Parasite contamination impact on nutritional and phytochemical composition of Gongronema latifolium, Ocimum gratissimum and Piper guineense leaves

Parasite contamination impact on nutritional and phytochemical composition of Gongronema latifolium, Ocimum gratissimum and Piper guineense leaves | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Parasite contamination impact on nutritional and phytochemical composition of Gongronema latifolium, Ocimum gratissimum and Piper guineense leaves Stella Ngozi Nmezi, Magnus Chinwendu Nwoko, Venatius Chiamaka Ubah, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6849151/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Consumption of raw vegetables has been implicated in the transmission of parasites. And as such the cultivation as well as harvesting should be done properly in order to avoid contamination. Objective The impact of parasite contamination on the phytochemical and nutritional composition of commonly consumed Nigeria vegetables were determined using Gongronema latifolium Ocimum gratissimum and Piper guineense as case study. Methods Both qualitative and quantitative techniques were used to assess the phytochemical and nutritional contents of the plants. Results Results showed that parasite contamination had a noticeable impact on the phytochemical contents of the studied vegetables. Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponin, tannin and phenol were slightly present in the contaminated leaves of G. latifolium and O. gratissimum but were in reasonable amount in non- contaminated. Dry matter was high in both contaminated and non-contaminated (88.72%) and (89.32%) in G. latifolium , (89.52%) and (89.72%) in O. gratissimum and (89.40%) and (88.40%) in P . guineense , Fat was low in both contaminated and non-contaminated (1.70%) and (1.50%) in G. latifolium , (1.90%) and (1.70%) in O. gratissimum , (1.82%) and (1.67%) in P . guineense leaf. Conclusion Parasites such as nematodes and protozoa have the capability to consume or degrade proteins in the vegetables which could be the reason for noticeable reduction of proteins in the contaminated samples.. Hence, parasite contamination is capable of affecting the nutritional and phytochemical content of vegetables negatively and undermines the beneficial use of vegetables in amelioration and prevention of diseases. Parasites Asclepiadaceae Lamiaceae Piperaceae Contamination and Phytochemical Figures Figure 1 Introduction The nutritional benefits of plants are increasingly tremendous in the world today due to their unrestrained roles in human health and constituent active ingredients. Vegetables are fresh edible portions of herbaceous plants which can be eaten raw or cooked and act as important sources of protective foods. Vegetables include leaves, stems, roots, flowers, seeds, fruits, and bulbs. They are regular ingredients in the diet of the average Nigeria and provide appreciable amounts of nutritive minerals. Even though the bulk of their weight is water, leafy vegetables represent a veritable natural pharmacy of minerals, vitamins and phytochemicals. Interestingly, plants produce food in the leaves, but do not store these foods in the leaves. The washing of the vegetables reduces moisture due to water removal from the surface [ 1 ]. Parasites like protozoa and nematodes have the ability to introduce mineral-rich material, potentially elevating ash content in contaminated samples [ 2 ]. The significance of leafy vegetables has immensely been manifested in the human diet supplying the body with low calorie, substantial amounts of carbohydrates, oil, minerals, vitamins and act as precursors of hormones as well as protein and energy. Moreover, parasites can introduce microbial contaminants that contribute to the breakdown of proteins, further impacting the protein composition [ 3 ]. The elucidation of the properties by vegetables are held greatly to the biological active substances possessed by them such as secondary metabolites, high vitamin and mineral contents. They equally help in the amelioration and prevention of diseases [ 4 ]. Alkaloids often act as deterrents to herbivores and pests [ 5 ]. Saponins exhibit antimicrobial and pesticidal activities, suggesting their potential effectiveness against parasites contamination. Tannins, known for their astringent properties, could serve as a potential defense mechanism against parasites. Their role in inhibiting microbial growth might indicate their effectiveness against parasitic contamination [ 6 ]. Glycosides, compounds often associated with potential therapeutic effects. The presence of glycosides might indicate a specific defense strategy against parasitic threats and absence of glycosides in some plants might suggest alternative mechanisms for coping with parasites. Phenols are associated with a range of health benefits, including their potential to shield against chronic diseases and the aging process [ 7 ]. Despite the tremendous benefits of vegetable consumption on human health, there are concerns about the safety of vegetables produced by farmers in rural and some urban settings of developing and underdeveloped countries [ 8 ]. In these areas, vegetables are mainly cultivated on untreated soils, using human or animal excreta as a natural fertilizer and untreated wastewater for irrigation [ 9 ]. In most cases, after being harvested, these vegetables are consumed raw or processed minimally with less heat or washing to retain the natural taste and preserve heat labile nutrients [ 10 ]. This poor hygienic practice promotes the transmission of parasitic eggs to the human host [ 11 ]. In other instances, contamination of vegetables may occur during planting as a result of the manure used or after harvesting, with farmers preserving the vegetable through the intermittent sprinkling of unclean water [ 12 ]. Vegetables can become contaminated with parasitic pathogens throughout the process of planting to consumption [ 13 ]. The extent of contamination depends on so many factors which may include; application of night soil, animal manure and the use of untreated wastewater and water supplies contaminated with sewage as an organic or agricultural fertilizer and for irrigation, coupled with the unhygienic practice of the farmers during harvest, post-harvest handling by vendors, poverty and hygienic conditions of preparation in food service or home. This work examines the effect of contamination on the nutritional and phytochemical content of three commonly consumed vegetable in southeast Nigeria. Methods Plant sample collection About 20g each of fresh leaves of G. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense were collected from Federal University of Technology Owerri garden and authenticated by Dr Nwoko of the department of Biology of same University. These vegetables represent some of the indigenous leafy vegetables that are mainly consumed by the southeastern region in Nigeria. Sample Preparation Each sample of G. latifolium, O. gratissimum and P. guineense was divided into two parts. One part of the sample was washed thoroughly and soaked overnight with normal saline to wash away contaminants such as eggs, cysts of parasites and other debrites and termed ( non- contaminated sample) while the other part was not washed termed (contaminated sample ). Each sample was dried in an oven. After which it was grinded. 8.2g of each grounded sample was taken and soaked in 100 ml of ethanol for 24hrs, after which it was extracted and kept in a room temperature for 48hrs to allow the ethanol to evaporate and a dried sample was obtained. The extracts were weighed and recorded and then used for proximate and phytochemical analysis. Determination of nutritional composition The proximate analysis of the leaf extracts of ( G. latifolium, O. gratissimum and P. guineense) were carried out to determine the dry matter, ash, moisture content, crude protein, fat, and crude fibre using Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) method [ 14 ]. Phytochemical analysis of the plants extract The concentrated extracts were subjected to a phytochemical analysis to ascertain the presence of tannin, saponins, phenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and cardiac glycosides using AOAC methods [ 14 ]. Statistical analysis Laboratory chemical analyses were done in triplicate and the mean value of each chemical parameter was calculated using Microsoft excel. The data was statistically analyzed by using analysis of variance (ANOVA) in Microsoft Excel Tool Pak. Two samples T-test with unequal variances was used to compare mean values and significance was accepted at P ≤ 0.05 level. Results Table 1 Qualitative analysis of Phytochemical components of non-contaminated and contaminated G. latifolium, O. gratissimum , and P. guineense . Phytochemicals G.latifolim O.gratissimum P.guineense Non-contaminated Contaminated Non-contaminated Contaminated Non-contaminated Contaminated Alkaloids ++ ++ ++ +++ + ++ Flavonoids + +++ + ++ ++ ++ Saponin ++ ++ ++ +++ + ++ Tannin ++ +++ + ++ ++ ++ Phenol ++ ++ ++ +++ + ++ Glycosides ND + ND + ND + Table 1 : presents the qualitative analysis of various phytochemical components in the leaves of three distinct plants: G. latifolium , O. gratissimum , and P. guineense . The analysis encompasses different conditions, including non-contaminated and contaminated leaves. The presence and intensity of certain phytochemical constituents are categorized using symbols: "+", "++", "+++" and ND; denote slight, medium, heavy presence and not detected respectively. Table 2 Quantitative Photochemical analysis of G. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense. Vegetables Alkaloids (mg/100g) Flavonoids (mg/100g) Saponin (mg/100g) Tannin (mg/100g) Phenol (mg/100g) Glycosides (mg/100g) G. latifolium 3.14 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.42 a 3.46 \(\:\pm\:\:\) 0.39 a 2.32 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.22 a 3.34 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.50 2. \(\:09\pm\:\) 0.35 a 0.88 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.30 a O gratissimum 4.09 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.34 b 2.08 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.14 b 3.90 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.27 b 2.02 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.07 2.16 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.23 b 0.86 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.22 b P. guineense 2.90 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.03 c 2.14 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.14 c 2.08 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.11 2.53 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.20 1.76 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.18 1.07 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.28 The table displays the quantitative analysis of different classes of phytochemicals, including alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, phenols, and glycosides, in the leaves of these three plants. Table 3 Proximate analysis of G. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense. Vegetables MC% DM% ASH% CP% CF% FAT% G. latifolium Leaves 10.49 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.10 88.80 \(\:\pm\:\:\) 0.31 11.83 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.91 17.85 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.33 11.37 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.15 1.71 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.07 O. gratissimum 10.27 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.13 89.59 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.06 10.16 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.27 16.10 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.35 10.14 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.42 1.81 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.05 P. guineense 11.55 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.08 88.76 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.25 12.42 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.04 17.1 \(\:0\pm\:\) 0.30 12.60 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.17 1.76 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.04 This table presents the results of a proximate analysis conducted on various vegetables, detailing their moisture content (MC%), dry matter (DM%), ash content (ASH%), crude protein (CP%), crude fiber (CF%), and fat content (FAT%). The three vegetables examined are G. latifolium leaves, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense. Table 4 Quantitative analysis of Proximate contents of non-contaminated and contaminated G. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense. Nutritional contents G.latifolium O.gratissimum P.guineense Non-cont Conta Non-cont Conta Non-con conta MC% 10.66 10.33 10.50 10.04 11.67 11.4 DM% 89.32 88.72 89.72 89.52 88.40 89.40 ASH% 13.41 10.26 10.64 9.69 12.49 12.36 CP% 18.43 17.28 16.71 15.49 17.62 16.58 CF% 11.63 11.12 9.41 10.87 12.31 12.90 FAT% 1.50 1.70 1.70 1.90 1.67 1.82 Non-cont = non-contaminated, conta = comtaminated This table presents the composition of nutrients in non-contaminated and contaminated samples of G. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense. Non- contaminated samples seems to contain more DM (89.32%, 89.72%, 88.40%), Ash (13.41%, 10.64%, 12.49%), CP (18.43%, 16.71% and 17.62%), and FAT (1.50%, 1.70 and 1.67) for G. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense respectively. Discussion This study revealed intriguing variations in moisture content between non-contaminated and contaminated vegetables. Notably, G. latifolium and O. gratissimum demonstrate slightly higher moisture content in washed samples, which challenges the conventional understanding that washing reduces moisture due to water removal from the surface [ 1 ]. Piper guineense , on the other hand, shows elevated moisture content in both non-contaminated and contaminated samples. The presence of parasites could play a role in these moisture content discrepancies [ 1 ]. Parasites, including protozoa and nematodes, have the capacity to carry water and contribute to overall moisture content. It is plausible that even the presence of parasites in minute amounts could counteract the anticipated reduction in moisture content associated with washing. In essence, the parasites themselves introduce an additional source of moisture to the samples, potentially causing an offset in the expected decrease. This could explain the higher moisture content observed in washed samples of certain vegetables. The effect of parasitic contamination on moisture content becomes particularly relevant when considering the difficulty in thoroughly removing parasites through standard washing practices. Parasites might adhere more strongly to the vegetable surfaces, requiring more intensive washing techniques to ensure their removal. This adherence, coupled with the ability of parasites to retain moisture, could be contributing factors to the unexpected moisture content results in washed samples. The ash content, representing inorganic residue, holds significance in assessing mineral composition. In the context of G. latifolium, O. gratissimum , and P. guineense , This study reveals dynamic variations in ash content between non-contaminated and contaminated samples. Of these vegetables, P. guineense exhibits the most distinctive fluctuation in ash content between non-contaminated and contaminated samples. Parasitic contamination introduces a unique facet to ash content variations. Parasites like protozoa and nematodes have the ability to introduce mineral-rich material, potentially elevating ash content in contaminated samples. Their presence amplifies the complexity of assessing ash content accurately, particularly in Piper guineense , which appears to be more susceptible to the influence of parasites. While washing is usually thought to lower ash content by removing extraneous material, this assumption may not be accurate due to parasitic contamination potentially adding its own contribution that offsets the effects of washing [ 2 ]. Crude protein content serves as a key indicator of nutritional quality, encompassing the essential amino acids vital for human health [ 3 ]. Among these vegetables as presented, P. guineense appears to be the most variable in terms of crude protein content between non-contaminated and contaminated samples. The presence of parasites such as protozoa and nematodes introduced an intricate layer of influence on this parameter. These parasites have the capability to consume or degrade proteins present in the vegetables, leading to a noticeable reduction in crude protein content in contaminated samples. Moreover, parasites can introduce microbial contaminants that contribute to the breakdown of proteins, further impacting the protein composition [ 3 ]. This highlights the significance of recognizing the presence of parasites, particularly in P. guineense , when analyzing and interpreting crude protein content. Crude fiber content is a critical parameter reflecting the indigestible components of vegetables. Examining G. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense by comparing their crude fiber content between non-contaminated and contaminated forms, P. guineense displays significant variations in crude fiber content between non-contaminated and contaminated samples. The presence of parasites introduced a fascinating dimension to crude fiber content changes. Parasites, including protozoa and nematodes, could potentially contribute to the observed variations. Their activity may lead to the breakdown of fiber constituents or, conversely, the introduction of additional fiber-rich material. This dynamic underscores the intricate interplay between parasitic contamination and crude fiber assessment, particularly pronounced in P. guineense . A comprehensive qualitative analysis of the phytochemical constituents present in the leaves of three distinct plant species: G. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense . The presence and intensity of specific phytochemical components are categorized using standardized symbols to indicate their relative abundance: "+", "++", and "+++" denote slight, medium, and heavy presence, respectively, while "ND" (Not Detected) signifies the absence of a particular constituent. Alkaloids, which encompass a diverse and intricate collection of cyclic compounds containing nitrogen, consistently impart a bitter taste. Alkaloids have been linked to a wide spectrum of pharmacological roles, including but not limited to antimalarial, anticancer, cholinomimetic, vasodilatory, antiarrhythmic, antibacterial, antihyperglycemic, psychotropic, and stimulant properties [ 4 ]. In G. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense , alkaloids are denoted as "++" in contaminated samples, indicating a medium presence. In non-contaminated samples, G. latifolium and P. guineense exhibited a medium presence, while O. gratissimum displays a heavy presence of alkaloids ("+++"). The presence of alkaloids in varying intensities across all three plants suggests their potential role in defense mechanisms against parasites. Alkaloids often act as deterrents to herbivores and pests, and their increased presence in contaminated O. gratissimum might indicate a response to parasitic threats. Parasites could potentially influence alkaloid synthesis, leading to alterations in their concentration. Additionally, the observed differences could arise from the plant's attempts to cope with the presence of parasites through biochemical changes [ 5 ]. Comparing saponin content between non-contaminated and contaminated states provides valuable insights into potential effects of parasitic contamination. In the contaminated state, G. latifolium and O. gratissimum display a medium presence ("++"), while P. guineense demonstrates a heavy presence ("+++"). After washing, G. latifolium and O. gratissimum maintained a medium presence, while P. guineense retained its heavy presence of saponins. The presence of saponins across all three plants, with varying intensities, implies a potential role in defense mechanisms against parasites. Saponins often exhibit antimicrobial and pesticidal activities, suggesting their potential effectiveness against parasites. The maintenance of saponin presence after washing might indicate their stable contribution to the plants' defense strategies. Parasitic contamination might influence the synthesis of saponins, resulting in variations in intensity between washed and unwashed states. Consequently, the variations in saponin content might be linked to the plants' responses to the presence of parasites and their attempts to deter potential threats [ 5 ]. Contaminated G. latifolium and O. gratissimum show a slight presence ("+"), whereas P. guineense displays a medium presence ("++"). Washing has minimal effect on G. latifolium and O. gratissimum , maintaining their slight presence of tannins. However, non-contaminated P. guineense exhibits an increased intensity of tannins ("+++"). These variations highlight the potential influence of washing on tannin content in these plants. Tannins, known for their astringent properties, could serve as a potential defense mechanism against parasites. Their role in inhibiting microbial growth might indicate their effectiveness against parasitic contamination. The variation in tannin content between non-contaminated and contaminated P. guineense could suggest that parasites influence tannin synthesis. Additionally, the presence of tannins across the contaminated samples might point toward their role in plant protection against parasitic threats [ 6 ]. Glycosides, compounds often associated with potential therapeutic effects. The presence of glycosides in O. gratissimum and their absence in G. latifolium and P. guineense highlights potential differences in their chemical profiles. The presence of glycosides might indicate a specific defense strategy against parasitic threats in O. gratissimum . The absence of glycosides in the other two plants might suggest alternative mechanisms for coping with parasites. Phenols are associated with a range of health benefits, including their potential to shield against chronic diseases and the aging process [ 7 ]. Phenols, compounds associated with various biological activities, are present across all three plants. Contaminated G. latifolium and O. gratissimum exhibit a medium presence ("++"), while P. guineense displays a heavy presence ("+++"). After washing, G. latifolium maintains a medium presence, O. gratissimum shows a heavy presence, and P. guineense continues to exhibit a heavy presence of phenols. This suggests that washing may not significantly alter the presence of phenols in these plants. The presence of phenols, often associated with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, suggests a potential role in combatting parasitic contamination. Parasites might influence phenol synthesis, leading to variations in their presence and intensity. The consistent presence of phenols after washing could indicate their importance in the plants' responses to both biotic and abiotic stressors. Conclusion In conclusion, parasite contamination is capable of affecting the nutritional as well as the phytochemical composition of vegetables and disrupt the nutritional and medicinal benefits. In order to get the best benefits from vegetables, it should be kept away from parasitic contamination starting from the time of planting to consumption. Abbreviations MC Moisture content DM Dry matter ASH Ash content CP Crude protein CF Crude fibre ND Not Detected Km Kilometer % Percentage Fig Figure g Gram mg Milligram hrs Hours AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists ANOVA Analysis of variance. Declarations Acknowledgement We acknowledge all the authors for their immense contribution towards this work. Authors contributions The work was conducted in collaboration among all authors. Author SNN designed zz the study, wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Authors ICO, MCI, and CA managed the analysis of the study. Author MON did the statistical analysis. Authors MCN, VCU, BCU and MOU managed the literature searches. All the authors read through the manuscript and approve the publication. Funding No funding received Data availability statement All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. Conflict of interest All the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest and agreed to the publication of the work. Ethics and Guidelines Ethical approval was given by Micheal Okpara University of Agriculture, College of Natural Sciences Research Ethical Committee. This research work followed the Guidelines for Research Ethics in Science and Technology. References Tefera T, Biruksew A, Mekonnen Z, Eshetu T. (2014). Parasite Contamination of Fruits and Vegetables Collected from Selected Local Markets of Jimma Town Southwest Ethiopia. Int Sch Res Notices 2014. 10.1155/2014/382715.PMID:27/355069 Egbom SE, Nwoko R, Ihejirika OC, Ezenwaka C, O, Opara MC, Anyanwu EO. 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State","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Blossom","middleName":"Chukwunazam","lastName":"Uchezulu","suffix":""},{"id":496462380,"identity":"84ef4732-7917-469c-84e7-646ae3ea0b61","order_by":5,"name":"Mercy Uwah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Technology Owerri Imo State","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mercy","middleName":"","lastName":"Uwah","suffix":""},{"id":496462381,"identity":"ea34927d-9006-45c9-a940-d53340719c8d","order_by":6,"name":"Maryann Chioma Igbomezie","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Technology Owerri Imo State","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maryann","middleName":"Chioma","lastName":"Igbomezie","suffix":""},{"id":496462382,"identity":"91307f02-ade6-43d9-9ad9-93c9011913cf","order_by":7,"name":"Ifeoma Chinwendu Obiagwu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Technology Owerri Imo State","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ifeoma","middleName":"Chinwendu","lastName":"Obiagwu","suffix":""},{"id":496462383,"identity":"239e87f7-9269-408a-9a47-698c1be9d2af","order_by":8,"name":"Chigbo Ajero","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Technology Owerri Imo State","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chigbo","middleName":"","lastName":"Ajero","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-08 19:53:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6849151/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6849151/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":88645938,"identity":"1c18a574-772c-46c3-87a7-528ae3434d0f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-08 16:31:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":129780,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eShows the images of the leafy vegetables used in the study (i) \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e commonly known as uziza, (ii) \u003cem\u003eGongronema latifolium \u003c/em\u003ecommonly known as utiza and (iii) \u003cem\u003eocimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e commonly known as scent leaf.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6849151/v1/6288a675b5437770ca2f8b5a.jpg"},{"id":89831467,"identity":"9c00036d-c2c1-4c03-af51-532891dfd6f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 13:39:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1091499,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6849151/v1/0e0cac77-d1f1-4373-a03c-5f038eb079e9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Parasite contamination impact on nutritional and phytochemical composition of Gongronema latifolium, Ocimum gratissimum and Piper guineense leaves","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe nutritional benefits of plants are increasingly tremendous in the world today due to their unrestrained roles in human health and constituent active ingredients. Vegetables are fresh edible portions of herbaceous plants which can be eaten raw or cooked and act as important sources of protective foods. Vegetables include leaves, stems, roots, flowers, seeds, fruits, and bulbs. They are regular ingredients in the diet of the average Nigeria and provide appreciable amounts of nutritive minerals. Even though the bulk of their weight is water, leafy vegetables represent a veritable natural pharmacy of minerals, vitamins and phytochemicals. Interestingly, plants produce food in the leaves, but do not store these foods in the leaves. The washing of the vegetables reduces moisture due to water removal from the surface [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Parasites like protozoa and nematodes have the ability to introduce mineral-rich material, potentially elevating ash content in contaminated samples [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The significance of leafy vegetables has immensely been manifested in the human diet supplying the body with low calorie, substantial amounts of carbohydrates, oil, minerals, vitamins and act as precursors of hormones as well as protein and energy. Moreover, parasites can introduce microbial contaminants that contribute to the breakdown of proteins, further impacting the protein composition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. The elucidation of the properties by vegetables are held greatly to the biological active substances possessed by them such as secondary metabolites, high vitamin and mineral contents. They equally help in the amelioration and prevention of diseases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Alkaloids often act as deterrents to herbivores and pests [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Saponins exhibit antimicrobial and pesticidal activities, suggesting their potential effectiveness against parasites contamination. Tannins, known for their astringent properties, could serve as a potential defense mechanism against parasites. Their role in inhibiting microbial growth might indicate their effectiveness against parasitic contamination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlycosides, compounds often associated with potential therapeutic effects. The presence of glycosides might indicate a specific defense strategy against parasitic threats and absence of glycosides in some plants might suggest alternative mechanisms for coping with parasites. Phenols are associated with a range of health benefits, including their potential to shield against chronic diseases and the aging process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the tremendous benefits of vegetable consumption on human health, there are concerns about the safety of vegetables produced by farmers in rural and some urban settings of developing and underdeveloped countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. In these areas, vegetables are mainly cultivated on untreated soils, using human or animal excreta as a natural fertilizer and untreated wastewater for irrigation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. In most cases, after being harvested, these vegetables are consumed raw or processed minimally with less heat or washing to retain the natural taste and preserve heat labile nutrients [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. This poor hygienic practice promotes the transmission of parasitic eggs to the human host [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. In other instances, contamination of vegetables may occur during planting as a result of the manure used or after harvesting, with farmers preserving the vegetable through the intermittent sprinkling of unclean water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Vegetables can become contaminated with parasitic pathogens throughout the process of planting to consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. The extent of contamination depends on so many factors which may include; application of night soil, animal manure and the use of untreated wastewater and water supplies contaminated with sewage as an organic or agricultural fertilizer and for irrigation, coupled with the unhygienic practice of the farmers during harvest, post-harvest handling by vendors, poverty and hygienic conditions of preparation in food service or home. This work examines the effect of contamination on the nutritional and phytochemical content of three commonly consumed vegetable in southeast Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlant sample collection\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbout 20g each of fresh leaves of \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense\u003c/em\u003e were collected from Federal University of Technology Owerri garden and authenticated by Dr Nwoko of the department of Biology of same University. These vegetables represent some of the\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eindigenous leafy vegetables that are mainly consumed by the southeastern region in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSample Preparation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEach sample of \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum and P. guineense\u003c/em\u003e was divided into two parts. One part of the sample was washed thoroughly and soaked overnight with normal saline to wash away contaminants such as eggs, cysts of parasites and other debrites and termed ( non- contaminated sample) while the other part was not washed termed (contaminated sample ). Each sample was dried in an oven. After which it was grinded.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.2g of each grounded sample was taken and soaked in 100 ml of ethanol for 24hrs, after which it was extracted and kept in a room temperature for 48hrs to allow the ethanol to evaporate and a dried sample was obtained. The extracts were weighed and recorded and then used for proximate and phytochemical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDetermination of nutritional composition\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe proximate analysis of the leaf extracts of (\u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum and P. guineense)\u003c/em\u003e were carried out to determine the dry matter, ash, moisture content, crude protein, fat, and crude fibre using Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) method [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical analysis of the plants extract\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe concentrated extracts were subjected to a phytochemical analysis to ascertain the presence of tannin, saponins, phenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and cardiac glycosides using AOAC methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eLaboratory chemical analyses were done in triplicate and the mean value of each chemical parameter was calculated using Microsoft excel. The data was statistically analyzed by using analysis of variance (ANOVA) in Microsoft Excel Tool Pak. Two samples T-test with unequal variances was used to compare mean values and significance was accepted at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05 level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eQualitative analysis of Phytochemical components of non-contaminated and contaminated\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cb\u003eand\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eP. guineense\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhytochemicals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.latifolim\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eO.gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP.guineense\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-contaminated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContaminated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-contaminated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContaminated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-contaminated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContaminated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlkaloids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSaponin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTannin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhenol\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlycosides\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e: presents the qualitative analysis of various phytochemical components in the leaves of three distinct plants: \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e. The analysis encompasses different conditions, including non-contaminated and contaminated leaves. The presence and intensity of certain phytochemical constituents are categorized using symbols: \"+\", \"++\", \"+++\" and ND; denote slight, medium, heavy presence and not detected respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantitative Photochemical analysis of \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegetables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlkaloids\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSaponin\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTannin\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhenol\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlycosides\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.14\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.42\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.46\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.39\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.22\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.34\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:09\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.35\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.88\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.30\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eO gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.09\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.34\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.08\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.14\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.90\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.27\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.02\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.16\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.23\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.86\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.22\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.90\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.03\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.14\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.14\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.08\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.53\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.76\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.07\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe table displays the quantitative analysis of different classes of phytochemicals, including alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, phenols, and glycosides, in the leaves of these three plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProximate analysis of \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegetables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMC%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDM%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASH%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCP%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCF%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFAT%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.49\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88.80\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.83\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.85\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.37\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.71\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.27\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.59\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.16 \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.10\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.14\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.81\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.55\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88.76\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.42\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.1\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:0\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.60\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.76\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis table presents the results of a proximate analysis conducted on various vegetables, detailing their moisture content (MC%), dry matter (DM%), ash content (ASH%), crude protein (CP%), crude fiber (CF%), and fat content (FAT%). The three vegetables examined are \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e leaves, \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum, and P. guineense.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantitative analysis of Proximate contents of non-contaminated and contaminated \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNutritional contents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.latifolium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eO.gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP.guineense\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-cont\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConta\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-cont\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConta\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-con\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003econta\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMC%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.33\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.50\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.04\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11.67\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11.4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDM%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e88.72\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e89.72\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e88.40\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e89.40\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eASH%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.26\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.64\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12.49\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12.36\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCP%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17.28\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e16.71\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17.62\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e16.58\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11.12\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9.41\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12.31\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12.90\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFAT%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.70\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.70\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.90\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.67\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.82\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eNon-cont\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;non-contaminated, conta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;comtaminated\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis table presents the composition of nutrients in non-contaminated and contaminated samples of \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense.\u003c/em\u003e Non- contaminated samples seems to contain more DM (89.32%, 89.72%, 88.40%), Ash (13.41%, 10.64%, 12.49%), CP (18.43%, 16.71% and 17.62%), and FAT (1.50%, 1.70 and 1.67) for \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense\u003c/em\u003e respectively.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study revealed intriguing variations in moisture content between non-contaminated and contaminated vegetables. Notably, \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e demonstrate slightly higher moisture content in washed samples, which challenges the conventional understanding that washing reduces moisture due to water removal from the surface [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. \u003cem\u003ePiper guineense\u003c/em\u003e, on the other hand, shows elevated moisture content in both non-contaminated and contaminated samples. The presence of parasites could play a role in these moisture content discrepancies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Parasites, including protozoa and nematodes, have the capacity to carry water and contribute to overall moisture content. It is plausible that even the presence of parasites in minute amounts could counteract the anticipated reduction in moisture content associated with washing. In essence, the parasites themselves introduce an additional source of moisture to the samples, potentially causing an offset in the expected decrease. This could explain the higher moisture content observed in washed samples of certain vegetables. The effect of parasitic contamination on moisture content becomes particularly relevant when considering the difficulty in thoroughly removing parasites through standard washing practices. Parasites might adhere more strongly to the vegetable surfaces, requiring more intensive washing techniques to ensure their removal. This adherence, coupled with the ability of parasites to retain moisture, could be contributing factors to the unexpected moisture content results in washed samples.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ash content, representing inorganic residue, holds significance in assessing mineral composition. In the context of \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e, This study reveals dynamic variations in ash content between non-contaminated and contaminated samples. Of these vegetables, \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e exhibits the most distinctive fluctuation in ash content between non-contaminated and contaminated samples. Parasitic contamination introduces a unique facet to ash content variations. Parasites like protozoa and nematodes have the ability to introduce mineral-rich material, potentially elevating ash content in contaminated samples. Their presence amplifies the complexity of assessing ash content accurately, particularly in \u003cem\u003ePiper guineense\u003c/em\u003e, which appears to be more susceptible to the influence of parasites. While washing is usually thought to lower ash content by removing extraneous material, this assumption may not be accurate due to parasitic contamination potentially adding its own contribution that offsets the effects of washing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Crude protein content serves as a key indicator of nutritional quality, encompassing the essential amino acids vital for human health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Among these vegetables as presented, \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e appears to be the most variable in terms of crude protein content between non-contaminated and contaminated samples. The presence of parasites such as protozoa and nematodes introduced an intricate layer of influence on this parameter. These parasites have the capability to consume or degrade proteins present in the vegetables, leading to a noticeable reduction in crude protein content in contaminated samples. Moreover, parasites can introduce microbial contaminants that contribute to the breakdown of proteins, further impacting the protein composition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. This highlights the significance of recognizing the presence of parasites, particularly in \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e, when analyzing and interpreting crude protein content.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrude fiber content is a critical parameter reflecting the indigestible components of vegetables. Examining \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense\u003c/em\u003e by comparing their crude fiber content between non-contaminated and contaminated forms, \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e displays significant variations in crude fiber content between non-contaminated and contaminated samples. The presence of parasites introduced a fascinating dimension to crude fiber content changes. Parasites, including protozoa and nematodes, could potentially contribute to the observed variations. Their activity may lead to the breakdown of fiber constituents or, conversely, the introduction of additional fiber-rich material. This dynamic underscores the intricate interplay between parasitic contamination and crude fiber assessment, particularly pronounced in \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA comprehensive qualitative analysis of the phytochemical constituents present in the leaves of three distinct plant species: \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense\u003c/em\u003e. The presence and intensity of specific phytochemical components are categorized using standardized symbols to indicate their relative abundance: \"+\", \"++\", and \"+++\" denote slight, medium, and heavy presence, respectively, while \"ND\" (Not Detected) signifies the absence of a particular constituent.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlkaloids, which encompass a diverse and intricate collection of cyclic compounds containing nitrogen, consistently impart a bitter taste. Alkaloids have been linked to a wide spectrum of pharmacological roles, including but not limited to antimalarial, anticancer, cholinomimetic, vasodilatory, antiarrhythmic, antibacterial, antihyperglycemic, psychotropic, and stimulant properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. In \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium, O. gratissimum, and P. guineense\u003c/em\u003e, alkaloids are denoted as \"++\" in contaminated samples, indicating a medium presence. In non-contaminated samples, \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium and P. guineense\u003c/em\u003e exhibited a medium presence, while \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e displays a heavy presence of alkaloids (\"+++\"). The presence of alkaloids in varying intensities across all three plants suggests their potential role in defense mechanisms against parasites. Alkaloids often act as deterrents to herbivores and pests, and their increased presence in contaminated \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e might indicate a response to parasitic threats. Parasites could potentially influence alkaloid synthesis, leading to alterations in their concentration. Additionally, the observed differences could arise from the plant's attempts to cope with the presence of parasites through biochemical changes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparing saponin content between non-contaminated and contaminated states provides valuable insights into potential effects of parasitic contamination. In the contaminated state, \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e display a medium presence (\"++\"), while \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e demonstrates a heavy presence (\"+++\"). After washing, \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e maintained a medium presence, while \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e retained its heavy presence of saponins. The presence of saponins across all three plants, with varying intensities, implies a potential role in defense mechanisms against parasites. Saponins often exhibit antimicrobial and pesticidal activities, suggesting their potential effectiveness against parasites. The maintenance of saponin presence after washing might indicate their stable contribution to the plants' defense strategies. Parasitic contamination might influence the synthesis of saponins, resulting in variations in intensity between washed and unwashed states. Consequently, the variations in saponin content might be linked to the plants' responses to the presence of parasites and their attempts to deter potential threats [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eContaminated \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e show a slight presence (\"+\"), whereas \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e displays a medium presence (\"++\"). Washing has minimal effect on \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e, maintaining their slight presence of tannins. However, non-contaminated \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e exhibits an increased intensity of tannins (\"+++\"). These variations highlight the potential influence of washing on tannin content in these plants. Tannins, known for their astringent properties, could serve as a potential defense mechanism against parasites. Their role in inhibiting microbial growth might indicate their effectiveness against parasitic contamination. The variation in tannin content between non-contaminated and contaminated \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e could suggest that parasites influence tannin synthesis. Additionally, the presence of tannins across the contaminated samples might point toward their role in plant protection against parasitic threats [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Glycosides, compounds often associated with potential therapeutic effects. The presence of glycosides in \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e and their absence in \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e highlights potential differences in their chemical profiles. The presence of glycosides might indicate a specific defense strategy against parasitic threats in \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e. The absence of glycosides in the other two plants might suggest alternative mechanisms for coping with parasites.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhenols are associated with a range of health benefits, including their potential to shield against chronic diseases and the aging process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Phenols, compounds associated with various biological activities, are present across all three plants. Contaminated \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e exhibit a medium presence (\"++\"), while \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e displays a heavy presence (\"+++\"). After washing, \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e maintains a medium presence, \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e shows a heavy presence, and \u003cem\u003eP. guineense\u003c/em\u003e continues to exhibit a heavy presence of phenols. This suggests that washing may not significantly alter the presence of phenols in these plants. The presence of phenols, often associated with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, suggests a potential role in combatting parasitic contamination. Parasites might influence phenol synthesis, leading to variations in their presence and intensity. The consistent presence of phenols after washing could indicate their importance in the plants' responses to both biotic and abiotic stressors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, parasite contamination is capable of affecting the nutritional as well as the phytochemical composition of vegetables and disrupt the nutritional and medicinal benefits. In order to get the best benefits from vegetables, it should be kept away from parasitic contamination starting from the time of planting to consumption.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMC\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoisture content\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eDM\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry matter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eASH\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsh content\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCP\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrude protein\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCF\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrude fibre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eND\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot Detected\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eKm\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKilometer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e%\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFig\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eg\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGram\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003emg\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMilligram\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ehrs\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHours\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eAOAC\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssociation of Official Analytical Chemists\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eANOVA\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of variance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge all the authors for their immense contribution towards this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe work was conducted in collaboration among all authors. Author SNN designed zz the study, wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Authors ICO, MCI, and CA managed the analysis of the study. Author MON did the statistical analysis. Authors MCN, VCU, \u0026nbsp;BCU and MOU managed the literature searches. All the authors read through the manuscript and approve the publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding received\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed \u0026nbsp;during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest and agreed to the publication of the work. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and Guidelines\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was given by\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Micheal Okpara University of Agriculture, College of \u0026nbsp; Natural \u0026nbsp;Sciences Research \u0026nbsp;Ethical Committee.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis research work followed the\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Guidelines for Research Ethics in Science and Technology.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTefera T, Biruksew A, Mekonnen Z, Eshetu T. (2014). Parasite Contamination of Fruits and Vegetables Collected from Selected Local Markets of Jimma Town Southwest Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eInt Sch Res Notices\u003c/em\u003e 2014. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1155/2014/382715.PMID:27/355069\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1155/2014/382715.PMID:27/355069\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEgbom SE, Nwoko R, Ihejirika OC, Ezenwaka C, O, Opara MC, Anyanwu EO. Parasite Contamination of Vegetables Consumed Raw in Parts of South East Nigeria: a challenge to NTDs elimination. Int J Health Sci Res. 2025;15(1):6369. 10.52 403 /ijhsr. 20250109.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSon J, Lee WD, Kim CH, Hong EC, Kim HJ. Effect of Dietary Crude Protein Reduction Levels on Performance, Nutrient Digestibility, Nitrogen Utilization, Blood Parameters, Meat Quality, and Welfare Index of Broilers in Welfare Friendly Environments. Animals. 2024;14(21). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/ani14213131\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/ani14213131\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAjayi AM, Adejuwon OB, Olorunnisola OS, Olabode OS. \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e Linn. Leaf extract inhibits free radical generation and suppressed inflammation in carrageenan induced inflammation models in rat. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology\u003c/em\u003e2020; \u003cem\u003e28(6) Doi: 10 15 15/jbcpp-2016-0096.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCarreira DSS, Sato CE, Silva WB, Bittencourt T, l, Uzeda RS. In vitro anti- parasitic effects of the alkaloids harmaline and piperine on Toxoplasma gondii. Braz J Vet Parasitol. 2024;33(3). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1590/S1984-29612024053\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1590/S1984-29612024053\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCannas AF, Tannins. Fascinating but sometimes dangerous molecules. Retrieved from \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://poisonousplants.ansci.cornell.edu.2005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://poisonousplants.ansci.cornell.edu.2005\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSingh N, Yadav SS. A Review on Health Benefits of Phenolics Derived from Dietary Spices. J Curr Res food Sci. 2022;510.1016/j.crfs.2022.09.009.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmetepey ST, Cobbina SJ, Akpabey FJ, Duwiejuah AB, Abuntori ZN. Health risk assessment and heavy metal contamination levels in vegetables from Tamale Metropolis, Ghana. Int J Food Conntam 2018; 5(5).\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003eDoi.org/10.1186/s40550-018-0067-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"Doi.10.1186/s40550-018-0067-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBekele F, Tefera T, Biresaw G, Yohannes T. Parasitic contamination of raw vegetables and fruits collected from selected local markets in Arba Minch town, Southern Ethiopia. Infect Dis Poverty. 2017;6(1):1\u0026ndash;7. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/s40249-016-0226-616\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s40249-016-0226-616\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYale RS, Pukuma MS, Buduwara J, Hand-Sami R. Parasitic contamination of vegetables In three Selected Local Government Area of Adamawa State. \u003cem\u003eInternational journal of scientific Research Publications\u003c/em\u003e 2021; 11(8) doi:1029322/IJSRP.11.08.p11632.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbe EM, Ajah LJ, Ayuba SOO, Mogaji HO, Ekpo UF. Geohelminths Contamination of Fruits and Vegetables Sold in Lafia Markets. Annu Res Rev Biol. 2016;11(2):18. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.9734/ARRB/2016/25566\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.9734/ARRB/2016/25566\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eObi CN. Bacteriological Assessment of Vegetables Cultivated in Soils Treated with Poultry Manure and the Manure Treated Soil Samples. Am J Microbiol Res. 2024;2(6):189\u0026ndash;200. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.12619/ajmr-2-6-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.12619/ajmr-2-6-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdejumoke A, Morenikeji O. (2015). Prevalence of intestinal parasites in vegetables sold in major markets in Ibadan city, south-west Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eGJPAS\u003c/em\u003e 2015; 21(1):7\u0026ndash;12. 2. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4314/gjpas.v21i1.2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4314/gjpas.v21i1.2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAOAC. Official Method of Analysis (15 ed) the Assaciation of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington DC. USA.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Parasites, Asclepiadaceae, Lamiaceae, Piperaceae, Contamination and Phytochemical","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6849151/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6849151/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsumption of raw vegetables has been implicated in the transmission of parasites. And as such the cultivation as well as harvesting should be done properly in order to avoid contamination.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eObjective\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe impact of parasite contamination on the phytochemical and nutritional composition of commonly consumed Nigeria vegetables were determined using \u003cem\u003eGongronema latifolium Ocimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePiper guineense\u003c/em\u003e as case study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth qualitative and quantitative techniques were used to assess the phytochemical and nutritional contents of the plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults showed that parasite contamination had a noticeable impact on the phytochemical contents of the studied vegetables. Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponin, tannin and phenol were slightly present in the contaminated leaves of \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium and O. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e but were in reasonable amount in non- contaminated. Dry matter was high in both contaminated and non-contaminated (88.72%) and (89.32%) in \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e, (89.52%) and (89.72%) in \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e and (89.40%) and (88.40%) in \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eguineense\u003c/em\u003e, Fat was low in both contaminated and non-contaminated (1.70%) and (1.50%) in \u003cem\u003eG. latifolium\u003c/em\u003e, (1.90%) and (1.70%) in \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e, (1.82%) and (1.67%) in \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eguineense\u003c/em\u003e leaf.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eParasites such as nematodes and protozoa have the capability to consume or degrade proteins in the vegetables which could be the reason for noticeable reduction of proteins in the contaminated samples.. Hence, parasite contamination is capable of affecting the nutritional and phytochemical content of vegetables negatively and undermines the beneficial use of vegetables in amelioration and prevention of diseases.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Parasite contamination impact on nutritional and phytochemical composition of Gongronema latifolium, Ocimum gratissimum and Piper guineense leaves","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-08 16:14:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6849151/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"cd008cf7-625f-4712-9703-c05d47c0ec2d","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-25T13:38:44+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-08 16:14:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6849151","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6849151","identity":"rs-6849151","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}