the region, which is classified as a sandy coast, a type particularly susceptible to wave action. The inherent characteristics of sandy coasts, such as their loose sediment structure and high permeability, make them more vulnerable to the erosive forces of waves and currents action (Kuriyama & Yanagishima, 2018). The study was conducted during the Northeast Monsoon, a period when the east coast, particularly Terengganu, facing the South China Sea, experienced high wave energy (Abd Razak et al. , 2024). During this monsoon season, the wave energy is significantly amplified, leading to increased coastal erosion and sediment displacement. According to Rahim et al. (2023), Pantai Batu Rakit, Kuala Terengganu, is believed to be one of the areas directly impacted by wave energy, resulting in the erosion of the beach surface, especially medium-sized sediment particles. Their research indicates that the high-energy waves not only erode the beach surface but also transport sediment offshore, altering the coastal morphology. Their study, using UAV mapping, also identified Batu Rakit as one of the critical erosion-affected areas in Kuala Terengganu. Besides the factors associated with the sandy coast type, heavy rainfall also plays a significant role in contributing to erosion in the study area. As emphasized by Ariffin et al. (2023) and Nasir et al. (2023), heavy rainfall during the Northeast Monsoon exacerbates coastal erosion. This increased rainfall leads to higher runoff volumes, which in turn enhances the transport of sediments from inland areas to the coast (Alves et al. , 2020; Browning & Sawyer, 2021). The combination of high wave energy and heavy rainfall significantly impacts the coastal morphology, leading to severe erosion at Pantai Batu Rakit. This evidence leads to the vulnerability of the area to natural phenomena, which has a substantial impact on its coastal stability. Figures 4.5 and Fig. 4.6 illustrate the natural phenomena contributing to the severe erosion observed. These figures provide a visual representation of the cycle of natural events leading to the degradation of the coastline. Despite the overall severity of the erosion, the E-Fence structures proved effective in preserving sand in the backshore by reducing the wave impact during Northeast monsoon. The presence of E-Fences has been shown to decrease wave energy, thereby reducing sediment transport and promoting sediment accumulation 5.0 Conclusion During the northeast monsoon, the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia experiences significant changes in sediment grain size on its beaches due to the strong winds and heavy rainfall brought by this seasonal weather pattern, which typically occurs from November to March. The monsoon's high-energy conditions significantly impact coastal processes and sediment dynamics. The increased wave energy during the northeast monsoon tends to move finer sediments offshore, leaving behind coarser materials on the beach. This results in an overall increase in grain size. Heavy wave action during the monsoon erodes beach materials, which are then transported and redeposited, forming a steeper beach profile with coarser sediments being deposited higher up the beach. Fine sediments, such as silts and clays, which are less than 0.063 mm in size, are often suspended in the water column and transported further offshore, contributing to the sorting of sediment based on grain size. The turbulent conditions enhance this sorting process, with coarser sediments being preferentially deposited in the high-energy swash zone, while finer particles are carried away by backwash and offshore currents. The dynamic nature of the beach profile during the monsoon leads to significant changes in morphology. High-energy waves cause the erosion of dune structures and the formation of berms and sandbars that are composed of coarser materials. The constant reworking of sediments during this period ensures that the beach surface remains dominated by coarser grains, typically ranging from 0.2 mm to 2.0 mm. Seasonal variability in sediment grain size is evident, with finer sediments more likely to accumulate on the beaches during the calmer southwest monsoon (May to September) when wave energy is lower. During this period, grain sizes on the beach may include a higher proportion of fine sand (0.063-0.2 mm) and even some silt (0.002–0.063 mm). However, the high-energy northeast monsoon reverses this pattern, eroding and redistributing these finer sediments, resulting in a coarser sediment profile during the monsoon season. The changes in sediment grain size can impact coastal ecosystems, particularly those sensitive to sediment composition, such as mangroves and coral reefs (Takagi, 2019 ). Coarser sediments may alter habitats and affect organisms that rely on finer sediments for burrowing and feeding. Moreover, coastal infrastructure and human activities can also be affected by these seasonal changes, thus necessitating adaptive management strategies to mitigate erosion and maintain beach stability. Overall, the northeast monsoon significantly influences the sediment grain size on the east coast beaches of Peninsular Malaysia. Here, the effectiveness of E-Fence in reducing the impact of wave strength can be further demonstrated using data from sediment grain sizes in the study area. The sediment grain sizes in the area protected by the E-Fence are dynamic and coarser compared to areas that are not protected by the E-Fence. This occurs due to the impact of turbulent waves in the E-Fence area. Turbulence is one of the main hydrodynamic factors that can cause changes in the amount and suspension of surface sediment (Pang et al., 2020 ). Protected areas experience a reduction in wave energy compared to conditions without protection (Wang et al., 2023 ). This reduction in wave energy results in upward coarsening of sediment sizes during wave-driven transport (Rafati et al., 2020 ). The dynamic and coarse sediment sizes that have been observed provide evidence that the presence of the E-Fence effectively reduces the impact of wave energy. This reduction in wave energy is crucial as it helps to mitigate more severe erosion impacts. Therefore, this not only highlights the practical benefits of implementing such structures but also supports the ongoing research and development of sustainable coastal defense mechanism. Declarations Additional Information The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Effi Helmy Ariffin reports that financial support has been provided by the Malaysia Ministry of Higher Education. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Conflict of Interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. Ethics Approval Not Applicable. Consent to Participate Not Applicable. Consent for Publication Not Applicable. Funding The research leading to these results received funding from the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) of Malaysia under Grant Agreement No: FRGS/1/2022/WAB02/UMT/02/1. Author Contribution P.N.A.T: Conceptualization; Writing - original draft; Visualization; Methodology. S.N.H.Z: Visualization; Methodology. K.N.A.M: Writing – Review & Editing. M.M: Supervision; Investigation. M.Z.R: Writing – Review & Editing; Supervision. Y.A.B: Writing – Review & Editing. M.S.I.I: Supervision; Writing – Review & Editing. E.H.A: Supervision; Writing – Review & Editing; Methodology; Visualization. Acknowledgment The authors would also like to acknowledge the editors and an anonymous reviewer, who contributed immensely to improving the quality of this publication. This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) of Malaysia under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) FRGS/1/2022/WAB02/UMT/02/1. Data Availability Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files. References Charbonneau, B. R., Dohner, S. M., Wnek, J. P., Barber, D., Zarnetske, P., & Casper, B. B. (2021). Vegetation effects on coastal foredune initiation: Wind tunnel experiments and field validation for three dune-building plants. Geomorphology , 378 , 1–17. Charbonneau, B. R., & Wnek, J. P. (2016). Reactionary fence installation for post-Superstorm Sandy dune recovery Bianca . 84 (3). Eichmanns, C., & Schüttrumpf, H. (2020). Investigating changes in aeolian sediment transport at coastal dunes and sand trapping fences: A field study on the german coast. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering , 8 (12), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse8121012 Eichmanns, C., & Schüttrumpf, H. (2021). Influence of sand trapping fences on dune toe growth and its relation with potential aeolian sediment transport. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering , 9 (8), 850. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9080850 Eichmanns, C., & Schüttrumpf, H. (2022). A Nature-Based Solution for Coastal Protection: Wind Tunnel Investigations on the Influence of Sand-Trapping Fences on Sediment Accretion. Frontiers in Built Environment , 8 (April), 1–16. El Behja, H., El M’rini, A., Nachite, D., Bouchkara, M., El Khalidi, K., & Zourarah, B. (2025). Hydrodynamic Modeling of Khenifiss Coastal Lagoon, Southern Atlantic Coast of Morocco: Implications for Sediment Infilling. Thalassas , 41 (1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41208-024-00765-4 Garefalakis, P., do Prado, A. H., Mair, D., Douillet, G. A., Nyffenegger, F., & Schlunegger, F. (2023). Comparison of three grain size measuring methods applied to coarse-grained gravel deposits. Sedimentary Geology , 446 , 106340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2023.106340 Harris, M. E., Ellis, J. T., & Barrineau, P. (2020). Evaluating the geomorphic response from sand fences on dunes impacted by hurricanes. Ocean and Coastal Management , 193 (10524), 7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.105247 Harris, M. F., Nadzri, M. I., Yusof, K. M. K. K., Razak, W. A. J. A., Shukri, M. H. M., Baharim, N. B., Ali, A., & Ariffin, E. H. (2024). Seasonal Variability On Cross-shore Profile in Meso-tidal Settings Due to Lunar Cycle Effects in Kuala Terengganu Coast. Thalassas , 40 (2), 981–993. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41208-024-00705-2 Huang, W. P., & Yim, J. Z. (2014). Sand dune restoration experiments at Bei-Men Coast, Taiwan. Ecological Engineering , 73 , 409–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.09.038 Jackson, N. L., & Nordstrom, K. F. (2018). Aeolian sediment transport on a recovering storm-eroded foredune with sand fences. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms , 43 (6), 1310–1320. Li, B., & Sherman, D. J. (2015). Aerodynamics and morphodynamics of sand fences: A review. Aeolian Research , 17 , 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeolia.2014.11.005 Liu, J., Wu, J., & Kimura, R. (2023). Evaluating the Sand-Trapping Efficiency of Sand Fences Using a Combination of Wind-Blown Sand Measurements and UAV Photogrammetry at Tottori Sand Dunes, Japan. Remote Sensing , 15 (4), 1098. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15041098 Magdalena, I., Abidin, M. A., Azis, M. I., Widowati, & Solekhudin, I. (2025). The effectiveness of the combination of breakwater and trench in reducing waves. Results in Engineering , 25 (November 2024), 103530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103530 Ning, Q., Li, B., & Ellis, J. T. (2020). Fence height control on sand trapping. Aeolian Research , 46 (June), 1–8. Pang, W., Dai, Z., Ma, B., Wang, J., Huang, H., & Li, S. (2020). Linkage between turbulent kinetic energy, waves and suspended sediment concentrations in the nearshore zone. Marine Geology , 425 (March), 106190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2020.106190 Rafati, Y., Hsu, T. J., Cheng, Z., Yu, X., & Calantoni, J. (2020). Armoring and exposure effects on the wave-driven sediment transport. Continental Shelf Research , 211 (August 2019), 104291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2020.104291 Sedrati, M. (2018). A sustainable alternative for coastal dune restoration by sand-trapping fences and algae wrack: AlgoBox®. The EGU General Assembly , 20 (July 2014), 7376. Sulaiman, M. S., Zainal Abidin, R., Zakaria, N. A., Ahmad, M. F., Fitriadhy, A., & Jusoh, A. (2021). Revisiting the automated grain sizing technique (AGS) for characterizing grain size distribution. International Journal of River Basin Management , 0 (0), 1–10. Takagi, H. (2019). “Adapted mangrove on hybrid platform” – Coupling of ecological and engineering principles against coastal hazards. Results in Engineering , 4 (August), 100067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2019.100067 Talukder, A., Mallick, D., & Mondal, S. (2021). Seasonal Surface and Bottom Temperature-salinity Anomaly of a Subtropical River in Response to Sea Surface Elevation. Thalassas , 37 (2), 445–456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41208-021-00319-y Thi, V., Thu, H., Nghi, V. Van, Anh, T., Thai, N., Hung, H., Le, V., & Thai, D. (2025). Impact of Sea Level Rise and the Superport on Riverbed Morphology in the Can Gio Bay , Southern Vietnam . 6 , 1–17. Tong, X. L., & Lin, T. Y. (2016). Dune restoration experiments during a typhoon season on Taiwan’s Si-Cao coast. Journal of Marine Science and Technology (Taiwan) , 23 (5), 1032–1040. Wang, J., Yuan, Y., Yu, Z. G., Qu, S., & Li, W. (2023). Effect of turbulence driven by wind on sediment suspension under different submerged vegetation density in Lake Taihu. Ecological Indicators , 154 (May), 110767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110767 Wang, T., Qu, J., Ling, Y., Xie, S., & Xiao, J. (2017). Wind tunnel test on the effect of metal net fences on sand flux in a Gobi Desert, China. Journal of Arid Land , 9 (6), 888–899. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40333-017-0068-5 Zainuddin, S. N. H. (2022). Coastal Dunes Restoration by Sand Trapping at Batu Rakit and Ma’ Daerah, Terengganu . UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA TERENGGANU. Zainuddin, S. N. H., Ariffin, E. H., Taslin, P. N. A., Dong, W. S., Ramli, M. Z., Abdul Maulud, K. N., Awang, N. A., Nadzri, M. I., Ibrahim, M. S. I., & Ratnayake, A. S. (2024). Sand dune restoration as sustainable natural architectural design for coastal protection along seasonal storm-prone beach. Results in Engineering , 22 (December 2023), 102149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102149 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6219024","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":429994860,"identity":"5f52006c-c9d6-43b1-aa6a-6a270927ece7","order_by":0,"name":"Puteri Nurfarah Adawiyah Taslin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Puteri","middleName":"Nurfarah Adawiyah","lastName":"Taslin","suffix":""},{"id":429994861,"identity":"23f18eb6-0df9-4358-9091-be8b2d4e7c12","order_by":1,"name":"Siti Nur Hanani Zainuddin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Siti","middleName":"Nur Hanani","lastName":"Zainuddin","suffix":""},{"id":429994862,"identity":"2154013d-68d7-42e3-aba6-372e399c88af","order_by":2,"name":"Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Khairul","middleName":"Nizam Abdul","lastName":"Maulud","suffix":""},{"id":429994863,"identity":"38dd7a1d-b315-4350-b007-a1c155468bd5","order_by":3,"name":"Mardiha Mokhtar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Tun Hussein Onn","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mardiha","middleName":"","lastName":"Mokhtar","suffix":""},{"id":429994864,"identity":"fbd8b8d8-554e-48a0-a414-03212d955f0f","order_by":4,"name":"Muhammad Zahir Ramli","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"International Islamic University Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muhammad","middleName":"Zahir","lastName":"Ramli","suffix":""},{"id":429994865,"identity":"b7a2b695-a12f-4095-b4cb-dd9615a43c85","order_by":5,"name":"Yannie Anak Benson","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Water Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yannie","middleName":"Anak","lastName":"Benson","suffix":""},{"id":429994866,"identity":"78117945-98ed-4aa7-a59a-06bc0d6c2e40","order_by":6,"name":"Muhammad Shazril Idris Ibrahim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Malaya","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muhammad","middleName":"Shazril Idris","lastName":"Ibrahim","suffix":""},{"id":429994867,"identity":"d148bb1e-5a51-4dc9-84ad-b87c4315a767","order_by":7,"name":"Effi Helmy 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10:23:27","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6219024/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6219024/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":78817461,"identity":"168b640b-fae5-406c-bc06-dbb12e49cbc5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-19 10:47:39","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":369790,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy area showing a beach on the Terengganu coast, Pantai Batu Rakit.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6219024/v1/90d8b16b7098feabf031292a.png"},{"id":78817463,"identity":"993ce4ed-8509-40bb-80b7-984e0534d86c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-19 10:47:39","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":280851,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePattern grain sizes distribution (without and with E-Fence) from September 2023 to February 2024\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6219024/v1/5511f8c460c437a0f830c131.png"},{"id":78817462,"identity":"d1f1c2ce-eff0-4fd1-8105-e935eea1988b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-19 10:47:39","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":126066,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eD50 grain sizes distribution on the area without and within E-fence protection.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6219024/v1/c35e9ed0a5e47f344512ae1f.png"},{"id":78818040,"identity":"891d34f4-1e51-46b8-ab56-048358c8c771","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-19 10:55:39","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":462338,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe illustration of the wind and wave direction\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6219024/v1/f7b938280bb7de00052af921.png"},{"id":85590863,"identity":"dde9e272-9292-4a4d-ab67-a442f6472ddf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-28 11:01:44","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1875797,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6219024/v1/2287b484-3eff-4dfc-8626-71dae56d4f78.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Sediment Variant during the Northeast Monsoon: A Comparative Analysis of Natural-Based Erosion Protection Structures","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Northeast Monsoon, particularly significant along the east coast of Malaysia, including Terengganu, is a climatic phenomenon characterized by prevailing winds blowing from the northeast (Ariffin et al., 2019). Lasting from November to March, this monsoon season brings heavy rainfall and strong winds, resulting in heightened erosion and sediment transport along coastal areas. Terengganu, with its extensive coastline and reliance on marine resources and tourism, faces notable impacts from these seasonal weather patterns (Ariffin et al., 2019). Understanding the dynamics of sediment transport during this period is crucial for mitigating erosion, preserving coastal ecosystems, and protecting infrastructures vital to the region's economy and livelihoods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSediment transport plays a fundamental role in shaping coastal landscapes, influencing beach morphology, sedimentation rates in estuaries, and sediment-related hazards such as shoreline retreat and sedimentation of navigation channels (Ismail et al., 2020). Moreover, sediments serve as habitats for various marine organisms and contribute to the overall ecological balance of coastal ecosystems. Therefore, comprehending the grain size, sedimentation patterns, and processes of sediment movement during the monsoon season is essential for sustainable coastal management and biodiversity conservation (Nelson et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe presence of anthropogenic activities along the coastline can significantly alter sediment dynamics during the Northeast Monsoon (Harris et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Coastal development, including infrastructure construction, dredging, and sand mining, can disrupt natural sediment transport processes and exacerbate erosion in vulnerable areas (El Behja et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Deforestation and land use changes in coastal watersheds can increase sediment runoff into rivers and coastal waters, intensifying sedimentation rates and exacerbating coastal erosion. Climate change-induced sea-level rise and changes in storm patterns further compound the challenges associated with sediment dynamics, leading to increased erosion and coastal vulnerability along the east coast of Malaysia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn response to these challenges, erosion protection structures emerge as critical defence mechanisms (Magdalena et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These structures, ranging from natural barriers such as mangroves to engineered solutions such as seawalls and breakwaters, serve to mitigate the impacts of erosion by dissipating wave energy, stabilizing shorelines, and trapping sediments (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2020). In Terengganu, where coastal communities rely on infrastructures such as ports, fishing harbours, and tourism facilities, the implementation of erosion protection structures is vital for safeguarding these assets against the erosive forces unleashed by the monsoon season (Zulfakar et al., 2020). Specifically, the Effective Fence, also known as E-Fence, was introduced at Pantai Batu Rakit to help manage sediment loss in this vulnerable area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoastal erosion is a major concern in monsoon-dominated regions, where strong wave energy and storm surges drive significant sediment displacement. Traditional hard engineering structures like seawalls and breakwaters often disrupt natural sediment transport, leading to unintended consequences such as downdrift erosion and loss of beach sediment. Nature-based solutions (NbS), such as sand-trapping fences, offer a more sustainable and adaptive approach, yet their effectiveness under extreme monsoon conditions remains underexplored.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study introduces the Effective Fence (E-Fence), an innovative erosion protection structure designed to enhance sediment retention while preserving natural shoreline dynamics. Unlike conventional sediment barriers, the E-Fence employs a strategically designed zigzag configuration to optimize sand accumulation, dissipate wave energy, and mitigate erosion. By analysing grain size distribution and sedimentation patterns between protected and unprotected zones, this research investigates how the E-Fence influences sediment transport processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings reveal that monsoonal waves play a crucial role in carrying offshore sediment toward the shore, where the E-Fence facilitates deposition by reducing wave velocity and turbulence (Talukder et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The structure helps retain coarser sediments in the backshore while finer particles remain suspended and are transported seaward. This redistribution of sediment alters beach morphology over time, contributing to enhanced coastal sedimentation pattern (Thi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These insights provide a deeper understanding of monsoon-driven sediment transport and highlight the E-Fence\u0026rsquo;s potential as a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative for erosion mitigation and coastal resilience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 What is an Effective Fence (E-Fence) as an erosion protection structure?\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSand-trapping fences are one of the other prevalent nature-based solutions that were used to play a crucial role in promoting dune toe growth along sandy shorelines for coastal protection (Eichmanns \u0026amp; Sch\u0026uuml;ttrumpf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Sand trapping is known for its essential component in maintaining coastal integrity. Sand-trapping fences, a commonly used nature-based technique, play a crucial role in promoting the growth of dune toes along sandy coastlines, thereby enhancing coastal protection (Charbonneau \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,2021). These fences primarily serve to combat the persistent erosion of dunes, safeguarding vulnerable areas and shielding them from the relentless onslaught of wind-blown sand (Eichmanns \u0026amp; Sch\u0026uuml;ttrumpf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Sedrati, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this case, an effective fence is introduced or better known as the \u0026ldquo;E-Fence\u0026rdquo;. The E-Fence is a specialized erosion protection structure that has been designed to combat soil erosion, particularly in regions that are vulnerable to wind erosion (Zainuddin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The primary function of an E-Fence is to act as a barrier that reduces wind speed, thereby diminishing the erosive force of the wind on the soil surface. This is crucial in preventing the displacement and loss of topsoil, which can have severe implications for agricultural productivity and ecological balance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eE-Fences are typically constructed from materials named \u0026ldquo;Kayu Seraya\u0026rdquo; that can effectively interrupt and reduce wind and wave velocity. The design of an E-Fence often incorporates a series of vertical slats, mesh, or other permeable barriers. These structures allow some airflow while significantly reducing wind and wave speed at ground level, which is critical for their effectiveness in erosion control. The installation of E-Fences is strategically planned to optimize their impact on reducing wind and wave erosion. They are commonly placed along field edges, around construction sites, or in areas with loose, dry soil. The height and spacing of the fence are tailored to the specific wind conditions and the type of soil erosion being addressed. By slowing down the wind near the soil surface, E-Fences reduce the available energy to lift and transport soil particles. Additionally, these fences trap and accumulate soil particles that are carried by the wind and waves, gradually forming a protective layer of soil or sand on the windward side of the fence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eZainuddin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) examined the effectiveness of the E-Fence at Ma' Daerah, Malaysia, for dune restoration. The Ma' Daerah coast on the east coast of Malaysia has been experiencing rapid erosion caused by monsoonal storms and a lack of protection. This coastal area is surrounded by lowland forests and is exposed to high waves during monsoons. The average wind speed ranges from 4.0 to 8.0m/s. The study emphasized the importance of a zigzag sand trapping (E-Fence) with 5cm x 8cm x 3m for dune restoration. The results, obtained by analysing the beach volume and slope using Profiler-XL 3.2, demonstrated successful dune restoration. The wind velocities decrease from the swash zone to the backshore, with prevailing winds coming from the northeast. However, some rows of sand traps were recently lost due to insufficient embedding in the ground, as only 1m out of the 3m sand traps were buried. These losses occurred because of the high-wave attack.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSand-trapping fence configurations play a crucial role in initiating foredune development (Eichmanns \u0026amp; Sch\u0026uuml;ttrumpf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, the zigzag pattern has been found to be more effective in trapping sand in the short term compared to the traditional straight fence design, likely because it can catch windblown sand from different angles, leading to increased accumulation (Charbonneau \u0026amp; Wnek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Jackson \u0026amp; Nordstrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) which has been used as the E-Fence pattern. While straight fences offer speed and cost-effectiveness, zigzag fences provide superior sand-trapping performance (Liu \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,2023). Double fence systems have demonstrated greater success in mitigating wind velocity and managing wind-transported sand particles compared to single barriers (Wang \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,2017). However, the back fence may not gather much sand in certain situations, and if the sand dunes are narrow, constructing the back fence may not be necessary (Tong \u0026amp; Lin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, positioning fences perpendicular to the dominant wind direction optimizes sand capture rates (Eichmanns \u0026amp; Sch\u0026uuml;ttrumpf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe size, geometry (porosity and height), and distribution of fence openings influence sand-trapping efficiency through wind turbulence, but their impact is overshadowed by porosity (Liu \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,2023). Porosity plays a key role in determining where sand deposits and how efficiently it is captured (Ning \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,2020). However, the low porosity of the fences led to erosion at its base due to the formation of a recirculating bubble. To address this issue, researchers recommend reducing the porosity to 50% or 60%, slowing down the wind, and promoting sand accumulation (Tong \u0026amp; Lin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, if the porosity is too low, all the sand settles in the front, resulting in uneven dunes and potential fence collapse under the weight of the sand (Huang \u0026amp; Yim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dimensions of the E-Fence, particularly their height, play a crucial role in determining the effectiveness of sand capture and the subsequent development of dunes (Eichmanns \u0026amp; Sch\u0026uuml;ttrumpf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ning \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,2020). For the opening characteristic, fences featuring angular apertures, such as vertical or horizontal slits, demonstrate greater effectiveness in capturing sand compared to those with rounded openings, such as circular holes (Li \u0026amp; Sherman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Sand fences not only help to stabilize existing dune structures but also foster the development of new dunes by offering a permeable barrier to wind-driven sand particles (Harris \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,2020) so does the E-Fence. Frequently utilized degradable materials for sand fences include wooden planks, bamboo slats, brushwood, and chestnut palings, while the use of synthetic fabrics is less common (Eichmanns \u0026amp; Sch\u0026uuml;ttrumpf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These environmentally friendly options offer a sustainable approach to coastal protection by promoting dune stability without introducing long-lasting artificial materials into the ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLastly, the benefits of E-Fences are numerous. They are relatively easy to install and maintain, making them a cost-effective solution compared to other erosion control measures. Their design and materials can be adapted to various environments and specific needs, making them versatile in combating wind erosion in different settings. Beyond their primary function of erosion control, E-Fences help preserve soil health and prevent the loss of topsoil, which is vital for maintaining agricultural productivity and ecosystem stability. They also contribute to reducing dust pollution, providing significant health and environmental benefits. Overall, effective fences are a practical and efficient solution for controlling wind erosion. They protect soil resources, maintain environmental quality, and offer a sustainable approach to managing erosion in areas that are susceptible to wind damage. Their implementation can lead to long-term benefits for agriculture, infrastructure, and natural habitats.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 Study area","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and according to Bagheri et al. (2019), the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, which includes the state of Terengganu, spans approximately 860 kilometers. This coast is primarily characterized by sandy beaches, featuring a straight shoreline in the north and spiral-shaped bays in the south. According to Bagheri et al. (2021), Kuala Terengganu is located within the state of Terengganu, the southwestern part of the South China Sea that is known for its largest semi-enclosed marginal sea in the Western Pacific Ocean. The state is bordered by Kelantan to the northwest and Pahang to the southwest. Terengganu, with its equatorial climate, experiences significant effects on its wave climate and hydrological regime due to monsoons (Bagheri \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,2019). Consequently, the Terengganu coastline is influenced by two monsoon seasons, specifically the Northeast monsoon and the Southwest monsoon.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research area can be found on the east coast of Kuala Terengganu, Peninsular Malaysia, situated between longitudes 103\u0026deg;2.760'E and 103\u0026deg;2.940'E and latitudes 5\u0026deg; 27.150'N and 5\u0026deg; 27.060'N (Pantai Batu Rakit). The Pantai Batu Rakit area was selected for this study to implement the sand-trapping E-Fence for several reasons. First, the study area has a straight shoreline and faces the South China Sea, which is susceptible to erosion (Anuar \u0026amp; Latiff, 2017). During the northeast monsoon, erosion may be exacerbated due to the area's unprotected, open nature, making it vulnerable to further erosion in the absence of coastal defences. Another reason is the need for nature-based protection measures that benefit various stakeholders in the area. By employing sand-trapping methods instead of constructing hard coastal structures, the local fishing community can benefit from designated boat docking areas. Additionally, this approach enables the preservation and maintenance of food stalls that are situated near the beach, promoting local businesses and recreational activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSand fences were constructed at frontal ocean dunes to prevent erosion from a wave over wash and were implemented sufficiently landward from the berm crest to reduce frequent wave attacks at both sites. These sand-trapping E-Fences were made from vertical wooden slats that are linked together as well as being supported by wooden posts. Basically, E-Fences are quite affordable to build and construct, as well as being environmentally beneficial. There are various configurations that have been used to trap sand, but a zigzag pattern is considered in this study. A zigzag pattern has proven to accumulate sand at a high rate within a short time as referred to in many case studies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 Methodology","content":" \u003cp\u003eThis section outlines the specific procedures and techniques utilized in the study, including sediment collection, and analytical methods. These steps were carefully chosen to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the findings, providing a solid foundation for assessing the impact of the E-Fence on coastal sediment dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSediments were collected to get D50 data. The particle diameter at 50% in the cumulative distribution is called the median diameter or medium value. In this case, a D50 value of 3\u0026micro;m means that 50% of the particles in the sample are larger than 3\u0026micro;m, while the remaining 50% are smaller. The purpose of collecting the sediments; 59 (1) to differentiate sizes of sediments during northeast (2) to differentiate sediments size between protected zone (fence) and undisturbed zone (non-fence). To collect the sediments, two transects which are in a fenced area and an unprotected area were chosen. Overall, for Batu Rakit there are nine transects, however, the transects that will be used are transect 9 (unprotected) and transect 5 (protected by a fence). The selection of this transect is not random but this transect area is selected due to the activation of sediment and to obtain the difference of sediments between the area that is covered by fences where the open area is without any protection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral approaches have been developed to assess grain size distribution, including sieving, pebble counting, laser diffraction, dynamic light scattering, image analysis, sedimentation tests, and hydrometers (Sulaiman \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,2021). However, for this study, a conventional sieving method was employed, which determines passed-weight percentages for grain size distribution (Garefalakis \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,2023). Before sieving, sediments were collected to differentiate sizes between the protected (fence) and undisturbed (non-fence) zones. Four transects were chosen, two in the fenced area and two in the unprotected area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSediments were collected at 5m intervals from the backshore to the low tide area on the selected transects using a ladle, plastic wrap, paper tape, marker, and measuring tape. The ladle served to dredge the sand, and plastics were labelled, and taped every 5m. The collected sand, which was estimated to weigh over 100 grams, was dried in a 60\u0026deg;C oven for 72 hours to reach constant weight and zero water content for dry sieving. Sieving, a mechanical process based on particle size, was conducted using a sieve shaker with 7 series of sieves ranging from 2000 \u0026micro;m to less than 63 \u0026micro;m. The sieving lasted for 15 minutes, and throughout the process, sediments were filtered through the sieve mesh. The weight of the sample in each sieve was recorded, and sediment categorization was determined, using GRADISTAT to which to analyses ang obtain the grain size data from various measurement methods.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 Results \u0026 Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Sediment transport pattern\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis section investigates the performance evaluation of sediment transport in terms of sediment morphology. The grain size distribution can depict the condition of grain sizes, whether they are influenced by strong wave energy or not. Two distinct zones (backshore and foreshore) with varying bed sediment characteristics were selected along sand-trapping E-Fence transects to identify grain size distribution in these areas. The grain size distribution was classified according to the Wentworth scale.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigures \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e show a comparison of sediment size classes between the non-protected fence area and the protected fence area, with related observed D50 values from the backshore to the area after the E-Fence. At 0m on the backshore, the fence-protected transect shows a pattern resembling the non-protected area. In the backshore area at 0m, grain distribution tended to be smaller in the non-protected transect area (Transects 1 and 8, \u0026gt; 250 \u0026micro;m (fine sand)), compared to the E-Fence area, which had similar sizes around 250 \u0026micro;m and approached 500 \u0026micro;m (medium sand) by November 2023. At 5m in the backshore area, the cumulative grain size distributions showed a similar pattern between areas with and without the protection of the E-Fence, dominant in the range of 250 \u0026micro;m \u0026ndash; 500 \u0026micro;m. However, on Transect 6, the grain size was generally larger within the E-Fence, tending toward coarser sand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the 10m to 15m range, grain distribution differed notably between areas with and without E-Fence protection. In unprotected areas, the most dominant grain sizes ranged from 250 \u0026micro;m (fine sand) up to 500 \u0026micro;m (medium sand) in the last three months of sampling. Conversely, areas intercepted by the E-Fence showed a variety of grain sizes, ranging from 250 \u0026micro;m (fine sand) to 2000 \u0026micro;m (very coarse sand). Field data from sand samples that are collected under the influence of the implemented sand fence are likely to show changes in both grain composition and particle size of beach sediments in front of and behind the fence, suggesting that the E-Fence is sorting and filtering the sand passing through it.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Sediment Variant with \u0026amp; without Erosion Protection Structures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness of the E-Fence in reducing the impact of wave strength can be further demonstrated using data from sediment grain sizes in the study area. This analysis provides a comprehensive understanding of the role E-Fence structures play in coastal protection. As stated in the Results section, the sediment grain sizes protected by the E-Fence are dynamic and coarser compared to areas not protected by the E-Fence (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This variation occurs due to the significant impact of turbulent waves in the E-Fence area. Turbulence is one of the main hydrodynamic factors that can cause changes in the amount and suspension of surface sediment (Pang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Protected areas experience a reduction in wave energy compared to conditions without protection (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis reduction in wave energy results in the upward coarsening of sediment sizes during wave-driven transport (Rafati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The dynamic and coarse sediment sizes observed provide evidence that the presence of the E-Fence effectively reduces the impact of wave energy. This reduction in wave energy is crucial as it helps to mitigate more severe erosion impacts. Moreover, the data underlines the practical benefits of implementing such structures, demonstrating their potential to enhance coastal resilience. This not only highlights the practical benefits of implementing such structures but also supports ongoing research and development in sustainable coastal defense mechanisms. The findings emphasize the importance of E-Fences in preserving coastal morphology and protecting vulnerable shorelines from the detrimental effects of strong wave actions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeach morphology was computed using beach profiles in each study area to validate data and determine whether the beach is eroding or accumulating over time. To verify data and ascertain if the beach is eroding or accumulating over time, beach morphology was calculated using beach profiles in each study region. Overall, a notable rate of erosion was noted in the E-Fence area, as indicated by the pattern in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e (Batu Rakit). The profiles in front of the E-Fence (foreshore) and behind it (backshore) showed clear variances in the beach profile data. Erosion behind the E-Fence was observed in both the protected and unprotected sections during a 6-month monitoring period (September 2023\u0026ndash;February 2024). All transects showed significant erosion but Transects 1 and 8, which are not protected by E-Fence, were more affected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the backshore area, which is behind the E-Fence, both in the protected and unprotected zones, severe erosion has been observed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Severe erosion has been noticed in both the protected and unprotected zones of the backshore area, which is behind the E-Fence (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). With November drawing near and the Northeast monsoon season beginning, the erosion gets worse and starts to affect Malaysia's east coast. However, the erosion in the unprotected parts and the E-Fence protected areas differs significantly. Throughout the month, notable erosion occurred in Transect 1 (the area without E-Fence protection), where a drastic change in the backshore slope was observed. In contrast, transect 2 to the Transect 7 (E-Fence protected areas) experienced continuous but small-scale sediment loss, with erosion from month to month not as severe as in Transect 1. This suggests that while the E-Fence does not completely prevent erosion, it significantly mitigates its severity. Furthermore, vegetation collapse behind the E-Fence was pronounced over the last three months (December 2023 to February 2024). Collapse in unprotected areas was notably more severe compared to E-Fence areas, particularly in January 2024 along Transect 8.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the foreshore area, which is the area after the E-Fence, significant differences in accretion and erosion were observed between areas with and without E-Fence protection (refer Fig.\u0026nbsp;4.4). Based on observations, the shortest beach profiles were recorded in January 2024 during the monsoon season, meanwhile the longest beach profiles line can be found during November 2023. The E-Fence-protected area exhibited higher beach profiles compared to the unprotected area, especially between Transect 1 and Transect 3 in October 2023. This is because the energy impact from incoming waves was reduced when the waves intercepted the E-Fence, resulting in slower wave energy and less sediment being carried away.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a result, the sediment was more likely to be deposited there. However, it seems that these natural sand barriers are essential for shielding the dune and upper backshore from wave effects. Their efficacy suggests that such techniques could be applied in other coastal areas that are at risk. The goal of installing E-Fences was to stop sand from being shipped out to sea. However, erosion deteriorated during the 6-month sample period, emphasizing the significance of considering several factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Sediment Transport\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs for the analysis of sediment transport dynamics specifically focusing on the study site at Pantai Batu Rakit, which data documented during the Northeast Monsoon season, a seasonal phenomenon, which normally occurring from November to March, was characterized by strong northeasterly winds and heavy rainfall, which significantly influence the coastal sediment dynamics and beach morphology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the monsoon, increased wave energy drives sediment transport processes, particularly influencing grain size distribution along the shoreline. High-energy waves and turbulent conditions mobilize and transport finer sediments, such as silts and clays, offshore, where they are carried by backwash currents and settle in deeper waters. Consequently, this offshore transport leaves behind coarser sediments ranging from medium sand (0.2 mm) to very coarse sand (up to 2 mm), which accumulate on the beach face and form a steeper profile. This process leads to a marked shift in sediment composition, as coarser grains become more prevalent in the swash and backshore zones, while finer particles are increasingly absent from these areas. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e show the illustration on the wind and wave direction during the northeast monsoon that leads to the sediment transport movement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral primary factors have been identified as contributing to the severe erosion in the study area. A significant factor is the geomorphology of the region, which is classified as a sandy coast, a type particularly susceptible to wave action. The inherent characteristics of sandy coasts, such as their loose sediment structure and high permeability, make them more vulnerable to the erosive forces of waves and currents action (Kuriyama \u0026amp; Yanagishima, 2018). The study was conducted during the Northeast Monsoon, a period when the east coast, particularly Terengganu, facing the South China Sea, experienced high wave energy (Abd Razak \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring this monsoon season, the wave energy is significantly amplified, leading to increased coastal erosion and sediment displacement. According to Rahim \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2023), Pantai Batu Rakit, Kuala Terengganu, is believed to be one of the areas directly impacted by wave energy, resulting in the erosion of the beach surface, especially medium-sized sediment particles. Their research indicates that the high-energy waves not only erode the beach surface but also transport sediment offshore, altering the coastal morphology. Their study, using UAV mapping, also identified Batu Rakit as one of the critical erosion-affected areas in Kuala Terengganu.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides the factors associated with the sandy coast type, heavy rainfall also plays a significant role in contributing to erosion in the study area. As emphasized by Ariffin \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2023) and Nasir \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2023), heavy rainfall during the Northeast Monsoon exacerbates coastal erosion. This increased rainfall leads to higher runoff volumes, which in turn enhances the transport of sediments from inland areas to the coast (Alves \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2020; Browning \u0026amp; Sawyer, 2021). The combination of high wave energy and heavy rainfall significantly impacts the coastal morphology, leading to severe erosion at Pantai Batu Rakit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis evidence leads to the vulnerability of the area to natural phenomena, which has a substantial impact on its coastal stability. Figures\u0026nbsp;4.5 and Fig.\u0026nbsp;4.6 illustrate the natural phenomena contributing to the severe erosion observed. These figures provide a visual representation of the cycle of natural events leading to the degradation of the coastline. Despite the overall severity of the erosion, the E-Fence structures proved effective in preserving sand in the backshore by reducing the wave impact during Northeast monsoon. The presence of E-Fences has been shown to decrease wave energy, thereby reducing sediment transport and promoting sediment accumulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5.0 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eDuring the northeast monsoon, the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia experiences significant changes in sediment grain size on its beaches due to the strong winds and heavy rainfall brought by this seasonal weather pattern, which typically occurs from November to March. The monsoon's high-energy conditions significantly impact coastal processes and sediment dynamics. The increased wave energy during the northeast monsoon tends to move finer sediments offshore, leaving behind coarser materials on the beach. This results in an overall increase in grain size.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavy wave action during the monsoon erodes beach materials, which are then transported and redeposited, forming a steeper beach profile with coarser sediments being deposited higher up the beach. Fine sediments, such as silts and clays, which are less than 0.063 mm in size, are often suspended in the water column and transported further offshore, contributing to the sorting of sediment based on grain size. The turbulent conditions enhance this sorting process, with coarser sediments being preferentially deposited in the high-energy swash zone, while finer particles are carried away by backwash and offshore currents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dynamic nature of the beach profile during the monsoon leads to significant changes in morphology. High-energy waves cause the erosion of dune structures and the formation of berms and sandbars that are composed of coarser materials. The constant reworking of sediments during this period ensures that the beach surface remains dominated by coarser grains, typically ranging from 0.2 mm to 2.0 mm. Seasonal variability in sediment grain size is evident, with finer sediments more likely to accumulate on the beaches during the calmer southwest monsoon (May to September) when wave energy is lower. During this period, grain sizes on the beach may include a higher proportion of fine sand (0.063-0.2 mm) and even some silt (0.002\u0026ndash;0.063 mm). However, the high-energy northeast monsoon reverses this pattern, eroding and redistributing these finer sediments, resulting in a coarser sediment profile during the monsoon season.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe changes in sediment grain size can impact coastal ecosystems, particularly those sensitive to sediment composition, such as mangroves and coral reefs (Takagi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Coarser sediments may alter habitats and affect organisms that rely on finer sediments for burrowing and feeding. Moreover, coastal infrastructure and human activities can also be affected by these seasonal changes, thus necessitating adaptive management strategies to mitigate erosion and maintain beach stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the northeast monsoon significantly influences the sediment grain size on the east coast beaches of Peninsular Malaysia. Here, the effectiveness of E-Fence in reducing the impact of wave strength can be further demonstrated using data from sediment grain sizes in the study area. The sediment grain sizes in the area protected by the E-Fence are dynamic and coarser compared to areas that are not protected by the E-Fence. This occurs due to the impact of turbulent waves in the E-Fence area. Turbulence is one of the main hydrodynamic factors that can cause changes in the amount and suspension of surface sediment (Pang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Protected areas experience a reduction in wave energy compared to conditions without protection (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis reduction in wave energy results in upward coarsening of sediment sizes during wave-driven transport (Rafati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The dynamic and coarse sediment sizes that have been observed provide evidence that the presence of the E-Fence effectively reduces the impact of wave energy. This reduction in wave energy is crucial as it helps to mitigate more severe erosion impacts. Therefore, this not only highlights the practical benefits of implementing such structures but also supports the ongoing research and development of sustainable coastal defense mechanism.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAdditional Information\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffi Helmy Ariffin reports that financial support has been provided by the Malaysia Ministry of Higher Education. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research leading to these results received funding from the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) of Malaysia under Grant Agreement No: FRGS/1/2022/WAB02/UMT/02/1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eP.N.A.T: Conceptualization; Writing - original draft; Visualization; Methodology. S.N.H.Z: Visualization; Methodology. K.N.A.M: Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing. M.M: Supervision; Investigation. M.Z.R: Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing; Supervision. Y.A.B: Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing. M.S.I.I: Supervision; Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing. E.H.A: Supervision; Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing; Methodology; Visualization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors would also like to acknowledge the editors and an anonymous reviewer, who contributed immensely to improving the quality of this publication. This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) of Malaysia under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) FRGS/1/2022/WAB02/UMT/02/1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCharbonneau, B. R., Dohner, S. M., Wnek, J. P., Barber, D., Zarnetske, P., \u0026amp; Casper, B. B. (2021). Vegetation effects on coastal foredune initiation: Wind tunnel experiments and field validation for three dune-building plants. \u003cem\u003eGeomorphology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e378\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;17.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCharbonneau, B. R., \u0026amp; Wnek, J. P. 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H. (2022). \u003cem\u003eCoastal Dunes Restoration by Sand Trapping at Batu Rakit and Ma\u0026rsquo; Daerah, Terengganu\u003c/em\u003e. UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA TERENGGANU.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZainuddin, S. N. H., Ariffin, E. H., Taslin, P. N. A., Dong, W. S., Ramli, M. Z., Abdul Maulud, K. N., Awang, N. A., Nadzri, M. I., Ibrahim, M. S. I., \u0026amp; Ratnayake, A. S. (2024). Sand dune restoration as sustainable natural architectural design for coastal protection along seasonal storm-prone beach. \u003cem\u003eResults in Engineering\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e22\u003c/em\u003e(December 2023), 102149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102149\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Sediment Dynamics, Sandy Beach, Shoreline Protection, Erosion, Effective Fence (E-Fence)","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6219024/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6219024/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSandy beaches are highly susceptible to erosion due to their loose sediment, which is easily displaced by waves, tides, and storms. This issue is particularly evident along the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, especially at Pantai Batu Rakit, Terengganu, an unprotected shoreline facing the South China Sea. The area experiences severe erosion due to intense Northeast Monsoon impacts, despite various mitigation efforts and hard engineering structures. To address this, a study was conducted to examine sediment dynamics during the monsoon and assess the effectiveness of erosion protection measures, including the nature-based Effective Fence (E-Fence). Sediments were collected from both protected (E-Fence) and unprotected areas, and grain size distribution was analyzed using conventional sieving methods. The findings reveal that the E-Fence effectively minimizes erosion by trapping and accumulating sediments, thereby reducing wave impact. Notably, zones with the E-Fence contained a higher proportion of coarser sediments, indicating enhanced energy dissipation. This reduction in wave energy is crucial for mitigating severe erosion impacts and preserving coastal morphology. The results highlight the E-Fence\u0026rsquo;s potential in strengthening coastal resilience and protecting vulnerable shorelines. Beyond immediate benefits, the study supports further research into sustainable coastal defense mechanisms. Future investigations should explore the long-term effectiveness of E-Fences and their integration with other coastal protection strategies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Sediment Variant during the Northeast Monsoon: A Comparative Analysis of Natural-Based Erosion Protection Structures","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-19 10:47:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6219024/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e89a3650-f43f-4ecd-b088-ad6d2e22384a","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 19th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-28T10:53:36+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-19 10:47:34","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6219024","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6219024","identity":"rs-6219024","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}