Ready to Learn: Examining Goal Orientation and Academic Self-Efficacy in a College Service-Learning Course

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Heeter, Jonathan T. Macy, Angela Chow, Corey Kalbaugh, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6865743/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background College students' academic achievement can be affected by diverse interacting psychological variables. Goal orientation (GO) and Academic self-efficacy (Academic SE) are important psychological measures that impact academic achievement. Few studies have explored the impact of GO among public health students in an application-based course where students apply learned knowledge in a real-world/life setting (i.e., service-learning course). Evidence supports found Academic SE as a mediating factor in the relationship between GO and academic performance. However, the relationship between GO, Academic SE, and academic performance among students in a service-learning course remains unclear. Purpose To examine GO on Academic SE and academic performance in a college-level service-learning wellness coaching course. Ready to Move (RTM) is the service-learning component of the course where students practice and apply health and wellness coaching techniques to promote physical activity among university employees. After 6-weeks of the learning/training component of the course, each student engaged in 8-weeks of supervised, one-on-one coaching as a part of their overall grade. Methods 70 students, 67.6% of which had previous coaching experience, enrolled in this 16-week course. GO, Academic SE, and demographics were assessed the week before the course (i.e., baseline) using Qualtrics, whereas academic performance was measured throughout the semester for an overall score. A mediation analysis was conducted using RStudio to examine the relationship between GO, Academic SE, and academic performance. Results Results indicated that Performance and Avoidant GO were positively associated with academic performance. However, there was no significant mediating relationship between Academic SE and academic performance. Conclusion Findings from this study highlight that while Goal Orientation is still related to academic performance in the application-based service-learning setting, Mastery GO, may not play as high of an importance, and that within this setting, Academic SE may not be a mediating factor. Further studies should be conducted to ascertain the role GO plays in application-based courses. Clinical trial number: not applicable. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction A growing number of public health college students are entering the healthcare and social assistance sector of the workforce (e.g. nurses, doctors, public health workers)( 1 ). With this shift, there is a renewed importance in understanding the best way to teach students the applied skills to succeed in practical settings. Why and how people learn is especially important for students who are learning content and practicing how to support the adoption of health behaviors within the public health field( 2 ). Many of these students will be directly involved in some form of patient care during their careers. In addition to helping students who will be responsible for patient care, it is important to know how students come to develop knowledge because, as previous studies have found, these learning processes influence factors such as student’s problem-solving approaches, student motivation, and student persistence( 3 ). Goal orientation (GO) is a key motivational variable that influences learning and academic attainment among college students( 4 , 5 ). GO has been described as the “underlying purpose for engaging in a learning related task” and some classifications of GO are correlated with academic and early career success ( 2 , 6 ). There are three subscales of GO, mastery, performance, and avoidant- with each subclassification focusing on different presentations and correlations to markers of academic success( 7 ). Mastery GO is often associated with intrinsic motivation and behaviors such as asking questions to deep comprehension( 7 ). Performance GO often reflects the extent to which individuals aim to outperform others on academic tests in the classroom or in standardized testing. This orientation may emphasize achieving high standards over mastering content( 7 ). Avoidant GO is characterized by a focus on avoiding negative judgments or appearing less competent than peers. This orientation is typically linked with efforts to prevent failure rather than engaging mindfully with the material( 8 ). Traditional GO research has focused mainly on common core curriculum courses, such as English or Math. To our knowledge, no studies have focused utilizing application-based (or service-learning course) to learn and apply behavioral change techniques such as using reflective listening skills or expressing positive support. These behaviors change technique skills are important to public health students as they are often required to communicate with patients within healthcare settings. Previous literature regarding GO and academic performance shows that different subcategories of GO have distinct and different associations with academic performance. Lin et al. (2009) found that students’ high Mastery GO scores have been linked to positive outcomes such as higher standardized test scores( 9 ). In contrast, a study focusing on Performance GO by Pintrich (2000), found that higher Performance GO scores were related to lower overall math grades, but when examining pharmacy students’ Performance GO was positively associated with academic acheivement( 10 , 11 ). Finally, Avoidant GO has been found to be detrimental to students’ learning, and is correlated to lower overall course grades, higher levels of test anxiety, and lower study behavior engagement( 10 , 12 – 14 ). Academic self-efficacy (Academic SE), which is a person’s belief or judgement of their ability to organize and execute courses of action required to reach their desired types of academic performance, has also been shown to be a motivational variable that can affect academic performance ( 12 , 15 , 16 ). Previous research in college students found that Academic SE is linked to Grade Point Averages (GPAs) in both private and public universities( 17 ). Students with higher levels of Academic SE were found to have higher GPAs, both semester and cumulative( 17 ). Previous studies may have an incomplete picture regarding the relationship between GO, Academic SE, and academic performance. A study conducted by Diseth (2011) found that performance and mastery GO were positively correlated to examination grades. Additionally, the study found that all subcategories of GO were associated with Academic SE ( 18 ). This study, however, did not include every subscale of GO, leaving out Mastery GO. Without the inclusion of all three GO subscales, we are unable to see how all forms of motivation are related to Academic SE, and academic performance. A study conducted in 2019 by Honicke explored if Academic SE was a mediating or moderating factor in the relationship between GO and achievement and found that Academic SE was a mediator between GO and achievement, but only for Mastery and Performance GO( 19 ). The findings also indicated that Academic SE was not a moderator in this relationship( 19 ). An additional study by Honicke and colleagues found that Academic SE was a mediating factor of overall academic performance( 4 ). This study only examined mastery and performance GO, which may create an incomplete picture of all types of GO. Despite the existing literature on GO and Academic SE, significant gaps remain particularly due to the exclusion of Avoidant GO in most research. To fully understand the relationship between GO, Academic SE, and academic performance, all three GO subcategories should be incorporated. Doing so would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how students’ motivational orientations relate to their academic performance, especially in application-based learning environments. Further, creation of these new models within a public health student population would additionally allow further examination of a public health major population, so that we can better understand the learning and motivation of future healthcare and social assistance workers. The present study seeks to address the gaps in previous GO literature by inclusion of all three subcategories of GO in the analysis. Therefore, we conducted the Ready to Move (RTM) study which was a prospective observational study assessing public health students at a large public Midwest University, which examined the communication skills of both undergraduate and graduate students participating in a service-learning health and wellness coaching course. The study collected motivational variables (e.g. GO), Academic SE, demographic information, and academic performance measures (e.g. final grades). In this study, we will analyze correlations between GO, Academic SE, and academic performance as measured by the final course grade. We will then conduct a median analysis with GO as the predictor, Academic SE as the mediator, and academic performance as the outcome. This work will strengthen understanding of GO by including all subscales of GO in analysis and additionally providing understanding of GO in a new context. We hypothesize that GO positively predicts overall academic performance in an application-based course. We further hypothesize that Academic SE will be a mediator to this relationship, with students with higher Academic SE obtaining higher final course outcomes. Methods Participants for the study were recruited using convenience sampling, as participants were sampled from the classroom environment. Student participants were either undergraduate students who were 3rd of 4th year college students, or graduate students. Undergraduate students had to be enrolled in a kinesiology-based course and willing to participate in the study, while graduate students had to be enrolled and willing to participate in the graduate version of the same course. Students’ majors ranged from exercise science, physical activity, and fitness and wellness at the university’s public health school. There were no exclusion criteria. The study was approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board, and informed consent was received from all participants. The participants who agreed to take part in the study completed a questionnaire online via Qualtrics prior to the start of the course. Service-Learning Course - A total of 74 students participated in a 16-week service-learning course that focused on health and wellness coaching over two semesters. Figure 1 depicts the components of the service-learning course. Course Instruction- The first 6 weeks of the course focused on student training. During this time students gain foundational knowledge on behavior-change technique strategies that include motivational interviewing (mindful listening, perceptive reflections, and open-ended inquiry), goal setting, and program development. This education included in-class activities that included reflections, role-play, and group breakouts where students can practice and apply their coaching techniques with multiple peers at multiple time-points. At the end of the 6-week intensive training, all students engage in a practical skills assessment applying foundational coaching skills with a mock-client. The classes were composed of 64 undergraduate students and 10 graduate students, all of which were public health majors. Student race and ethnicity were not taken in the demographic survey; however, the race and ethnicity demographics of the University are 68.6% White, 7.9% Hispanic, 7.4% Asian, and less than 5% Black or African-American( 20 ). Among the 74 students that participated in the study, 50 students (67.6%) had self-reported coaching experience, and 24 (32.4%) had no previous coaching experience. Service Learning- Following the intensive training portion of the course each student was randomly paired with a university employee (staff or faculty member) for 8-weeks as health and wellness coaches in a program called Ready to Move. Ready to Move is a collaboration with the university’s employee workplace wellness program. The Ready to Move program, which provides participants with weekly coaching sessions and communications with their student coaches, focuses on building healthier habits in their lives. Additionally, students are required to provide weekly check-ins to the course instructor, to ensure that students are providing adequate services to their participants. Additionally, these check-ins were counted as grades for students. Measures For this study, we investigate students’ motivational and education status. GO and Academic SE were used as measures of student motivational status. Academic performance was measured using final course grade. Goal Orientation- The Goal Orientation Scale (GO-15) from Patterns of Adaptive Learning Skills was used to assess GO at baseline. The 15-item questionnaire is represented by 3 subscales to measure students’ perception of their motivation to do their classwork. A Likert scale of 15 ranging from 1= “not true at all” to 5= “very true” was used to represent participant responses. The GO-15 has been validated among emerging adults and reports Cronbach’s alpha between 0.75 and 0.85 ( 21 ). Academic Self-Efficacy - The Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES-5) is a 5-item Likert like scale used to assess students’ perceptions of their competence to do their course work at baseline. The responses to the questions range from 1= “not true at all” to 5= “very true”. The scale has been utilized to measure self-efficacy among students of many levels, including college students, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.78 ( 22 ). Academic Performance- The course grade average was used as a measure of a student’s academic performance. Final course grade is a percentage of points a student received compared to the potential points that were available for the entire course. All students’ final course grades were assigned by the same professor using the same rubric. S tudents who were enrolled in behavioral intervention class and part of the study were graded on both the content training and content application. The following table shows the assessment methods used in the course that led to the final grades students received. How grades were created is shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Assessment Methods and total points for service-learning course. Assessment Methods Total Points Grade % Content Checks Quizzes 80 13.30% Content Reflection 200 33.30% Coaching Practical Skills 100 16.60% Coaching Presentations 100 16.60% Coaching Check-ins 120 20% Total Points 600 100% Analysis Baseline information was collected using a survey using Qualtrics (Qualtrics, Provo, UT), final grade information was provided by the course instructor. Data analysis was conducted using RStudio (RStudio, Boston, MA). Before analysis all data collected was checked for missing values, outlier, and normality. Descriptive statistics were run for all continuous variables. For any categorical variables frequencies were ran. There was no missing data in the dataset. Correlations between GO subscales, academic performance, and Academic SE were conducted. To analyze the mediating relationships between types of GO subtypes, Academic SE, and final course outcome, three mediation models were created. The indirect, and direct pathways, as well as covariate pathways of the model were assessed for significance to a p-value of 0.05. Results Descriptive statistics can be found in Table 2 . Among the 74 students who participated in the study, over 80% of students were undergraduate students, and gender of students was relatively evenly split with 36 (48.6%) men and 38 (51.4%) women. The mean age of students was 21.6 years old. The GO subscale that had the highest mean score was Mastery GO, followed by Avoidant GO, and Performance GO had the lowest subscale mean score. Students reported a mean Academic SE score of 4.52 on a 5-point Likert scale. The mean final course score in the service-learning course the study utilized was 86.5%, with the highest score being 100% and the lowest score being 64.50%. Descriptive statistics can be seen in Table 2 . Table 2 Ready to Move Study Descriptive Statistics. M SD Min Max Goal Orientation (GO) GO Mastery 4.61 0.51 3.00 5.00 GO Performance 2.38 0.90 1.00 4.80 GO Avoidant 3.08 1.00 1.00 4.80 Academics Academic Self Efficacy 4.51 0.52 3.00 5.00 Final Score 86.50 9.41 64.50 100.00 Demographics Age 21.60 3.33 19.00 40.00 *Note M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; Min = Minimum; Max = Maximum; GO = Goal Orientation represented by subscales mastery, performance, and avoidance. SE = self-efficacy. Correlations between GO, Academic SE, and Final Course Scores can be seen in Table 3 . GO Mastery and GO Performance were significantly positively correlated to Academic SE and GO performance and GO Avoidance were significantly correlated to Final Course Score. Table 3 Correlations between motivational variables and Final score. GO Mastery GO Performance GO Avoidance Academic SE Final Score GO Mastery - GO Performance 0.166 - GO Avoidance 0.29** 0.59** - Academic SE 0.52** 0.27* 0.22 - Final Score 0.21 0.30** 0.30** 0.10 - *Note. GO = Goal Orientation represented by subscales mastery, performance, and avoidance. SE = self-efficacy. ** = p < .001 To examine the proposed relationship between GO and academic performance, a mediation model was created. The three proposed models examined the relationship between the subcategories of Academic SE, and academic performance with academic SE as a mediator and age and gender as covariates. In all three mediation models created, Mastery GO, Performance GO, Avoidant GO, the indirect between GO and academic achievement via Academic SE, was not significant, with p = 0.95, p = 0.85, and p = 0.74 respectively. Within these models, the direct pathways between the subscales of GO and academic performance, Performance GO (p = 0.01) and Avoidant GO (p < 0.1) were significant, while Mastery GO was not (p = 0.11). Figures 2 , 3 , and 4 depict these models. Discussion The purpose of this study was to examine how public health student success and learning is predicted by GO, so that students can achieve higher competencies in applied service-learning courses. We hypothesized that GO positively predicts overall academic performance in application-based course. We further hypothesized that Academic SE will be a mediator in this relationship, with students with higher Academic SE obtaining higher final course outcomes. Results of the study found that both while Performance and Avoidance GO were correlated to academic success in the application-based service-learning course, Mastery GO was not. Additionally, the study found that when examining the relationship between GO and academic performance, Academic SE was not a mediator, and when in a stepwise linear regression, only Performance GO was a predictor of academic performance. Direct Effects Findings of the study suggest that both Performance GO and Avoidance GO have a significant positive direct effect on academic performance, meaning that as GO increases, so does academic performance. While previous studies, such as those by Honicke (2019) have found that Performance GO has a direct effect on academic performance, it is contradictory to previous literature to say the same regarding Avoidance GO( 19 ). Avoidant GO is often associated with negative academic performance, so this result was unexpected( 9 , 10 ). However previous studies had focused on classes that were test-based core curriculum classes, instead of a service-learning class that required class presentations and interpersonal relationships. The structure of this class, which relies on interpersonal interaction and relationships may mean that a participant with a fear of looking less intelligent in a social setting is spurred to do better in the class because of their higher GO. Overall, these findings do support the belief that GO plays a critical role in academic outcomes and provides additional evidence that this can be true in application-based courses as well ( 19 , 23 ). Mediation Analysis Results of the three mediation analyses found Academic SE is not a mediating factor in the relationship between GO and academic performance. While previous studies by Honicke (2016, 2019) have found a mediating relationship between Mastery and Performance GOs and academic performance there may be some explanations as to why these results differ( 4 , 19 ). One explanation for this result is the high baseline of Academic SE among the participants. The students in the study had a mean Academic SE of 4.51 with a standard deviation of 0.52 on a 5-point scale. The homogeneity of these students, and the limited sample size, may mean that we are unable to see any mediating relationship that may be there. A second explanation is that because this course is formatted in a different way, with the addition of a service-learning component, an unmeasured variable may play a role in Academic SE, thus diminishing the mediating relationship that other studies have found( 18 , 19 ). This finding challenges the universality of Academic SE as a mediator between GO and academic performance, as it may not be applicable in service-learning style courses. Strength and Limitations This study is not without limitations, with the two largest being generalizability and timing of data collection. This study utilized a convenience sampling method, which limited the study participants to only public health students with a focus on kinesiology. This sampling, and a smaller sample size of 74, limits the generalizability of the study. Additionally, the study collected Academic SE scores at the same timepoint as the GO may negatively affect the strength of the mediating relationship compared to collecting Academic SE at a later timepoint. This study does however how strengths as well. The study addresses gaps in previous studies by exploring and utilizing all three subtypes of GO. Additionally, this study is focused on application-based real-world skills, which can be transferrable to not only other teaching units but other types of learning environments such as service trainings. Conclusion The overall findings of this study further emphasize that GO is related to academic performance, even in an application service-learning based education setting. The study provided an example of when Performance and Avoidant GO can be advantageous for academic success. The Ready to Move study additionally provided a population where Academic SE may not be a mediating factor for academic success. Overall, the Ready to Move study provided an in-classroom example of students learning and applying knowledge, while examining their motivation, self-efficacy, and success. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate In compliance with the Helsinki Declaration, The Indiana University Internal Review Board provided the study with an exempt ethical approval for the study (IRB: #12340). Informed consent was received from all participants of the study to participate. Consent for Publication Not Applicable Funding There is no funding for the authors to declare Author Contribution K.H wrote the main text, prepared figures and tables, and ran data analysis.J.M, A.C, C.K, K.K, and V.MK provided feedback on study design, analysis and interpretation.S.S and V.MK oversaw the study program and data collection.L.GA provided support and guidance in data analysis and interpretation.All Authors reviewed the manuscript. Acknowledgement We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Healthy IU Ready to Move coaches and clients for their invaluable contributions to the program. We also extend our heartfelt thanks to the Healthy IU Staff, Samantha Schaefer, Angela Reese, and Betty Klein, that helps run this program, without them we would be unable to do this research. We would like to thank Indiana University’s Biostatistics Consulting Center for their guidance and instruction on managing and analyzing this data, without them this process would not have been as successful. Data Availability The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Leider JP, Burke E, Nguyen RHN, Plepys C, Kirkland C, Resnick B, et al. Trends in Degree Conferrals, Degree-Associated Debt, and Employment Outcomes Among Undergraduate Public Health Degree Graduates, 2001–2020. Am J Public Health. 2023;113(1):115–23. van Dierendonck D, van der Gaast E. 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Educational Psychol. 1991;26(3–4):207–31. Jamali M, Noroozi A, Tahmasebi R. Factors Affecting Academic Self-Efficacy and Its Association with Academic Achievment among Students of Bushehr University Medical Sciences 2012-13. Iran J Med Educ. 2013;13(8):629–41. Matovu M. Academic self-efficacy and academic performance among university undergraduate students. Eur J Educ Stud. 2020. Diseth Å. Self-efficacy, goal orientations and learning strategies as mediators between preceding and subsequent academic achievement. Learn Individual Differences. 2011;21(2):191–5. Honicke T, Jaclyn B, Fuller-Tyszkiewicz M. Learner self-efficacy, goal orientation, and academic achievement: exploring mediating and moderating relationships. High Educ Res Dev. 2020;39(4):689–703. Factual C. IU Bloomington Demographics & Diversity Report College Factual: Media Factual; 2025 [Available from: https://www.collegefactual.com/colleges/indiana-university-bloomington/student-life/diversity/ Anderman EM, Urdan T, Roeser R. The Patterns of Adaptive Learning Survey. Springer US. pp. 223 – 35. Nielsen T, Dammeyer J, Vang ML, Makransky G. Gender fairness in self-efficacy? A Rasch-based validity study of the General Academic Self-efficacy scale (GASE). Scandinavian J Educational Res. 2018;62(5):664–81. Lu B, Deng Y, Yao X, Li Z. Learning goal orientation and academic performance: a dynamic model. J Career Assess. 2022;30(2):329–44. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Martinez Kercher","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAsUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACHiBmbGBg4GcG8dhI0SLZTLIWgwPEajE4c/jYh587bPKNj/MYMHwoO0yElrNtyTN7z6RZbjvMY8A44xwRWiT7eYyZGdsOG5gBtTDzthGlhf8zUMt/A+NmoJa/xGjh5+1hBmo5YGDADNTCSJQWnmPGjL1tyQYSh9kKDvacSyeshY0n+THDzzY7A/7+wxsf/CizJqwFBRwgUf0oGAWjYBSMAlwAADFOM33ReQntAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Indiana University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vanessa","middleName":"M. Martinez","lastName":"Kercher","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-10 18:53:23","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6865743/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6865743/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":87226680,"identity":"43c43d7f-5bd9-43ec-9cb6-b787a1ea4abd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-21 17:33:08","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":84391,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eService-Learning Course Flow\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Note. GO=Goal Orientation; SE=Self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6865743/v1/952e0e0f3974f9a99d45753a.png"},{"id":87227523,"identity":"461191fc-4d84-4964-b916-841945d04b3b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-21 17:41:08","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":76909,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMastery GO Mediation Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6865743/v1/33b0e58669c713ec5f04aea5.jpeg"},{"id":87226690,"identity":"1b397929-c701-48e4-b6f6-a0f4d2e85ac4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-21 17:33:08","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":71461,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePerformance GO Mediation Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6865743/v1/23ab6eea51d474979df65c66.jpeg"},{"id":87226683,"identity":"8d806bd2-d04a-4b65-a9e4-2120d76832c8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-21 17:33:08","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":64469,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvoidant GO Mediation Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6865743/v1/50f03daf66bf1563eed6933a.jpeg"},{"id":105367968,"identity":"90e4746f-1881-4520-9285-330ba84848fe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-25 08:57:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":932090,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6865743/v1/c825acc0-6e87-4a97-93cf-4345b96740bd.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Ready to Learn: Examining Goal Orientation and Academic Self-Efficacy in a College Service-Learning Course","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eA growing number of public health college students are entering the healthcare and social assistance sector of the workforce (e.g. nurses, doctors, public health workers)(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). With this shift, there is a renewed importance in understanding the best way to teach students the applied skills to succeed in practical settings. Why and how people learn is especially important for students who are learning content and practicing how to support the adoption of health behaviors within the public health field(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Many of these students will be directly involved in some form of patient care during their careers. In addition to helping students who will be responsible for patient care, it is important to know how students come to develop knowledge because, as previous studies have found, these learning processes influence factors such as student\u0026rsquo;s problem-solving approaches, student motivation, and student persistence(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGoal orientation (GO) is a key motivational variable that influences learning and academic attainment among college students(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). GO has been described as the \u0026ldquo;underlying purpose for engaging in a learning related task\u0026rdquo; and some classifications of GO are correlated with academic and early career success (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). There are three subscales of GO, mastery, performance, and avoidant- with each subclassification focusing on different presentations and correlations to markers of academic success(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Mastery GO is often associated with intrinsic motivation and behaviors such as asking questions to deep comprehension(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Performance GO often reflects the extent to which individuals aim to outperform others on academic tests in the classroom or in standardized testing. This orientation may emphasize achieving high standards over mastering content(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Avoidant GO is characterized by a focus on avoiding negative judgments or appearing less competent than peers. This orientation is typically linked with efforts to prevent failure rather than engaging mindfully with the material(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Traditional GO research has focused mainly on common core curriculum courses, such as English or Math. To our knowledge, no studies have focused utilizing application-based (or service-learning course) to learn and apply behavioral change techniques such as using reflective listening skills or expressing positive support. These behaviors change technique skills are important to public health students as they are often required to communicate with patients within healthcare settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious literature regarding GO and academic performance shows that different subcategories of GO have distinct and different associations with academic performance. Lin et al. (2009) found that students\u0026rsquo; high Mastery GO scores have been linked to positive outcomes such as higher standardized test scores(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, a study focusing on Performance GO by Pintrich (2000), found that higher Performance GO scores were related to lower overall math grades, but when examining pharmacy students\u0026rsquo; Performance GO was positively associated with academic acheivement(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, Avoidant GO has been found to be detrimental to students\u0026rsquo; learning, and is correlated to lower overall course grades, higher levels of test anxiety, and lower study behavior engagement(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic self-efficacy (Academic SE), which is a person\u0026rsquo;s belief or judgement of their ability to organize and execute courses of action required to reach their desired types of academic performance, has also been shown to be a motivational variable that can affect academic performance (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). Previous research in college students found that Academic SE is linked to Grade Point Averages (GPAs) in both private and public universities(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). Students with higher levels of Academic SE were found to have higher GPAs, both semester and cumulative(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious studies may have an incomplete picture regarding the relationship between GO, Academic SE, and academic performance. A study conducted by Diseth (2011) found that performance and mastery GO were positively correlated to examination grades. Additionally, the study found that all subcategories of GO were associated with Academic SE (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). This study, however, did not include every subscale of GO, leaving out Mastery GO. Without the inclusion of all three GO subscales, we are unable to see how all forms of motivation are related to Academic SE, and academic performance. A study conducted in 2019 by Honicke explored if Academic SE was a mediating or moderating factor in the relationship between GO and achievement and found that Academic SE was a mediator between GO and achievement, but only for Mastery and Performance GO(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). The findings also indicated that Academic SE was not a moderator in this relationship(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). An additional study by Honicke and colleagues found that Academic SE was a mediating factor of overall academic performance(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). This study only examined mastery and performance GO, which may create an incomplete picture of all types of GO.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the existing literature on GO and Academic SE, significant gaps remain particularly due to the exclusion of Avoidant GO in most research. To fully understand the relationship between GO, Academic SE, and academic performance, all three GO subcategories should be incorporated. Doing so would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how students\u0026rsquo; motivational orientations relate to their academic performance, especially in application-based learning environments. Further, creation of these new models within a public health student population would additionally allow further examination of a public health major population, so that we can better understand the learning and motivation of future healthcare and social assistance workers. The present study seeks to address the gaps in previous GO literature by inclusion of all three subcategories of GO in the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, we conducted the Ready to Move (RTM) study which was a prospective observational study assessing public health students at a large public Midwest University, which examined the communication skills of both undergraduate and graduate students participating in a service-learning health and wellness coaching course. The study collected motivational variables (e.g. GO), Academic SE, demographic information, and academic performance measures (e.g. final grades). In this study, we will analyze correlations between GO, Academic SE, and academic performance as measured by the final course grade. We will then conduct a median analysis with GO as the predictor, Academic SE as the mediator, and academic performance as the outcome. This work will strengthen understanding of GO by including all subscales of GO in analysis and additionally providing understanding of GO in a new context.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe hypothesize that GO positively predicts overall academic performance in an application-based course. We further hypothesize that Academic SE will be a mediator to this relationship, with students with higher Academic SE obtaining higher final course outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eParticipants for the study were recruited using convenience sampling, as participants were sampled from the classroom environment. Student participants were either undergraduate students who were 3rd of 4th year college students, or graduate students. Undergraduate students had to be enrolled in a kinesiology-based course and willing to participate in the study, while graduate students had to be enrolled and willing to participate in the graduate version of the same course. Students\u0026rsquo; majors ranged from exercise science, physical activity, and fitness and wellness at the university\u0026rsquo;s public health school. There were no exclusion criteria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the University\u0026rsquo;s Institutional Review Board, and informed consent was received from all participants. The participants who agreed to take part in the study completed a questionnaire online via Qualtrics prior to the start of the course.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eService-Learning Course\u003c/em\u003e- A total of 74 students participated in a 16-week service-learning course that focused on health and wellness coaching over two semesters. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e depicts the components of the service-learning course.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eCourse Instruction-\u003c/span\u003e The first 6 weeks of the course focused on student training. During this time students gain foundational knowledge on behavior-change technique strategies that include motivational interviewing (mindful listening, perceptive reflections, and open-ended inquiry), goal setting, and program development. This education included in-class activities that included reflections, role-play, and group breakouts where students can practice and apply their coaching techniques with multiple peers at multiple time-points. At the end of the 6-week intensive training, all students engage in a practical skills assessment applying foundational coaching skills with a mock-client.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe classes were composed of 64 undergraduate students and 10 graduate students, all of which were public health majors. Student race and ethnicity were not taken in the demographic survey; however, the race and ethnicity demographics of the University are 68.6% White, 7.9% Hispanic, 7.4% Asian, and less than 5% Black or African-American(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). Among the 74 students that participated in the study, 50 students (67.6%) had self-reported coaching experience, and 24 (32.4%) had no previous coaching experience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eService Learning-\u003c/span\u003e Following the intensive training portion of the course each student was randomly paired with a university employee (staff or faculty member) for 8-weeks as health and wellness coaches in a program called Ready to Move. Ready to Move is a collaboration with the university\u0026rsquo;s employee workplace wellness program. The Ready to Move program, which provides participants with weekly coaching sessions and communications with their student coaches, focuses on building healthier habits in their lives. Additionally, students are required to provide weekly check-ins to the course instructor, to ensure that students are providing adequate services to their participants. Additionally, these check-ins were counted as grades for students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor this study, we investigate students\u0026rsquo; motivational and education status. GO and Academic SE were used as measures of student motivational status. Academic performance was measured using final course grade.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eGoal Orientation-\u003c/span\u003eThe Goal Orientation Scale (GO-15) from Patterns of Adaptive Learning Skills was used to assess GO at baseline. The 15-item questionnaire is represented by 3 subscales to measure students\u0026rsquo; perception of their motivation to do their classwork. A Likert scale of 15 ranging from 1= \u0026ldquo;not true at all\u0026rdquo; to 5= \u0026ldquo;very true\u0026rdquo; was used to represent participant responses. The GO-15 has been validated among emerging adults and reports Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha between 0.75 and 0.85 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eAcademic Self-Efficacy\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e-\u003c/span\u003e The Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES-5) is a 5-item Likert like scale used to assess students\u0026rsquo; perceptions of their competence to do their course work at baseline. The responses to the questions range from 1= \u0026ldquo;not true at all\u0026rdquo; to 5= \u0026ldquo;very true\u0026rdquo;. The scale has been utilized to measure self-efficacy among students of many levels, including college students, with a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.78 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eAcademic Performance-\u003c/span\u003e The course grade average was used as a measure of a student\u0026rsquo;s academic performance. Final course grade is a percentage of points a student received compared to the potential points that were available for the entire course. All students\u0026rsquo; final course grades were assigned by the same professor using the same rubric. \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eS\u003c/span\u003etudents who were enrolled in behavioral intervention class and part of the study were graded on both the content training and content application. The following table shows the assessment methods used in the course that led to the final grades students received. How grades were created is shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssessment Methods and total points for service-learning course.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssessment Methods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Points\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrade %\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent Checks Quizzes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.30%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent Reflection\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.30%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoaching Practical Skills\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.60%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoaching Presentations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.60%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoaching Check-ins\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Points\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e600\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnalysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBaseline information was collected using a survey using Qualtrics (Qualtrics, Provo, UT), final grade information was provided by the course instructor. Data analysis was conducted using RStudio (RStudio, Boston, MA). Before analysis all data collected was checked for missing values, outlier, and normality. Descriptive statistics were run for all continuous variables. For any categorical variables frequencies were ran. There was no missing data in the dataset.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrelations between GO subscales, academic performance, and Academic SE were conducted. To analyze the mediating relationships between types of GO subtypes, Academic SE, and final course outcome, three mediation models were created. The indirect, and direct pathways, as well as covariate pathways of the model were assessed for significance to a p-value of 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics can be found in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Among the 74 students who participated in the study, over 80% of students were undergraduate students, and gender of students was relatively evenly split with 36 (48.6%) men and 38 (51.4%) women. The mean age of students was 21.6 years old. The GO subscale that had the highest mean score was Mastery GO, followed by Avoidant GO, and Performance GO had the lowest subscale mean score. Students reported a mean Academic SE score of 4.52 on a 5-point Likert scale. The mean final course score in the service-learning course the study utilized was 86.5%, with the highest score being 100% and the lowest score being 64.50%. Descriptive statistics can be seen in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReady to Move Study Descriptive Statistics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGoal Orientation\u0026nbsp;(GO)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGO Mastery\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGO Performance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGO Avoidant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic Self Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinal Score\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDemographics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e*Note M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Mean; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Standard Deviation; Min\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Minimum; Max\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Maximum; GO\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Goal Orientation represented by subscales mastery, performance, and avoidance. SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrelations between GO, Academic SE, and Final Course Scores can be seen in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. GO Mastery and GO Performance were significantly positively correlated to Academic SE and GO performance and GO Avoidance were significantly correlated to Final Course Score.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrelations between motivational variables and Final score.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGO Mastery\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGO Performance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGO Avoidance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinal Score\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGO Mastery\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGO Performance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.166\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGO Avoidance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic SE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinal Score\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e*Note. GO\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Goal Orientation represented by subscales mastery, performance, and avoidance. SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;self-efficacy. ** = p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo examine the proposed relationship between GO and academic performance, a mediation model was created. The three proposed models examined the relationship between the subcategories of Academic SE, and academic performance with academic SE as a mediator and age and gender as covariates. In all three mediation models created, Mastery GO, Performance GO, Avoidant GO, the indirect between GO and academic achievement via Academic SE, was not significant, with p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.95, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.85, and p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.74 respectively. Within these models, the direct pathways between the subscales of GO and academic performance, Performance GO (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01) and Avoidant GO (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.1) were significant, while Mastery GO was not (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.11). Figures\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e depict these models.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe purpose of this study was to examine how public health student success and learning is predicted by GO, so that students can achieve higher competencies in applied service-learning courses. We hypothesized that GO positively predicts overall academic performance in application-based course. We further hypothesized that Academic SE will be a mediator in this relationship, with students with higher Academic SE obtaining higher final course outcomes. Results of the study found that both while Performance and Avoidance GO were correlated to academic success in the application-based service-learning course, Mastery GO was not. Additionally, the study found that when examining the relationship between GO and academic performance, Academic SE was not a mediator, and when in a stepwise linear regression, only Performance GO was a predictor of academic performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDirect Effects\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFindings of the study suggest that both Performance GO and Avoidance GO have a significant positive direct effect on academic performance, meaning that as GO increases, so does academic performance. While previous studies, such as those by Honicke (2019) have found that Performance GO has a direct effect on academic performance, it is contradictory to previous literature to say the same regarding Avoidance GO(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). Avoidant GO is often associated with negative academic performance, so this result was unexpected(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). However previous studies had focused on classes that were test-based core curriculum classes, instead of a service-learning class that required class presentations and interpersonal relationships. The structure of this class, which relies on interpersonal interaction and relationships may mean that a participant with a fear of looking less intelligent in a social setting is spurred to do better in the class because of their higher GO. Overall, these findings do support the belief that GO plays a critical role in academic outcomes and provides additional evidence that this can be true in application-based courses as well (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMediation Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults of the three mediation analyses found Academic SE is not a mediating factor in the relationship between GO and academic performance. While previous studies by Honicke (2016, 2019) have found a mediating relationship between Mastery and Performance GOs and academic performance there may be some explanations as to why these results differ(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). One explanation for this result is the high baseline of Academic SE among the participants. The students in the study had a mean Academic SE of 4.51 with a standard deviation of 0.52 on a 5-point scale. The homogeneity of these students, and the limited sample size, may mean that we are unable to see any mediating relationship that may be there. A second explanation is that because this course is formatted in a different way, with the addition of a service-learning component, an unmeasured variable may play a role in Academic SE, thus diminishing the mediating relationship that other studies have found(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). This finding challenges the universality of Academic SE as a mediator between GO and academic performance, as it may not be applicable in service-learning style courses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStrength and Limitations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study is not without limitations, with the two largest being generalizability and timing of data collection. This study utilized a convenience sampling method, which limited the study participants to only public health students with a focus on kinesiology. This sampling, and a smaller sample size of 74, limits the generalizability of the study. Additionally, the study collected Academic SE scores at the same timepoint as the GO may negatively affect the strength of the mediating relationship compared to collecting Academic SE at a later timepoint. This study does however how strengths as well. The study addresses gaps in previous studies by exploring and utilizing all three subtypes of GO. Additionally, this study is focused on application-based real-world skills, which can be transferrable to not only other teaching units but other types of learning environments such as service trainings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe overall findings of this study further emphasize that GO is related to academic performance, even in an application service-learning based education setting. The study provided an example of when Performance and Avoidant GO can be advantageous for academic success. The Ready to Move study additionally provided a population where Academic SE may not be a mediating factor for academic success. Overall, the Ready to Move study provided an in-classroom example of students learning and applying knowledge, while examining their motivation, self-efficacy, and success.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn compliance with the Helsinki Declaration, The Indiana University Internal Review Board provided the study with an exempt ethical approval for the study (IRB: #12340). Informed consent was received from all participants of the study to participate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFunding\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is no funding for the authors to declare\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eK.H wrote the main text, prepared figures and tables, and ran data analysis.J.M, A.C, C.K, K.K, and V.MK provided feedback on study design, analysis and interpretation.S.S and V.MK oversaw the study program and data collection.L.GA provided support and guidance in data analysis and interpretation.All Authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Healthy IU Ready to Move coaches and clients for their invaluable contributions to the program. We also extend our heartfelt thanks to the Healthy IU Staff, Samantha Schaefer, Angela Reese, and Betty Klein, that helps run this program, without them we would be unable to do this research. We would like to thank Indiana University\u0026rsquo;s Biostatistics Consulting Center for their guidance and instruction on managing and analyzing this data, without them this process would not have been as successful.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Availability\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeider JP, Burke E, Nguyen RHN, Plepys C, Kirkland C, Resnick B, et al. Trends in Degree Conferrals, Degree-Associated Debt, and Employment Outcomes Among Undergraduate Public Health Degree Graduates, 2001\u0026ndash;2020. Am J Public Health. 2023;113(1):115\u0026ndash;23.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan Dierendonck D, van der Gaast E. Goal orientation, academic competences and early career success. Career Dev Int. 2013;18(7):694\u0026ndash;711.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKaplan A, Maehr ML. The Contributions and Prospects of Goal Orientation Theory. Educational Psychol Rev. 2007;19(2):141\u0026ndash;84.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHonicke T, Broadbent J. The influence of academic self-efficacy on academic performance: A systematic review. Educational Res Rev. 2016;17:63\u0026ndash;84.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNg E, Bereiter C. Three Levels of Goal Orientation in Learning. J Learn Sci. 1991;1(3/4):243\u0026ndash;71.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoraya F, Hasan SS. Achievement goal orientation and academic performance in undergraduate students. Pakistan J Social Clin Psychol. 2012;9(3).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStavropoulou G, Stamovlasis D. Students\u0026rsquo; Achievement Goal Orientations Scale: Psychometric Properties, Measurement Invariance Across Genders and Grades. J School Educational Psychol. 2025;5(1):18\u0026ndash;30.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEum K, Rice KG. Test anxiety, perfectionism, goal orientation, and academic performance. Anxiety, Stress, \u0026amp; Coping. 2011;24(2):167\u0026thinsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;78.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLin C-J, Hung P-H, Lin S-W, Lin B-H, Lin F-L, THE POWER OF LEARNING GOAL ORIENTATION IN PREDICTING STUDENT MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT. Int J Sci Math Educ. 2009;7(3):551\u0026ndash;73.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePintrich PR. Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientation in learning and achievement. J Educ Psychol. 2000;92(3):544\u0026ndash;55.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlrakaf S, Sainsbury E, Rose G, Smith L. Identifying achievement goals and their relationship to academic achievement in undergraduate pharmacy students. Am J Pharm Educ. 2014;78(7):133.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArtino AR. Academic self-efficacy: from educational theory to instructional practice. Perspect Med Educ. 2012;1(2):76\u0026ndash;85.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEum K, Rice KG. Test anxiety, perfectionism, goal orientation, and academic performance. Anxiety, Stress, \u0026amp; Coping. 2011;24(2):167\u0026thinsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;78.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLaitinen S, Kaukiainen A, Tuominen T. Motivational Orientation Profiles and Study Well-Being among Higher Education Students. Educ Sci. 2024;14(6):585.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSchunk DH. Self-efficacy and academic motivation. Educational Psychol. 1991;26(3\u0026ndash;4):207\u0026ndash;31.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJamali M, Noroozi A, Tahmasebi R. Factors Affecting Academic Self-Efficacy and Its Association with Academic Achievment among Students of Bushehr University Medical Sciences 2012-13. Iran J Med Educ. 2013;13(8):629\u0026ndash;41.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMatovu M. Academic self-efficacy and academic performance among university undergraduate students. Eur J Educ Stud. 2020.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDiseth \u0026Aring;. Self-efficacy, goal orientations and learning strategies as mediators between preceding and subsequent academic achievement. 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The Patterns of Adaptive Learning Survey. Springer US. pp. 223\u0026thinsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;35.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNielsen T, Dammeyer J, Vang ML, Makransky G. Gender fairness in self-efficacy? A Rasch-based validity study of the General Academic Self-efficacy scale (GASE). Scandinavian J Educational Res. 2018;62(5):664\u0026ndash;81.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLu B, Deng Y, Yao X, Li Z. Learning goal orientation and academic performance: a dynamic model. J Career Assess. 2022;30(2):329\u0026ndash;44.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6865743/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6865743/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCollege students' academic achievement can be affected by diverse interacting psychological variables. Goal orientation (GO) and Academic self-efficacy (Academic SE) are important psychological measures that impact academic achievement. Few studies have explored the impact of GO among public health students in an application-based course where students apply learned knowledge in a real-world/life setting (i.e., service-learning course). Evidence supports found Academic SE as a mediating factor in the relationship between GO and academic performance. However, the relationship between GO, Academic SE, and academic performance among students in a service-learning course remains unclear.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePurpose\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo examine GO on Academic SE and academic performance in a college-level service-learning wellness coaching course. \u003cem\u003eReady to Move\u003c/em\u003e (RTM) is the service-learning component of the course where students practice and apply health and wellness coaching techniques to promote physical activity among university employees. After 6-weeks of the learning/training component of the course, each student engaged in 8-weeks of supervised, one-on-one coaching as a part of their overall grade.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e70 students, 67.6% of which had previous coaching experience, enrolled in this 16-week course. GO, Academic SE, and demographics were assessed the week before the course (i.e., baseline) using Qualtrics, whereas academic performance was measured throughout the semester for an overall score. A mediation analysis was conducted using RStudio to examine the relationship between GO, Academic SE, and academic performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults indicated that Performance and Avoidant GO were positively associated with academic performance. However, there was no significant mediating relationship between Academic SE and academic performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFindings from this study highlight that while Goal Orientation is still related to academic performance in the application-based service-learning setting, Mastery GO, may not play as high of an importance, and that within this setting, Academic SE may not be a mediating factor. Further studies should be conducted to ascertain the role GO plays in application-based courses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number: \u003c/strong\u003enot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ready to Learn: Examining Goal Orientation and Academic Self-Efficacy in a College Service-Learning Course","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-21 17:33:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6865743/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1293d1b6-488d-4000-8f9d-1853b07053ca","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-25T08:53:33+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-21 17:33:03","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6865743","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6865743","identity":"rs-6865743","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}