Effects of an Onscreen Instructor’s Emotions and Picture Types on Poetry Aesthetic Appreciation

Effects of an Onscreen Instructor’s Emotions and Picture Types on Poetry Aesthetic Appreciation | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Effects of an Onscreen Instructor’s Emotions and Picture Types on Poetry Aesthetic Appreciation Yi Wang, Man Zhang, Quanlei Yu, Zhijin Zhou, Fred Paas This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4233583/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Poetry, as a quintessential artistic expression, embodies the essence of language and is integral to language curricula. However, its metaphorical linguistic nature makes its emotional expression intricate and veiled, demanding that learners move beyond literal interpretations to comprehend its deeper meanings and foster aesthetic appreciation. This complexity presents a significant challenge to novice learners. Therefore, this study aimed to enhance learners' aesthetic appreciation of poetry by employing an expressive onscreen instructor and exploring the moderating role of picture type. Undergraduate students (N = 139) were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions, following a 2 (Onscreen Instructor’s Expression: neutral vs. expressive) × 2 (Picture Type: representational vs. metaphorically decorative) factorial design. Results revealed that learners with expressive instructors demonstrated greater motivation and aesthetic appreciation compared to those with neutral instructors. Furthermore, the influence of instructor expression on student motivation and aesthetic appreciation was particularly pronounced when utilizing metaphorically decorative pictures. These findings offer practical insights for designing poetic instruction within multimedia environments. Poetry Aesthetic Appreciation Onscreen Instructor’s Expression Emotional Design Picture Type Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction Poetry is a crucial literary genre in curricula, with its aesthetic appreciation being an essential aim in educational settings. Ancient Chinese poetry is fundamental to the Chinese cultural tradition and is a key aspect of classical Chinese literature, emphasizing the expression of emotions at its core (Xia, 2021 ). From an affective perspective, students need to embrace the primitive emotions involved in poetry and empathize with the characters to achieve poetic aesthetic appreciation (Henschel et al., 2016 ; Rosenblatt, 1994 ). From a cognitive perspective, students need to move beyond literal understanding to construct in-depth meaning and attain full comprehension, which is a key process in aesthetic episodes (Pagán Cánovas et al., 2015 ). With the advancements in digital technology, educators are increasingly using visual components, such as expressive onscreen instructors, and different types of pictures, to enhance the appreciation of poetry (Jusslin & Höglund, 2021 ). Researches in light of social agency theory suggest that an onscreen instructor’s embodied social cues, such as facial expressions, and body gestures can create a social connection between students and instructors (Pi et al., 2022 , 2023 ; Beege et al., 2020 , 2023). This connection can foster meaningful learning by increasing students’ motivation to actively process instructional materials more deeply. When examining poetry, the main purpose of poets creating poems is to express emotions, and the emotional undertones are typically mixed, nuanced, and delicate (Piirto, 2011 ; Xia, 2021 ). It is thus essential to develop empathetic understandings of these poetic emotions, as they play a critical role in aesthetic appreciation (Freedberg & Gallese, 2007 ). Instructors' embodied expressions aligned with poetic text may serve as explicit emotional scaffolding to make poetic emotions visible (Levine & Horton, 2013 ). Additionally, literary texts often employ metaphorical language to express emotions, requiring learners to read beyond the lines, constructing comprehensive mental models, and achieve aesthetic appreciation (Citron & Zervos, 2018 ). Different types of visual pictures are frequently used by researchers to support learners in understanding texts in multimedia learning (Danielson et al., 2015 ; Lindner, 2020 ; Ramonda, 2019 ). Specifically, we aimed to answer the research question: To what extent does an expressive onscreen instructor, aligned with emotional attributes of a poetic text, influence learners’ emotion, motivation, cognitive load, and poetic aesthetic appreciation? Additionally, the moderating role of picture type in this context was explored. 2. Literature review 2.1 Emotional design of an onscreen instructor Video lectures with an onscreen instructor have gained increasing popularity as a form of multimedia learning material. On-screen instructors are suitable for expressing emotions via embodied cues such as facial and vocal expressions (Wang et al., 2019 ; Beege et al., 2020 ). According to the emotional design hypothesis (Beege & Schneider, 2023 ), emotions in the learning environment can be a double-edged sword for learning. On one hand, they can enhance learners’ emotional experiences, and motivation, subsequently improving learning performances (Moreno et al., 2001 ). On the other hand, they might consume learners’ limited cognitive resources and divert attention, thereby impeding the learning process (Sweller et al., 2019 ). Below we elaborate on the mechanisms corresponding to these two opposite situations and their supporting evidence. Emotions as suppressor Cognitive load theory (CLT) is a framework that explores how the human cognitive system processes information and the impact of different types of cognitive load on learning (Sweller et al., 2019 ). According to CLT, human working memory has a finite capacity and duration for processing and retaining information, and three types of cognitive loads are specified: intrinsic cognitive load dependent on the complexity of learning materials (Chen et al. 2023 ), germane cognitive load devoted to learning processes, and extraneous cognitive load resulting from disruptive instructional guidance. Therefore, instructional designers should aim to present information in a way that aligns with learners' cognitive capabilities, reducing extraneous load, optimizing intrinsic load, and fostering germane load to facilitate understanding and transfer of knowledge to long-term memory. Emotional factors within the instructional setting, particularly embodied emotions exhibited by the instructor may not always be directly related to the learning content. Processing these emotions can impose extraneous cognitive load, i.e., they utilize some of the restricted working memory capacity but fail to foster learning. Therefore, fewer cognitive resources are available to devote to learning-related processes and ultimately learning is not facilitated or even interfered. There exist some studies supporting this view (Beege et al., 2020 ; Horovitz & Mayer, 2021 ; Liew et al., 2016 ). Emotions as facilitator It is proposed by social agent theory that an instructor’s embodied social cues such as facial expressions and enthusiasm in voice can shorten learners’ sense of distance to the instructor and hence can create a stronger connection to the instructor; this connection will foster meaningful learning by increasing their motivation and affective response to active deeper cognitive processing, thus resulting in improved learning performance (Mayer, 2014 ; Moreno et al., 2001 ). Furthermore, according to the positivity principle of multimedia learning, individuals can discern whether an instructor is portraying positive or negative emotions, no matter whether the instructor is genuine or virtually generated (Beege & Schneider, 2023 ; Horovitz & Mayer, 2021 ). To foster learning by emotional instructors in a video lecture, first, an onscreen instructor’s expression is displayed by embodied cues such as facial expression, enthusiasm in voice, then learners recognize the instructor’s emotional contagion and adopt the emotion, reacting with higher motivation and deeper learning (Horovitz & Mayer, 2021 ; Wang et al., 2019 ). The beneficial impact of onscreen emotional instructors on learning has been confirmed (see a meta-analysis, Wang et al., 2023 ). Existing designs for teacher emotions primarily revolve around single-dimensional positive or negative emotions, like happy, or bored (Horovitz & Mayer, 2021 ; Pi et al., 2023 ). Additionally, composite emotions, encompassing varied valences like happiness, sadness, and surprise, can emerge within a single learning episode (Wang et al., 2019 ). Notably, emotion tends to improve learning particularly when there's emotional alignment among elements in the learning environment, which is verified by the mood congruency effect (Bower, et al., 1978 ; Smith & Petty, 1995 ). According to the associative network model, emotions can foster memory via activating experimental materials semantically, specifically, the heightened likelihood of positive information retrieval ensues from the activation of emotionally congruent materials by positive emotions, correspondingly, negative emotions serve to enhance the recall of negative information (Smith & Petty, 1995 ). For example, in text-based vocabulary learning, when learners learn both positive and negative words in a period, learners' recall results showed a significant mood congruency effect (Bower, et al., 1978 ). A recent study expanded the mood congruency effect to the educational video learning of tourist attractions in a German city, indicating that transfer performance was fostered when learners’ emotions aligned with the emotional charge of the learning material (Beege et al., 2018 ). In the current study, we expanded this earlier work by examining whether the emotional fit between an expressive onscreen instructor and emotional learning materials, i.e., lyric poetry. Few studies have considered the inherent emotional properties of learning materials, perhaps because most of the current learning materials focus on natural sciences (e.g., mathematics, biology, etc). According to domain specificity theory, different academic disciplines possess varied epistemologies, resulting in different characteristics in the corresponding subject domains (Hofer, 2000 ; Zhang & Cheung, 2023 ). For example, knowledge in natural sciences is consistently presented in a highly formalized style to express great certainty and objectivity. Because these hard disciplines are built upon standardized experiments and replications, personal subjective emotions need to be avoided to the utmost extent. Therefore, in instructional design, researchers rarely focus on the emotional properties of the learning material itself. In contrast, the humanities are more likely to involve emotional themes, such as emotional responses in literary works and historical events; these disciplines often use highly subjective methods such as text analysis, interviews, and observations, and researchers are inclined to express their emotions (Lemmings & Brooks, 2014 ). Poetry, as the most concentrated and condensed form of literature, is the gem of a language and the crystallization of a culture, and poets create poetry mainly to vent their emotions by projecting their own emotions onto external objective correlatives (Johnson-Laird & Oatley, 2022 ; Piirto, 2011 ). Emotions involved in literary texts can serve as valuable signals, moving readers from efferent cognitive processing to aesthetics (Eva-Wood, 2004 ; Rosenblatt, 1994 ). Instructional interventions drawn from learners’ emotional responses such as think-feel aloud, affective appraisal strategies, may result in learners’ neglecting of poetic affective aspects due to the obscurity of the poetic language and their lack of poetic expertise (Levine & Horton, 2013 ). Accordingly, research suggests that designing learning materials with emotional instructional elements can enhance the appreciation of poetic aesthetics (Wang et al., 2021 , 2023 ). Furthermore, since classical Chinese poetry was mostly created in the Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907), novices lack relevant historical knowledge. They can feel nothing at all even after reading the most emotionally compelling poetic texts. Emotional design of learning materials can provide a visibly emotional scaffold for them to focus on the key emotional information. This supports their engagement with the poem’s emotive experiences, fostering deeper empathy with the poet, understanding of poetic techniques, and an enhanced appreciation and evaluation of the poem’s aesthetic qualities. The advantages of emotional instructors may lie in their flexibility and dynamics: experienced instructors can express the mixed poetic emotions and their nuances chronologically by their embodied cues, enabling learners to empathize with the characters affectively, leading to poetic aesthetic appreciations. Onscreen instructors are effective in conveying emotions through facial and vocal expressions, as well as other embodied cues (Beege et al., 2020 ; Pi et al., 2023 ). To optimize learning, an instructor’s expressions should be synchronized with the relevant learning content (Baylor & Kim, 2009 ). Therefore, this study used an onscreen instructor’s embodied expressions to convey poetic emotions, with the expectation of fostering poetic aesthetic appreciation. 2.2 The role of pictures in multimedia learning Poetry primarily conveys emotions through objective external objects, predominantly achieved through metaphorical language (Johnson-Laird & Oatley, 2022 ). Readers can develop an aesthetic appreciation when they understand the central metaphor and gain a deep comprehension of the poem. This appreciation fundamentally arises from grasping the nuanced layers of meaning beyond the literal text (Pagán Cánovas et al., 2015 ). Moreover, it can be fostered through a wide range of social semiotic resources, such as visual pictures (Magnusson & Godhe, 2019 ). It is a common practice to integrate pictures into the text in multimedia environments (Danielson et al., 2015 ; Schneider, et al., 2020 ). According to dual coding theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991 ), visual and verbal information are processed and represented distinctly within the human cognitive system. Visual information is used to construct a mental model related to the presented material, while verbal information yields a propositional representation regarding the material’s semantic details. With limited process capacity in each sensory modality (Sweller et al., 2019 ), a coherent mental representation is more likely achieved when the same information is encoded in both a visual and verbal form rather than just one. However, research has shown that pictures in multimedia learning materials can lead to diverse effects on learner performance (Magner et al., 2014 ), with the type of pictures employed being a primary contributing factor. According to Carney and Levin ( 2002 ), there are five different types of pictures, among which representational and decorative pictures are frequently used in educational settings (Lindner, 2020 ). Representational pictures (RPs) correspond to the literal lines of texts to a large degree. In contrast, decorative pictures have little or no relationship to the text content, they do not seem to promote learning and can even hinder it (Magner et al., 2014 ). Representational pictures and decorative pictures RPs accurately portray scenes as the content describes in a text, and can enhance learners’ performance in most cases. This augmented effect is theoretically supported by the dual coding theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991 ). Given that learning information in RPs is presented graphically rather than solely through text, and each representation conveys comparable information, the information can be retrieved during subsequent testing from the visual modality, the verbal modality, or an integrated approach. Consequently, successful retrieval is more likely compared to scenarios where only verbal coding is available. With the primary goal of making the text more concrete, there exists a research line of RPs in processing narrative passages (Evans & Saint Aubin, 2005; Takacs & Bus, 2018 ). Moreover, consistent findings from studies on RP storybooks show that children examine pictures in a manner that enhances their integration with the narrative. Pictures that align with the narration contribute more directly to understanding the story than those that do not (Takacs & Bus, 2018 ). Compared to stories, poetry may be more intricate for its abundance of metaphors. To interpret a poem, one needs not only to understand its literal meaning but also to comprehend its in-depth meaning—the target domain of the metaphor in most cases, which may bear little relevance to the literal lines. For example, “fold the willow” in Chinese poetry, with the literary meaning of “pick willow branches”, usually means to miss one's friends. Thus, presenting a picture of a friend, which does not seem to correspond to the literal meaning of folding the willow, has a potential to facilitate understanding of the in-depth meaning. Following this logic, metaphorically decorative pictures (MPs) that do not seem to correspond to the literal poetic text are used in present study with the expectation to foster in-depth comprehension. Decorative pictures are used to enhance the visual attractiveness of a page and have little or no relevance to the text content (Carney & Levin, 2002 ). Effects of decorative pictures on learning are mixed and less conclusive. On the one hand, it is suggested by the seductive detail effect that task-irrelevant but interesting decorative pictures exhibit virtually no beneficial effects on text-based learning (Carney & Levin, 2002 ; Harp & Mayer, 1998 ). In accordance with the cognitive load theory (Sweller et al., 2019 ), decorative pictures might lead to an increase of extraneous cognitive load, causing distraction of attention and impaired learning outcomes (Sundararajan & Adesope, 2020 ). On the other hand, decorative pictures do not appear to hinder learners’ performance, and can even be conducive (Schneider et al., 2016 ). A meta-analysis of Sundararajan and Adesope ( 2020 ) suggested that the seductive detail effect can be moderated by the type of picture. That is, decorative pictures are not as detrimental as previously concluded because some of them have a metaphorical connection with the text material other than the purely decorative ones. For example, to help learners developing a deeper understanding of idioms, Ramonda ( 2019 ) used two kinds of pictures: the literal picture and the combination of the literal + figurative picture. An overall positive effect on posttest performance was revealed in the literal and literal + figurative picture conditions over the condition without the picture. However, for most cases, no significant differences were found between the literal and literal + figurative conditions for retention performance. The reason for this result may be that most of the idioms were too complicated to infer the in-depth meaning from the surface text, thus leading to a ceiling effect. This suggests that figurative pictures have the potential to enhance language comprehension. It also indicates the importance of maintaining the difficulty of learning materials at an appropriate level. Furthermore, the impact of various types of pictures on the comprehension of literary texts warrants separate investigation. With regard to poetry appreciation, Batič and Haramija ( 2018 ) examined the role of RPs and found comprehension can be fostered by pictures incorporating different elements from the poem’s literal contents. However, poetry is intensely visual in an imaginary way, and a prevailing view holds that “undoubtedly, the great effort of the illustrator of works of imagination must be to give a parallel, and not a transcript” (Scott, 1850 : 205). That is, pictures may be more effective when capturing the poem's analogous and abstract aspects rather than its literal contents. The present study The present study investigated the effects of an onscreen instructor’s expression (expressive vs. neutral) and different types of pictures (representational vs. metaphorically decorative) on poetic aesthetic appreciation. We took the initiative to introduce an expressive onscreen instructor into the poetry instructional videos to provide a visible affective scaffold in an empirical experiment. Based on the above literature review, the following research questions were examined: Does an expressive onscreen instructor positively influence learners' emotions, motivation, cognitive load, and poetic aesthetic appreciation more than a neutral onscreen instructor? Do metaphorically decorative pictures (MPs) enhance learners' poetic comprehension more effectively than representational pictures (RPs)? Does the type of picture used moderate the impact of an expressive onscreen instructor on aesthetic appreciation? 3. Methods Participants and Design This experiment was approved for ethical approval by Central China Normal University and all methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. G∗Power analysis (G∗Power 3.1.9.2) was employed to estimate the sample size with an a-priori power analysis ( f = 0.25, α = 0.05, 1- β = 0.80, 2 × 2 design). We aimed for a sample size of a minimum of 128 subjects for a medium effect size in similar studies (Beege et al., 2020 ; Schneider et al., 2016 ). One hundred and thirty-nine undergraduate students from a Chinese university participated in the present study (86 females; M age = 19.68 years, SD age = 1.70) after obtaining their informed consent. All the participants’ vision was normal or corrected-to-normal. The participants represented various majors including Engineering, Mathematics, Chemistry, and so on, and they were randomly allocated to one of four conditions: (1) a neutral onscreen instructor with a representational picture (NIRP, n = 35); (2) an expressive onscreen instructor with a representational picture (EIRP, n = 34); (3) a neutral onscreen instructor with a metaphorically decorative picture (NIMP, n = 35); (4) an expressive onscreen instructor with a metaphorically decorative picture (EIMP, n = 35). Learning Materials Experimental text First, a poetic text Red Phoenix (《朱凤行》) by Dufu was selected by the instructor in video lectures and a colleague of her. Their teaching experiences in Chinese literature were 7 years and 9 years, respectively. The poem contains 73 Chinese characters and literally describes a red phoenix flying and kindly delivering food to small animals in need, causing resentment from monsters. As a renowned poet in Tang dynasty, the poet Dufu metaphorically mapped himself as a phoenix, expressing his desire to help the ordinary people and ambition to serve his motherland. That’s to say, the red phoenix is the source domain and the poet himself is the target domain in the current poetic metaphor. Then the difficulty and the familiarity of the poetic text was rated on two Likert scales ranging from 1 to 7 (1 not difficult/familiar at all, 7 difficult/familiar very much) by 34 undergraduates (21 females, M age = 20.91 years, SD age = 2.40) from the same university as the formal experiment was conducted. The means and standard deviations of the difficulty and the familiarity were M = 4.11; SD = 0.89, and M = 2.36; SD = 1.19, respectively, indicating the poem was moderately difficult and unfamiliar for the undergraduates. Experimental pictures in videos Two pictures were jointly created by the above two instructors and a professional painter for this study. The RP depicted a red phoenix, literally mirroring the title and the main part of the poetic text, while the MP involved a portrait of Dufu, the target domain in the poem (see Fig. 2 ). To ensure participants were able to identify the metaphor, the 34 undergraduates rated the two pictures’ correspondence to the red phoenix and the poet Dufu on two scales (Danielson et al., 2015 ). The 34 undergraduates were asked to what degree the RP match with the phoenix described in the poem and the poet respectively, ranging from 1 (not matches at all) to 7 (matches very well) and to what degree the MP match with the poet and the phoenix respectively, ranging from 1 (not matches at all) to 7 (matches very well). Paired T-tests indicated that the RP matched significantly higher with the red phoenix than with the poet ( M = 5.79, SD = 0.84; M = 3.47, SD = 1.08), t (33) = 9.92, p = .00, and the MP matched significantly higher with the poet than with the phoenix ( M = 5.65, SD = 0.81; M = 3.59, SD = 1.23), t (33) = 9.39, p = .00. Video lectures The video was recorded by a high school teacher in Chinese literature with nine years of teaching experience. The instructional script contained 1679 Chinese characters, including a brief introduction, the poetic text, the historical background in which the poet lived, the literal meaning, the poetic vehicles and so on. The instructor kept her body in a frontal way with her eyes looking straight at the camera, and she gave exactly the same information about the poem in two videos with the same social entity except that her emotional expression in her facial and vocal expressions varied. In the expressive condition, the instructor was happy and enthusiastic at the introduction stage, reciting the poetic text expressively, then the red phoenix was praised, pitied for small animals, and despised for monsters when explaining the poetic meaning. While in the neutral condition, the instructor’s facial and vocal expressions remained neutral throughout the course. The two versions of the video were then paired with two pictures, producing four instructional videos. Each video lasted about 6 min 30 s, and contained four screens with the poetic text, a statically representational or a metaphorical picture and the same instructor wearing different expressions. Measurements Control measure. A prior knowledge questionnaire in Chinese poetry was used to evaluate participants’ general knowledge of Chinese poetry. The questionnaire included four 5-point self-rating items and one open-answer item (Wang et al., 2021 ). Two trained raters rated answers to the open-answer item with a qualified inter-rater reliability (α = 0.89). And the internal consistency of the prior knowledge questionnaire is 0.69 using Cronbach's alpha. Manipulation check of the instructor’s expressions. Learners’ perception to the instructor’s expressions was rated on three items as a manipulation check. For example, students responded to items “The teacher's facial expression is rich and contagious.”, “The teacher's voice was infectious in cadence.”, “The teacher's emotions matched well with the course contents.” on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (does not indicate the case at all) to 7 (completely indicates the case). These items were used as a manipulation check of the emotional congruency between the onscreen instructor and the poetic text. The Cronbach reliability (α) of these items was 0.84. Learners’ emotions. Two 7-point Likert-scale items assessing valence and arousal were used to measure learners’ emotions (Bradley & Lang, 1994 ; Pi et al., 2022 ). And responses range from 1 (extremely unhappy/mild) to 7 (extremely happy/intense). Cognitive load. Three 7-point Likert-scale items were used to measure learners’ intrinsic cognitive load, germane cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load, respectively (Gerjets et al., 2009 ; Paas et al., 1994 ). Participants rated the difficulty of learning the poem (1, extremely easy − 7, extremely difficult), their mental effort invested (1, extremely low − 7, extremely high), and the ease of learning with the video lecture (1, extremely easy − 7, extremely difficult). Motivation. Eight self-rated items were used to measure students’ motivation (Isen & Reeve, 2005). For example, participants rated on 7-point scale ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) regarding “I enjoyed learning about this poem.” and “I would like more lessons like this one.” These items showed qualified internal consistency (α = 0.81). Aesthetic appreciations. According to the aesthetic triad model, a comprehension test was used to determine the semantic dimension, and three aesthetic rating items were used to determine the affective dimension and the evaluative dimension (Leder & Nadal, 2014 ; Wang et al., 2023 ). It is worth noting that aesthetic emotion and evaluation do not seem to belong to the traditional academic achievement. However, in the context of literary appreciation in educational settings, more and more studies not only focus on semantic understanding, but also emphasize its aesthetic emotion and evaluation (Janssen et al., 2009 ; Schrijvers et al., 2019). Comprehension. The comprehension test was created by the instructor in video lectures and her colleague to assess learners’ understandings of the poem. It consisted of 5 open-ended questions (5 points each, total 25 points), including items “What do you know about the poet Dufu?”, “What does this poem literally describe?”, “What is the deep meaning of this poem?”, “What do the red phoenix and the poet have in common?”, “What thoughts and feelings do the poet convey?”. These items examined were consistent with contents included in video lectures. Answers to these questions were rated separately by the two instructors above, with qualified inter-rater reliability (α = 0.91). And the internal consistency of the comprehension test is 0.67 by Cronbach’s alpha. Aesthetic (evaluations and emotion) ratings. Three items were used to assess students’ aesthetic evaluations (to what extent the poem was beautiful, to what extent the poem was fascinating), and emotion (to what extent you liked the poem: Janssen et al., 2009 ; Lüdtke et al., 2014 ). They were 7-point scales ranging from 1 (does not indicate the case at all) to 7 (completely indicates the case). The internal consistency coefficients of the three items were 0.85. Procedure The procedure was administered through a computer programs. Each subject was individually tested in a laboratory setting and the experiment lasted about 45 min. As indicated in Fig. 1 , the prior knowledge questionnaire was responded by participants firstly. Afterward, they viewed one of four videos given the experimental condition they were randomly assigned to. Immediately after each video, participants reported their feelings towards the instructor as a manipulation check of the onscreen instructor’s expressions, and reported their own emotions, cognitive loads, motivation, responded to the comprehension test and aesthetic ratings of the poem. Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations of all the dependent variables in each condition. Table 1 Means of all dependent variables, with standard deviations in parentheses for each condition. Dependent variables NIRP EIRP NIMP EIMP n=35 n=34 n=35 n=35 Learners’ emotions-valence 3.68(1.13) 3.58(1.05) 3.65(0.99) 3.71(0.89) Learners’ emotions-arousal 3.57(0.85) 3.76(0.96) 3.57(0.88) 3.74(0.92) Intrinsic cognitive load 4.25 (1.01) 4.11 (1.09) 4.08 (1.19) 4.34 (1.33) Germane cognitive load 4.45 (0.92) 4.38 (1.37) 4.68 (1.21) 4.60 (1.48) Extraneous cognitive load 3.37(0.94) 3.67(1.34) 3.85(1.38) 3.45 (1.20) Motivation 4.53 (0.82) 4.69 (1.16) 4.10 (0.98) 4.73 (1.38) Aesthetic appreciations- Comprehension 13.20 (2.64) 16.09 (3.20) 14.09 (2.86) 18.14 (2.60) Aesthetic appreciations- Aesthetic ratings 4.99 (1.04) 5.37 (1.04) 4.54 (1.06) 5.33 (1.17) RP: Representational Picture; MP: Metaphorically decorative Picture; NI: Neutral onscreen Instructor; EI: Expressive onscreen Instructor. 4. Results Preliminary analysis The prior knowledge test. To test differences on prior knowledge of Chinese poetry across the four experimental groups, a 2 × 2 ANOVA analysis was conducted. No significant effect of picture type and no significant main effect of the onscreen instructor’s expression was found, both F s < 1. However, a significant interaction was revealed, F (1, 135) = 9.76, p < .01, η p 2 = .07, simple effects analyses indicated that learners’ prior knowledge was higher in expressive condition than in the neutral condition when learning with the RP, F (1, 135) = 8.52, p < .01, η p 2 = .06, but there was no significant difference when learning with the MP, F (1, 135) = 2.23, p = .13. Manipulation check. To check whether our manipulation on the onscreen instructor’s expression was successful, an ANCOVA was calculated with the mean of the three items as the dependent variable. The significant effect for the instructor’s expression, F (1, 134) = 31.82, p < .001, η p 2 = .19, confirmed that participants in expressive conditions perceived more expressive emotions from the instructor than the participants learning with the neutral version of the video lectures. Meanwhile, the main effect of picture type was not significant, neither was the interaction effect, both Fs < 1. Next, 2 × 2 analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) were conducted in order to assess differences between groups. For all variance analyses, the onscreen instructor’s expression and the picture type were used as independent variables, and scores on the prior knowledge test were used as the covariate. The dependent measures were learners’ emotions, motivation, cognitive loads, and aesthetic appreciation of the poem. Furthermore, a moderated mediation model was constructed to investigate how and when an expressive instructor affects poetic aesthetic (ratings) appreciation to gain a comprehensive insight of poetry aesthetic appreciation in a multimedia environment (Fig. 4 ). Learners’ emotions. ANCOVAs were conducted with learners’ scores on valence and arousal as dependent variables. No significant main effects or interaction were revealed, all Fs < 1. Cognitive load. ANCOVAs were conducted with learners’ scores on intrinsic cognitive load, germane cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load as dependent variables, and no significant main effects or interaction were found, all Fs < 1. Motivation. A significant effect was found for the onscreen instructor’s expressions, F (1, 134) = 4.96, p < .05, η p 2 = .04, with expressive groups more motivated than neutral groups. No significant effect was found for type of picture, F < 1. Furthermore, a significant interaction could be observed, F (1, 134) = 4.08, p < .05, η p 2 = .03. Descriptively, in the MP videos, students were more motivated in the expressive condition than in the neutral condition, p < .01, while in the RP videos, students’ motivation was comparable for the different expressions, p = .92. Aesthetic appreciations. Comprehension A significant main effect of onscreen instructor’s expression was also revealed, F (1, 134) = 52.24, p < .001, η p 2 = .28, with expressive groups outperforming neutral groups. A significant main effect of the picture type was revealed, F (1, 134) = 11.52, p < .001, η p 2 = .08, indicating that learners comprehended the poem better when learning with the MP than with the RP. However, the main effects were qualified by a significant interaction, F (1, 134) = 5.14, p < .05, η p 2 = .04. Simple effects analyses indicated that learners with the MP performed better than learners with the RP in the expressive conditions, p = .00, but there was no significant difference in neutral conditions, p = .67 (see Fig. 3 ). Aesthetic evaluations and emotion ratings A significant effect was found for the onscreen instructor’s expressions, F (1, 134) = 9.24, p < .01, η p 2 = .07. Specifically, the expressive groups achieved higher aesthetic ratings than the neutral groups. No significant main effect for picture type was revealed, F < 1.The interaction was not significant either, F (1, 134) = 2.80, p = .09, η p 2 = .02. Comprehension of figurative language can evoke stronger emotional responses, and it is a key component of easthetics (Citron & Zervos, 2018 ; Pagán Cánovas et al., 2015 ). The above analyses showed an significant interaction on poetry comprehension, therefore we further conducted a simple effect analysis on aesthetic evaluations and emotion ratings. It was found that in the MP videos, students’ aesthetic ratings of the poem in the expressive condition were higher than in the neutral condition, p < .01, but there was no significant difference in the RP videos, p = .38 (see Fig. 3 ). The moderated mediation analysis According to the above results, we further conducted a moderated mediating model with motivation as the mediating variable and picture type as the moderating variable (Fig. 4 ). First, Model 4 from the SPSS macro-PROCESS was used to analyze the mediating effect of motivation on instructor’s emotional expression and aesthetic ratings. Instructor’s emotional expression positively predicted motivation (β = 0.46, p < 0.05) and positively predicted aesthetic ratings (β = 0.35, p < 0.05). Motivation positively predicted aesthetic ratings (β = 0.49, p < 0.001), and partially mediated the relationship between instructor’s emotional expressions and aesthetic ratings (indirect effect = 0.20, SE = 0.10, 95% confidence interval = [0.0358, 0.3951]). The mediating effect accounted for 20% of the total effect of instructor’s emotional expressions on aesthetic ratings. Then, Model 8 from the SPSS macro PROCESS was used to examine the moderating effect of picture type (coded: 1 = literal picture, 2 = figurative picture) on the indirect relationship between instructor’s emotional expressions and aesthetic appreciation. As indicated in Table 2 , instructor’s emotional expressions cannot predict motivation (β = -0.77, p = 0.22), and motivation positively predicted aesthetic ratings (β = 0.47, p < 0.001). The interaction between instructor’s emotional expressions and picture type significantly predicted motivation (β = 0.80, p = 0.04), whereas the interaction on aesthetic ratings was not significant (β = 0.25, p = 0.45). Therefore, picture type moderated the first stage of the mediating model of motivation between instructor’s emotional expressions and aesthetic ratings. In addition, the indirect effect of instructor’s emotional expression on aesthetic ratings was significant only in the figurative group (effect = 0.83, SE = 0.27, 95% bootstrap CI = [0.30, 1.37]) but not in the literal group (effect = 0.30, SE = 0.28, 95% bootstrap CI= [-0.52, 0.58]). Table 2 Moderated Mediation Analyses Outcome variables Predictive variables R R 2 F β Boot LLCI Boot ULCI t Motivation Prior knowledge 0.30 0.09 3.39 * 0.06 -0.01 0.13 1.79 Instructor’s emotions -0.77 -2.02 0.47 -1.23 Picture type -1.45 -2.68 -0.22 -2.34 * Instructor’s emotions × Picture type 0.80 0.02 1.59 2.03 * Aesthetic ratings Prior knowledge 0.58 0.34 13.66 *** 0.05 -0.01 0.10 1.52 Instructor’s emotions -0.03 -1.05 1.00 -0.05 Picture type -0.48 -1.51 0.55 -0.93 Motivation 0.47 0.33 0.61 6.61 *** Instructor’s emotions × Picture type 0.25 -0.40 0.90 0.45 Note. * p < .05, ***< .001. Discussion This study examined how an expressive onscreen instructor affects the aesthetic appreciation of a poem from video lectures that incorporated different types of pictures. Results demonstrated that both the expressive onscreen instructor and the MP positively affected poetry aesthetic appreciation. Moreover, learners reported higher motivation and aesthetic appreciation in the expressive onscreen instructor condition than in the neutral condition when they learned with a MP. These findings extend the previous research by elucidating the intertwining effect of an onscreen instructor’s learning-related emotions and the picture type on the appreciation of a literary text in a video lecture. Regarding research question 1, an expressive onscreen instructor had a more positive effect on learners’ motivation, and poetic aesthetic appreciation (both comprehension and aesthetic ratings) than a neutral onscreen instructor. With regard to learners’ motivation, learners were more motivated when learning with the expressive instructor than with the neutral one, and this was especially true when the learning material contained the MP. It has been proved by a meta analysis that onscreen instructors can provide motivational benefits to learners (Wang et al., 2023 ). Moreover, emotions are suggested to be associated with enhanced motivation no matter they are positive or negative. Specifically, learners’ autonomy would be facilitated by positive emotions, while additional motivation can be induced by negative emotions to avoid failure (Pekrun, 2000 ). Therefore, the expressive onscreen instructor with mixed emotions increased learners’ motivation. In addition, the MP in this study depicted the target domain of the poetic metaphor, i.e., the in-depth meaning of the poetic texts. As a result, learners’ in-depth understanding of the poem made it easier for them to simulate and empathize with the instructor’s learning-related expressions, thus they could be more motivated to approach the poetic mood and situation, and would like to appreciate more other poems like this one. The result on aesthetic ratings of the poem showed the same pattern with learners’ motivation; learners gave more positive ratings on the poem’s aesthetics when learning with the expressive instructor than with the neutral instructor. One reason may be that the aesthetic appreciation contains a motivational component. Indeed, aesthetic appreciation is the consequence of a complex dynamics between the text contents and context factors such as reader motivation and skill (Lüdtke et al., 2014 ). Another explanation may lie in the complex and subtle nature of aesthetic emotions, which are a key component of aesthetic appreciation (Haider et al., 2020 ; Menninghaus et al., 2019 ) and go beyond basic emotion categories as defined by Ekman et al. (1978). Concerning the valence of emotions, the instructor’s expressions were not limited to negative and positive, learners identified and understood these emotions and eventually generated their own aesthetic appreciation. Notably, the instructor’s embodied emotions were not aesthetic emotions, but emotions of poetic content which were necessary for learners to simulate and empathize with for producing aesthetic evaluations. Learners outperformed on the comprehension test in the expressive instructor condition relative to the neutral condition. Prosody is important in signaling emotions, and prosody behaviors associated with enthusiastic emotions are prone to produce social reinforcers (Frick, 1985 ). Much of the world’s poetry follows a definite regularity in prosodic form, such as a pattern of pitches or stresses (Beum & Shapiro, 2006 ). Prosodic cues in a poem can amplify the emotion evoked by the poem's content to make a successful work of art (Johnson-Laird & Oatley, 2022 ). In current educational settings, the professional onscreen instructor’ content-related prosody with an enthusiastic and empathetic affect would evoke learners’ involvement and mental simulation of the poetic situation, with comprehension fostered. Compared to seemingly subtle emotional cues embodied in voice, the onscreen instructor’s facial expression was much more visible. Expressive facial expressions have been confirmed to promote learning (Wang et al., 2019 ). Notably, facial expressions were not relevant to the learning process in previous researches, among which were mostly happy expressions. In this study, the instructor displayed happy facial expressions in the introduction of the course, which led to increased motivation (Horovitz & Mayer, 2021 ). In the following course, mixed emotions of the poem were conveyed through her facial expressions, then learners recognized her emotional contagion, resulting in a more intuitive sense of the emotions in the poetic context for learners. Moreover, those emotions were utilized by learners to imagine and construct the poet’s poetic situation, leading to improved comprehension (Dong et al., 2022 ). However, an expressive onscreen instructor failed to foster learners’ emotions and cognitive loads compared to a neutral onscreen instructor. A recent meta-analysis has shown that expressive instructors can promote learners’ positive emotions ( g = 0.26, Wang et al., 2023 ). But the instructor’s expressions in this study not only contained positive ingredients in the introduction of the course, but also more complex components such as sadness, pity and love for the motherland. These emotions account for a larger proportion of the poem, therefore, the change in the positive emotions were not detected. This result suggested further improvement in the measures of emotions, such as using more differentiated emotion items on aesthetics (Menninghaus et al., 2019 ; Wang et al., 2023 ). Regarding cognitive loads, a recent study revealed that an instructor’s expressive embodied cue can decrease intrinsic and extraneous loads compared to the neutral cue, which is inconsistent with our study (Liew et al., 2022 ). It may be that learners devoted more mental resources to the emotional processing of poetry, and lacked awareness of the fluctuations in cognitive loads. It is consistent with Pi et al. ( 2022 )’ finding, which may be that the positive effect of affective instructors on (aesthetic) emotions was offset by the perception at the cognitive level. Regarding research question 2, the MP had a more positive effect on learners’ poetic comprehension than the RP. This finding is inconsistent with previous studies on effects of different picture types in the natural science domains of science and mathematics (Cooper et al., 2018 ; Lindner, 2020 ), while it is aligned with results in learning of an expository text and proverbs (Danielson et al., 2015 ; Ramonda, 2019 ). This result may due to the domain specificity. The RP provides a mental scaffold at an early stage of information processing by presenting visuospatial information corresponding to texts (Eitel et al., 2013 ). Therefore, it promotes students’ performance in natural subjects, in which straightforward and objective languages are typically used. However, poems are more opaque and full of metaphors as surface cues, which make them harder to understand (Johnson-Laird & Oatley, 2022 ). Moreover, processing the surface meaning of texts is not enough; learners need to savor the meaning beyond the literal lines. There is little or no relation between decorative pictures and corresponding texts, but facilitation of learners' mental model construction will be achieved by establishing inferential connections when decorative these pictures metaphorically depict the text’s model (Danielson et al., 2015 ). That is, compared with the RP, the decorative picture expanded and supplemented the hidden meaning of poetic texts, thus, the MP fostered in-depth comprehension of literary texts. Regarding research question 3, the effect of the expressive onscreen instructor on aesthetic appreciation be moderated by picture types. Specifically, the same significant interaction pattern was found on comprehension and aesthetic ratings, indicating learners’ better aesthetic appreciation in the MP condition relative to the RP condition when they learned with an expressive instructor, whereas there was no such a significant difference when they learned with a neutral instructor. According to the mood congruency effect, emotions can facilitate the cognitive processing of corresponding emotional materials. In this study, the expressive onscreen instructor's emotional cues that were consistent with the poetic emotions may implicitly activate learners’ poetry-related emotions, creating a closer connection between the poet and the phoenix and facilitating the learners' in-depth understanding of the poetic metaphor. Therefore, the simulation and construction of the poetic situation were achieved, which in turn fostered aesthetics. Implications and limitations From a theoretical perspective, this study explored an expressive onscreen instructor’s role in a poetry aesthetics in educational scenes. That is, the instructor’s embodied expressions have potential for conveying learning-relevant emotions, and foster learners’ aesthetic appreciation of the poem. In addition, a decorative picture which has a semantic correspondence to the metaphor in a poetic text can have a positive effect on poetry appreciation. Practical design suggestions can be derived from these implications. In literature education, decorative pictures illustrating the target domain of mapping relations can be used in multimedia environments to help students gain in-depth comprehension and aesthetic appreciation of figurative language. Furthermore, instructors are encouraged to recruit their facial expressions and voice enthusiasm to display emotions from instructional contents, evoking learners’ learning-relevant emotions in the humanities. There are limitations to be considered. Firstly, the design of learning materials needs to be refined. We presented the text, picture and instructor image in a continuous but relatively independent way in the slides, which may lead to a split-attention effect in learners. 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Xia, C. (2021). Poetry and emotion in classical Chinese literature. In C. Shei, & W. Wei (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of Chinese studies (1st ed., pp. 289–303). Routledge. Zhang, W., & Cheung, Y. L. (2023). The different ways to write publishable research articles: Using cluster analysis to uncover patterns of APPRAISAL in discussions across disciplines. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 63 , 101231. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4233583","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":288593026,"identity":"8cc10efd-0454-4127-adbc-d388187124ff","order_by":0,"name":"Yi Wang","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA90lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNACAwYeNvbGxsdgDjNzA1FaZPh4Dh82BrEYmBmJ0cLAYCMnkZYmDdbCQECLwfGzh1/zFAAdxpBjVl1Q8Seavx2o5UfFNtxazuSlWfOA/MJwxuz2jDMGuTMOMzYw9py5jVOL2YEcM2Meg/88bIw9Zrd52wxyG4BamBnb8Gg5/wakBWgLM49ZMUjLfIJabuQYPwZrYWNLYwZp2UBIi/2NN2aMc0BaeJgPS/OcMc7dCNRyEJ9fJPtzjD+8+cNgLz//YeNnngq53HnnDx988KMCtxYgYJPiQRc6gE89EDB//EFAxSgYBaNgFIxwAACq2lEPcc0n6AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9042-0417","institution":"Jianghan University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yi","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":288594506,"identity":"70132293-456b-491f-baf4-32994f9ba710","order_by":1,"name":"Man Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Central China Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Man","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""},{"id":288594507,"identity":"ff55ed10-dc62-4b86-a0d7-259de85e73b8","order_by":2,"name":"Quanlei Yu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Central China Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Quanlei","middleName":"","lastName":"Yu","suffix":""},{"id":288594508,"identity":"640d4c19-147b-445a-ba6a-d8d886164758","order_by":3,"name":"Zhijin Zhou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Central China Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhijin","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhou","suffix":""},{"id":288594509,"identity":"fb021e10-0818-41cb-9117-7b2a4b48e7a4","order_by":4,"name":"Fred Paas","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1647-5305","institution":"Erasmus University Rotterdam, University of Wollongong","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fred","middleName":"","lastName":"Paas","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-04-08 03:23:52","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4233583/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4233583/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":56442573,"identity":"7e0c6a71-a230-4118-a603-9ea50f6aad2c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-14 08:51:54","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":179215,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy Procedures.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4233583/v1/5033f1e9d02055f54cef83a0.jpeg"},{"id":56441846,"identity":"42c76103-9c8b-49e9-b849-3135da89dbb6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-14 08:43:53","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1727459,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eScreen Examples of the Four Experimental Conditions\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4233583/v1/17b91a099537312d31e91bce.png"},{"id":56441849,"identity":"b06126df-d580-46e4-b110-2d18827e990a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-14 08:43:54","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":73677,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLearners’ poetic aesthetic appreciations (comprehension and aesthetic ratings) in each condition. \u003cbr\u003e\n RP: Representational Picture; MP: Metaphorically decorative Picture; NI: Neutral onscreen Instructor; EI: Expressive onscreen Instructor.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4233583/v1/50486f47b418acc295d978ff.jpeg"},{"id":56441845,"identity":"be9fffc8-c669-4b32-b201-4ae4a2ce9c8b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-14 08:43:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86928,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHypothesized Conceptual Model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4233583/v1/d17e8c0bac6f6a358afe8693.jpeg"},{"id":56443453,"identity":"017d7dc5-2f39-4a8c-a7fa-a64f2ebf8a95","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-14 08:59:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2658805,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4233583/v1/2fe6107e-dcb8-4028-a19c-62c4cd0d9935.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of an Onscreen Instructor’s Emotions and Picture Types on Poetry Aesthetic Appreciation\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePoetry is a crucial literary genre in curricula, with its aesthetic appreciation being an essential aim in educational settings. Ancient Chinese poetry is fundamental to the Chinese cultural tradition and is a key aspect of classical Chinese literature, emphasizing the expression of emotions at its core (Xia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). From an affective perspective, students need to embrace the primitive emotions involved in poetry and empathize with the characters to achieve poetic aesthetic appreciation (Henschel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Rosenblatt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). From a cognitive perspective, students need to move beyond literal understanding to construct in-depth meaning and attain full comprehension, which is a key process in aesthetic episodes (Pag\u0026aacute;n C\u0026aacute;novas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith the advancements in digital technology, educators are increasingly using visual components, such as expressive onscreen instructors, and different types of pictures, to enhance the appreciation of poetry (Jusslin \u0026amp; H\u0026ouml;glund, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Researches in light of social agency theory suggest that an onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s embodied social cues, such as facial expressions, and body gestures can create a social connection between students and instructors (Pi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Beege et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, 2023). This connection can foster meaningful learning by increasing students\u0026rsquo; motivation to actively process instructional materials more deeply. When examining poetry, the main purpose of poets creating poems is to express emotions, and the emotional undertones are typically mixed, nuanced, and delicate (Piirto, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Xia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It is thus essential to develop empathetic understandings of these poetic emotions, as they play a critical role in aesthetic appreciation (Freedberg \u0026amp; Gallese, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Instructors' embodied expressions aligned with poetic text may serve as explicit emotional scaffolding to make poetic emotions visible (Levine \u0026amp; Horton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, literary texts often employ metaphorical language to express emotions, requiring learners to read beyond the lines, constructing comprehensive mental models, and achieve aesthetic appreciation (Citron \u0026amp; Zervos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Different types of visual pictures are frequently used by researchers to support learners in understanding texts in multimedia learning (Danielson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Lindner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ramonda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecifically, we aimed to answer the research question: To what extent does an expressive onscreen instructor, aligned with emotional attributes of a poetic text, influence learners\u0026rsquo; emotion, motivation, cognitive load, and poetic aesthetic appreciation? Additionally, the moderating role of picture type in this context was explored.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Emotional design of an onscreen instructor\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideo lectures with an onscreen instructor have gained increasing popularity as a form of multimedia learning material. On-screen instructors are suitable for expressing emotions via embodied cues such as facial and vocal expressions (Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Beege et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). According to the emotional design hypothesis (Beege \u0026amp; Schneider, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), emotions in the learning environment can be a double-edged sword for learning. On one hand, they can enhance learners\u0026rsquo; emotional experiences, and motivation, subsequently improving learning performances (Moreno et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, they might consume learners\u0026rsquo; limited cognitive resources and divert attention, thereby impeding the learning process (Sweller et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Below we elaborate on the mechanisms corresponding to these two opposite situations and their supporting evidence.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmotions as suppressor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCognitive load theory (CLT) is a framework that explores how the human cognitive system processes information and the impact of different types of cognitive load on learning (Sweller et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). According to CLT, human working memory has a finite capacity and duration for processing and retaining information, and three types of cognitive loads are specified: intrinsic cognitive load dependent on the complexity of learning materials (Chen et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), germane cognitive load devoted to learning processes, and extraneous cognitive load resulting from disruptive instructional guidance. Therefore, instructional designers should aim to present information in a way that aligns with learners\u0026apos; cognitive capabilities, reducing extraneous load, optimizing intrinsic load, and fostering germane load to facilitate understanding and transfer of knowledge to long-term memory.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmotional factors within the instructional setting, particularly embodied emotions exhibited by the instructor may not always be directly related to the learning content. Processing these emotions can impose extraneous cognitive load, i.e., they utilize some of the restricted working memory capacity but fail to foster learning. Therefore, fewer cognitive resources are available to devote to learning-related processes and ultimately learning is not facilitated or even interfered. There exist some studies supporting this view (Beege et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Horovitz \u0026amp; Mayer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Liew et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmotions as facilitator\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt is proposed by social agent theory that an instructor\u0026rsquo;s embodied social cues such as facial expressions and enthusiasm in voice can shorten learners\u0026rsquo; sense of distance to the instructor and hence can create a stronger connection to the instructor; this connection will foster meaningful learning by increasing their motivation and affective response to active deeper cognitive processing, thus resulting in improved learning performance (Mayer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Moreno et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, according to the positivity principle of multimedia learning, individuals can discern whether an instructor is portraying positive or negative emotions, no matter whether the instructor is genuine or virtually generated (Beege \u0026amp; Schneider, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Horovitz \u0026amp; Mayer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). To foster learning by emotional instructors in a video lecture, first, an onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s expression is displayed by embodied cues such as facial expression, enthusiasm in voice, then learners recognize the instructor\u0026rsquo;s emotional contagion and adopt the emotion, reacting with higher motivation and deeper learning (Horovitz \u0026amp; Mayer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The beneficial impact of onscreen emotional instructors on learning has been confirmed (see a meta-analysis, Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Existing designs for teacher emotions primarily revolve around single-dimensional positive or negative emotions, like happy, or bored (Horovitz \u0026amp; Mayer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Pi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, composite emotions, encompassing varied valences like happiness, sadness, and surprise, can emerge within a single learning episode (Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNotably, emotion tends to improve learning particularly when there\u0026apos;s emotional alignment among elements in the learning environment, which is verified by the mood congruency effect (Bower, et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Smith \u0026amp; Petty, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). According to the associative network model, emotions can foster memory via activating experimental materials semantically, specifically, the heightened likelihood of positive information retrieval ensues from the activation of emotionally congruent materials by positive emotions, correspondingly, negative emotions serve to enhance the recall of negative information (Smith \u0026amp; Petty, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). For example, in text-based vocabulary learning, when learners learn both positive and negative words in a period, learners\u0026apos; recall results showed a significant mood congruency effect (Bower, et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e). A recent study expanded the mood congruency effect to the educational video learning of tourist attractions in a German city, indicating that transfer performance was fostered when learners\u0026rsquo; emotions aligned with the emotional charge of the learning material (Beege et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In the current study, we expanded this earlier work by examining whether the emotional fit between an expressive onscreen instructor and emotional learning materials, i.e., lyric poetry.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFew studies have considered the inherent emotional properties of learning materials, perhaps because most of the current learning materials focus on natural sciences (e.g., mathematics, biology, etc). According to domain specificity theory, different academic disciplines possess varied epistemologies, resulting in different characteristics in the corresponding subject domains (Hofer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang \u0026amp; Cheung, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). For example, knowledge in natural sciences is consistently presented in a highly formalized style to express great certainty and objectivity. Because these hard disciplines are built upon standardized experiments and replications, personal subjective emotions need to be avoided to the utmost extent. Therefore, in instructional design, researchers rarely focus on the emotional properties of the learning material itself. In contrast, the humanities are more likely to involve emotional themes, such as emotional responses in literary works and historical events; these disciplines often use highly subjective methods such as text analysis, interviews, and observations, and researchers are inclined to express their emotions (Lemmings \u0026amp; Brooks, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoetry, as the most concentrated and condensed form of literature, is the gem of a language and the crystallization of a culture, and poets create poetry mainly to vent their emotions by projecting their own emotions onto external objective correlatives (Johnson-Laird \u0026amp; Oatley, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Piirto, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Emotions involved in literary texts can serve as valuable signals, moving readers from efferent cognitive processing to aesthetics (Eva-Wood, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Rosenblatt, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). Instructional interventions drawn from learners\u0026rsquo; emotional responses such as think-feel aloud, affective appraisal strategies, may result in learners\u0026rsquo; neglecting of poetic affective aspects due to the obscurity of the poetic language and their lack of poetic expertise (Levine \u0026amp; Horton, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, research suggests that designing learning materials with emotional instructional elements can enhance the appreciation of poetic aesthetics (Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, since classical Chinese poetry was mostly created in the Tang Dynasty (AD 618\u0026ndash;907), novices lack relevant historical knowledge. They can feel nothing at all even after reading the most emotionally compelling poetic texts. Emotional design of learning materials can provide a visibly emotional scaffold for them to focus on the key emotional information. This supports their engagement with the poem\u0026rsquo;s emotive experiences, fostering deeper empathy with the poet, understanding of poetic techniques, and an enhanced appreciation and evaluation of the poem\u0026rsquo;s aesthetic qualities. The advantages of emotional instructors may lie in their flexibility and dynamics: experienced instructors can express the mixed poetic emotions and their nuances chronologically by their embodied cues, enabling learners to empathize with the characters affectively, leading to poetic aesthetic appreciations. Onscreen instructors are effective in conveying emotions through facial and vocal expressions, as well as other embodied cues (Beege et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Pi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). To optimize learning, an instructor\u0026rsquo;s expressions should be synchronized with the relevant learning content (Baylor \u0026amp; Kim, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, this study used an onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s embodied expressions to convey poetic emotions, with the expectation of fostering poetic aesthetic appreciation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 The role of pictures in multimedia learning\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoetry primarily conveys emotions through objective external objects, predominantly achieved through metaphorical language (Johnson-Laird \u0026amp; Oatley, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Readers can develop an aesthetic appreciation when they understand the central metaphor and gain a deep comprehension of the poem. This appreciation fundamentally arises from grasping the nuanced layers of meaning beyond the literal text (Pag\u0026aacute;n C\u0026aacute;novas et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, it can be fostered through a wide range of social semiotic resources, such as visual pictures (Magnusson \u0026amp; Godhe, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt is a common practice to integrate pictures into the text in multimedia environments (Danielson et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Schneider, et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). According to dual coding theory (Clark \u0026amp; Paivio, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), visual and verbal information are processed and represented distinctly within the human cognitive system. Visual information is used to construct a mental model related to the presented material, while verbal information yields a propositional representation regarding the material\u0026rsquo;s semantic details. With limited process capacity in each sensory modality (Sweller et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), a coherent mental representation is more likely achieved when the same information is encoded in both a visual and verbal form rather than just one.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHowever, research has shown that pictures in multimedia learning materials can lead to diverse effects on learner performance (Magner et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), with the type of pictures employed being a primary contributing factor. According to Carney and Levin (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), there are five different types of pictures, among which representational and decorative pictures are frequently used in educational settings (Lindner, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Representational pictures (RPs) correspond to the literal lines of texts to a large degree. In contrast, decorative pictures have little or no relationship to the text content, they do not seem to promote learning and can even hinder it (Magner et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRepresentational pictures and decorative pictures\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRPs accurately portray scenes as the content describes in a text, and can enhance learners\u0026rsquo; performance in most cases. This augmented effect is theoretically supported by the \u003cem\u003edual coding theory\u003c/em\u003e (Clark \u0026amp; Paivio, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). Given that learning information in RPs is presented graphically rather than solely through text, and each representation conveys comparable information, the information can be retrieved during subsequent testing from the visual modality, the verbal modality, or an integrated approach. Consequently, successful retrieval is more likely compared to scenarios where only verbal coding is available.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWith the primary goal of making the text more concrete, there exists a research line of RPs in processing narrative passages (Evans \u0026amp; Saint Aubin, 2005; Takacs \u0026amp; Bus, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, consistent findings from studies on RP storybooks show that children examine pictures in a manner that enhances their integration with the narrative. Pictures that align with the narration contribute more directly to understanding the story than those that do not (Takacs \u0026amp; Bus, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompared to stories, poetry may be more intricate for its abundance of metaphors. To interpret a poem, one needs not only to understand its literal meaning but also to comprehend its in-depth meaning\u0026mdash;the target domain of the metaphor in most cases, which may bear little relevance to the literal lines. For example, \u0026ldquo;fold the willow\u0026rdquo; in Chinese poetry, with the literary meaning of \u0026ldquo;pick willow branches\u0026rdquo;, usually means to miss one\u0026apos;s friends. Thus, presenting a picture of a friend, which does not seem to correspond to the literal meaning of folding the willow, has a potential to facilitate understanding of the in-depth meaning. Following this logic, metaphorically decorative pictures (MPs) that do not seem to correspond to the literal poetic text are used in present study with the expectation to foster in-depth comprehension.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDecorative pictures are used to enhance the visual attractiveness of a page and have little or no relevance to the text content (Carney \u0026amp; Levin, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Effects of decorative pictures on learning are mixed and less conclusive. On the one hand, it is suggested by the seductive detail effect that task-irrelevant but interesting decorative pictures exhibit virtually no beneficial effects on text-based learning (Carney \u0026amp; Levin, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Harp \u0026amp; Mayer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). In accordance with the cognitive load theory (Sweller et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), decorative pictures might lead to an increase of extraneous cognitive load, causing distraction of attention and impaired learning outcomes (Sundararajan \u0026amp; Adesope, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, decorative pictures do not appear to hinder learners\u0026rsquo; performance, and can even be conducive (Schneider et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). A meta-analysis of Sundararajan and Adesope (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) suggested that the seductive detail effect can be moderated by the type of picture. That is, decorative pictures are not as detrimental as previously concluded because some of them have a metaphorical connection with the text material other than the purely decorative ones. For example, to help learners developing a deeper understanding of idioms, Ramonda (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) used two kinds of pictures: the literal picture and the combination of the literal\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;figurative picture. An overall positive effect on posttest performance was revealed in the literal and literal\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;figurative picture conditions over the condition without the picture. However, for most cases, no significant differences were found between the literal and literal\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;figurative conditions for retention performance. The reason for this result may be that most of the idioms were too complicated to infer the in-depth meaning from the surface text, thus leading to a ceiling effect. This suggests that figurative pictures have the potential to enhance language comprehension. It also indicates the importance of maintaining the difficulty of learning materials at an appropriate level. Furthermore, the impact of various types of pictures on the comprehension of literary texts warrants separate investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWith regard to poetry appreciation, Batič and Haramija (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) examined the role of RPs and found comprehension can be fostered by pictures incorporating different elements from the poem\u0026rsquo;s literal contents. However, poetry is intensely visual in an imaginary way, and a prevailing view holds that \u0026ldquo;undoubtedly, the great effort of the illustrator of works of imagination must be to give a parallel, and not a transcript\u0026rdquo; (Scott, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1850\u003c/span\u003e: 205). That is, pictures may be more effective when capturing the poem\u0026apos;s analogous and abstract aspects rather than its literal contents.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe present study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe present study investigated the effects of an onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s expression (expressive vs. neutral) and different types of pictures (representational vs. metaphorically decorative) on poetic aesthetic appreciation. We took the initiative to introduce an expressive onscreen instructor into the poetry instructional videos to provide a visible affective scaffold in an empirical experiment. Based on the above literature review, the following research questions were examined:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDoes an expressive onscreen instructor positively influence learners\u0026apos; emotions, motivation, cognitive load, and poetic aesthetic appreciation more than a neutral onscreen instructor?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDo metaphorically decorative pictures (MPs) enhance learners\u0026apos; poetic comprehension more effectively than representational pictures (RPs)?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDoes the type of picture used moderate the impact of an expressive onscreen instructor on aesthetic appreciation?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eParticipants and Design\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis experiment was approved for ethical approval by Central China Normal University and all methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eG\u0026lowast;Power analysis (G\u0026lowast;Power 3.1.9.2) was employed to estimate the sample size with an a-priori power analysis (\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.25, \u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05, 1- \u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80, 2 \u0026times; 2 design). We aimed for a sample size of a minimum of 128 subjects for a medium effect size in similar studies (Beege et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Schneider et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). One hundred and thirty-nine undergraduate students from a Chinese university participated in the present study (86 females; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003eage\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.68 years, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003eage\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.70) after obtaining their informed consent. All the participants\u0026rsquo; vision was normal or corrected-to-normal. The participants represented various majors including Engineering, Mathematics, Chemistry, and so on, and they were randomly allocated to one of four conditions: (1) a neutral onscreen instructor with a representational picture (NIRP, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35); (2) an expressive onscreen instructor with a representational picture (EIRP, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34); (3) a neutral onscreen instructor with a metaphorically decorative picture (NIMP, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35); (4) an expressive onscreen instructor with a metaphorically decorative picture (EIMP, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLearning Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExperimental text\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst, a poetic text \u003cem\u003eRed Phoenix\u003c/em\u003e (《朱凤行》) by Dufu was selected by the instructor in video lectures and a colleague of her. Their teaching experiences in Chinese literature were 7 years and 9 years, respectively. The poem contains 73 Chinese characters and literally describes a red phoenix flying and kindly delivering food to small animals in need, causing resentment from monsters. As a renowned poet in Tang dynasty, the poet Dufu metaphorically mapped himself as a phoenix, expressing his desire to help the ordinary people and ambition to serve his motherland. That\u0026rsquo;s to say, the red phoenix is the source domain and the poet himself is the target domain in the current poetic metaphor. Then the difficulty and the familiarity of the poetic text was rated on two Likert scales ranging from 1 to 7 (1 not difficult/familiar at all, 7 difficult/familiar very much) by 34 undergraduates (21 females, \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e age\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20.91 years, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e age\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.40) from the same university as the formal experiment was conducted. The means and standard deviations of the difficulty and the familiarity were \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.11; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.89, and \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.36; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.19, respectively, indicating the poem was moderately difficult and unfamiliar for the undergraduates.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExperimental pictures in videos\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo pictures were jointly created by the above two instructors and a professional painter for this study. The RP depicted a red phoenix, literally mirroring the title and the main part of the poetic text, while the MP involved a portrait of Dufu, the target domain in the poem (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). To ensure participants were able to identify the metaphor, the 34 undergraduates rated the two pictures\u0026rsquo; correspondence to the red phoenix and the poet Dufu on two scales (Danielson et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The 34 undergraduates were asked to what degree the RP match with the phoenix described in the poem and the poet respectively, ranging from 1 (not matches at all) to 7 (matches very well) and to what degree the MP match with the poet and the phoenix respectively, ranging from 1 (not matches at all) to 7 (matches very well). Paired T-tests indicated that the RP matched significantly higher with the red phoenix than with the poet (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.79, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.84; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.47, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.08), \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e (33)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.92, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.00, and the MP matched significantly higher with the poet than with the phoenix (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.65, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.81; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.59, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.23), \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e (33)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.39, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.00.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVideo lectures\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe video was recorded by a high school teacher in Chinese literature with nine years of teaching experience. The instructional script contained 1679 Chinese characters, including a brief introduction, the poetic text, the historical background in which the poet lived, the literal meaning, the poetic vehicles and so on. The instructor kept her body in a frontal way with her eyes looking straight at the camera, and she gave exactly the same information about the poem in two videos with the same social entity except that her emotional expression in her facial and vocal expressions varied. In the expressive condition, the instructor was happy and enthusiastic at the introduction stage, reciting the poetic text expressively, then the red phoenix was praised, pitied for small animals, and despised for monsters when explaining the poetic meaning. While in the neutral condition, the instructor\u0026rsquo;s facial and vocal expressions remained neutral throughout the course. The two versions of the video were then paired with two pictures, producing four instructional videos. Each video lasted about 6 min 30 s, and contained four screens with the poetic text, a statically representational or a metaphorical picture and the same instructor wearing different expressions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeasurements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eControl measure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA prior knowledge questionnaire in Chinese poetry was used to evaluate participants\u0026rsquo; general knowledge of Chinese poetry. The questionnaire included four 5-point self-rating items and one open-answer item (Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Two trained raters rated answers to the open-answer item with a qualified inter-rater reliability (\u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.89). And the internal consistency of the prior knowledge questionnaire is 0.69 using Cronbach's alpha.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eManipulation check of the instructor\u0026rsquo;s expressions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLearners\u0026rsquo; perception to the instructor\u0026rsquo;s expressions was rated on three items as a manipulation check. For example, students responded to items \u0026ldquo;The teacher's facial expression is rich and contagious.\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;The teacher's voice was infectious in cadence.\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;The teacher's emotions matched well with the course contents.\u0026rdquo; on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (does not indicate the case at all) to 7 (completely indicates the case). These items were used as a manipulation check of the emotional congruency between the onscreen instructor and the poetic text. The Cronbach reliability (\u0026alpha;) of these items was 0.84.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLearners\u0026rsquo; emotions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo 7-point Likert-scale items assessing valence and arousal were used to measure learners\u0026rsquo; emotions (Bradley \u0026amp; Lang, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Pi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). And responses range from 1 (extremely unhappy/mild) to 7 (extremely happy/intense).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCognitive load.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThree 7-point Likert-scale items were used to measure learners\u0026rsquo; intrinsic cognitive load, germane cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load, respectively (Gerjets et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Paas et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). Participants rated the difficulty of learning the poem (1, extremely easy \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7, extremely difficult), their mental effort invested (1, extremely low \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7, extremely high), and the ease of learning with the video lecture (1, extremely easy \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7, extremely difficult).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMotivation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEight self-rated items were used to measure students\u0026rsquo; motivation (Isen \u0026amp; Reeve, 2005). For example, participants rated on 7-point scale ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) regarding \u0026ldquo;I enjoyed learning about this poem.\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;I would like more lessons like this one.\u0026rdquo; These items showed qualified internal consistency (\u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.81).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAesthetic appreciations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the aesthetic triad model, a comprehension test was used to determine the semantic dimension, and three aesthetic rating items were used to determine the affective dimension and the evaluative dimension (Leder \u0026amp; Nadal, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It is worth noting that aesthetic emotion and evaluation do not seem to belong to the traditional academic achievement. However, in the context of literary appreciation in educational settings, more and more studies not only focus on semantic understanding, but also emphasize its aesthetic emotion and evaluation (Janssen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Schrijvers et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eComprehension.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe comprehension test was created by the instructor in video lectures and her colleague to assess learners\u0026rsquo; understandings of the poem. It consisted of 5 open-ended questions (5 points each, total 25 points), including items \u0026ldquo;What do you know about the poet Dufu?\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;What does this poem literally describe?\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;What is the deep meaning of this poem?\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;What do the red phoenix and the poet have in common?\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;What thoughts and feelings do the poet convey?\u0026rdquo;. These items examined were consistent with contents included in video lectures. Answers to these questions were rated separately by the two instructors above, with qualified inter-rater reliability (\u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.91). And the internal consistency of the comprehension test is 0.67 by Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAesthetic (evaluations and emotion) ratings.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThree items were used to assess students\u0026rsquo; aesthetic evaluations (to what extent the poem was beautiful, to what extent the poem was fascinating), and emotion (to what extent you liked the poem: Janssen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; L\u0026uuml;dtke et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). They were 7-point scales ranging from 1 (does not indicate the case at all) to 7 (completely indicates the case). The internal consistency coefficients of the three items were 0.85.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProcedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe procedure was administered through a computer programs. Each subject was individually tested in a laboratory setting and the experiment lasted about 45 min. As indicated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the prior knowledge questionnaire was responded by participants firstly. Afterward, they viewed one of four videos given the experimental condition they were randomly assigned to. Immediately after each video, participants reported their feelings towards the instructor as a manipulation check of the onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s expressions, and reported their own emotions, cognitive loads, motivation, responded to the comprehension test and aesthetic ratings of the poem. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the means and standard deviations of all the dependent variables in each condition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeans of all dependent variables, with standard deviations in parentheses for each condition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" width=\"208\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDependent variables\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNIRP\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEIRP\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNIMP\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"91\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEIMP\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003en=35\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003en=34\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003en=35\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"91\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003en=35\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"208\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLearners\u0026rsquo; emotions-valence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.68(1.13)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.58(1.05)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.65(0.99)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"91\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.71(0.89)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"208\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLearners\u0026rsquo; emotions-arousal\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.57(0.85)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.76(0.96)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.57(0.88)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"91\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.74(0.92)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"208\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntrinsic cognitive load\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.25 (1.01)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.11 (1.09)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.08 (1.19)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"91\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.34 (1.33)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"208\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGermane cognitive load\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.45 (0.92)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.38 (1.37)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.68 (1.21)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"91\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.60 (1.48)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"208\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExtraneous cognitive load\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.37(0.94)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.67(1.34)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.85(1.38)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"91\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.45 (1.20)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"208\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMotivation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.53 (0.82)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.69 (1.16)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.10 (0.98)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"91\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.73 (1.38)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"208\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAesthetic appreciations-\u003cem\u003eComprehension\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.20 (2.64)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16.09 (3.20)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14.09 (2.86)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"91\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18.14 (2.60)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"208\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAesthetic appreciations-\u003cem\u003eAesthetic ratings\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.99 (1.04)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.37 (1.04)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"85\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.54 (1.06)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"91\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.33 (1.17)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRP: Representational Picture; MP: Metaphorically decorative Picture; NI: Neutral onscreen Instructor; EI: Expressive onscreen Instructor.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePreliminary analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe prior knowledge test.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo test differences on prior knowledge of Chinese poetry across the four experimental groups, a 2 \u0026times; 2 ANOVA analysis was conducted. No significant effect of picture type and no significant main effect of the onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s expression was found, both \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1. However, a significant interaction was revealed, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 135)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.76, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, simple effects analyses indicated that learners\u0026rsquo; prior knowledge was higher in expressive condition than in the neutral condition when learning with the RP, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 135)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.52, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.06, but there was no significant difference when learning with the MP, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 135)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.13.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eManipulation check.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo check whether our manipulation on the onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s expression was successful, an ANCOVA was calculated with the mean of the three items as the dependent variable. The significant effect for the instructor\u0026rsquo;s expression, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 134)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31.82, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.19, confirmed that participants in expressive conditions perceived more expressive emotions from the instructor than the participants learning with the neutral version of the video lectures. Meanwhile, the main effect of picture type was not significant, neither was the interaction effect, both \u003cem\u003eFs\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNext, 2 \u0026times; 2 analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) were conducted in order to assess differences between groups. For all variance analyses, the onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s expression and the picture type were used as independent variables, and scores on the prior knowledge test were used as the covariate. The dependent measures were learners\u0026rsquo; emotions, motivation, cognitive loads, and aesthetic appreciation of the poem. Furthermore, a moderated mediation model was constructed to investigate how and when an expressive instructor affects poetic aesthetic (ratings) appreciation to gain a comprehensive insight of poetry aesthetic appreciation in a multimedia environment (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLearners\u0026rsquo; emotions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eANCOVAs were conducted with learners\u0026rsquo; scores on valence and arousal as dependent variables. No significant main effects or interaction were revealed, all \u003cem\u003eFs\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCognitive load.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eANCOVAs were conducted with learners\u0026rsquo; scores on intrinsic cognitive load, germane cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load as dependent variables, and no significant main effects or interaction were found, all \u003cem\u003eFs\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMotivation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA significant effect was found for the onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s expressions, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 134)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.96, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.04, with expressive groups more motivated than neutral groups. No significant effect was found for type of picture, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1. Furthermore, a significant interaction could be observed, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 134)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.08, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.03. Descriptively, in the MP videos, students were more motivated in the expressive condition than in the neutral condition, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01, while in the RP videos, students\u0026rsquo; motivation was comparable for the different expressions, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.92.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAesthetic appreciations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eComprehension\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA significant main effect of onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s expression was also revealed, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 134)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52.24, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.28, with expressive groups outperforming neutral groups. A significant main effect of the picture type was revealed, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 134)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11.52, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.08, indicating that learners comprehended the poem better when learning with the MP than with the RP. However, the main effects were qualified by a significant interaction, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 134)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.14, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.04. Simple effects analyses indicated that learners with the MP performed better than learners with the RP in the expressive conditions, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.00, but there was no significant difference in neutral conditions, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.67 (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAesthetic evaluations and emotion ratings\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA significant effect was found for the onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s expressions, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 134)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.24, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07. Specifically, the expressive groups achieved higher aesthetic ratings than the neutral groups. No significant main effect for picture type was revealed, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.The\u0026nbsp;interaction was not significant either, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 134)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.80, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.09, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.02. Comprehension of figurative language can evoke stronger emotional responses, and it is a key component of easthetics (Citron \u0026amp; Zervos, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Pag\u0026aacute;n C\u0026aacute;novas et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The above analyses showed an significant interaction on poetry comprehension, therefore we further conducted a simple effect analysis on aesthetic evaluations and emotion ratings. It was found that in the MP videos, students\u0026rsquo; aesthetic ratings of the poem in the expressive condition were higher than in the neutral condition, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01, but there was no significant difference in the RP videos, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.38 (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe moderated mediation analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the above results, we further conducted a moderated mediating model with motivation as the mediating variable and picture type as the moderating variable (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). First, Model 4 from the SPSS macro-PROCESS was used to analyze the mediating effect of motivation on instructor\u0026rsquo;s emotional expression and aesthetic ratings. Instructor\u0026rsquo;s emotional expression positively predicted motivation (\u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.46, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and positively predicted aesthetic ratings (\u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.35, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Motivation positively predicted aesthetic ratings (\u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.49, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and partially mediated the relationship between instructor\u0026rsquo;s emotional expressions and aesthetic ratings (indirect effect\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.20, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.10, 95% confidence interval = [0.0358, 0.3951]). The mediating effect accounted for 20% of the total effect of instructor\u0026rsquo;s emotional expressions on aesthetic ratings. Then, Model 8 from the SPSS macro PROCESS was used to examine the moderating effect of picture type (coded: 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;literal picture, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;figurative picture) on the indirect relationship between instructor\u0026rsquo;s emotional expressions and aesthetic appreciation. As indicated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, instructor\u0026rsquo;s emotional expressions cannot predict motivation (\u0026beta; = -0.77, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.22), and motivation positively predicted aesthetic ratings (\u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.47, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). The interaction between instructor\u0026rsquo;s emotional expressions and picture type significantly predicted motivation (\u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.04), whereas the interaction on aesthetic ratings was not significant (\u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.25, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.45). Therefore, picture type moderated the first stage of the mediating model of motivation between instructor\u0026rsquo;s emotional expressions and aesthetic ratings. In addition, the indirect effect of instructor\u0026rsquo;s emotional expression on aesthetic ratings was significant only in the figurative group (effect\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.83, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.27, 95% bootstrap CI = [0.30, 1.37]) but not in the literal group (effect\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.30, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.28, 95% bootstrap CI= [-0.52, 0.58]).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModerated Mediation Analyses\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOutcome variables\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePredictive variables\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoot\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLLCI\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoot\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eULCI\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMotivation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior knowledge\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.39\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.79\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstructor\u0026rsquo;s emotions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-2.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-1.23\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePicture type\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-1.45\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-2.68\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-2.34\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstructor\u0026rsquo;s emotions \u0026times; Picture type\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.03\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"5\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAesthetic ratings\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior knowledge\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.66\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstructor\u0026rsquo;s emotions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-1.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePicture type\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-1.51\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMotivation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.61\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstructor\u0026rsquo;s emotions \u0026times; Picture type\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05, ***\u0026lt; .001.\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined how an expressive onscreen instructor affects the aesthetic appreciation of a poem from video lectures that incorporated different types of pictures. Results demonstrated that both the expressive onscreen instructor and the MP positively affected poetry aesthetic appreciation. Moreover, learners reported higher motivation and aesthetic appreciation in the expressive onscreen instructor condition than in the neutral condition when they learned with a MP. These findings extend the previous research by elucidating the intertwining effect of an onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s learning-related emotions and the picture type on the appreciation of a literary text in a video lecture.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding research question 1, an expressive onscreen instructor had a more positive effect on learners\u0026rsquo; motivation, and poetic aesthetic appreciation (both comprehension and aesthetic ratings) than a neutral onscreen instructor. With regard to learners\u0026rsquo; motivation, learners were more motivated when learning with the expressive instructor than with the neutral one, and this was especially true when the learning material contained the MP. It has been proved by a meta analysis that onscreen instructors can provide motivational benefits to learners (Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, emotions are suggested to be associated with enhanced motivation no matter they are positive or negative. Specifically, learners\u0026rsquo; autonomy would be facilitated by positive emotions, while additional motivation can be induced by negative emotions to avoid failure (Pekrun, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the expressive onscreen instructor with mixed emotions increased learners\u0026rsquo; motivation. In addition, the MP in this study depicted the target domain of the poetic metaphor, i.e., the in-depth meaning of the poetic texts. As a result, learners\u0026rsquo; in-depth understanding of the poem made it easier for them to simulate and empathize with the instructor\u0026rsquo;s learning-related expressions, thus they could be more motivated to approach the poetic mood and situation, and would like to appreciate more other poems like this one.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe result on aesthetic ratings of the poem showed the same pattern with learners\u0026rsquo; motivation; learners gave more positive ratings on the poem\u0026rsquo;s aesthetics when learning with the expressive instructor than with the neutral instructor. One reason may be that the aesthetic appreciation contains a motivational component. Indeed, aesthetic appreciation is the consequence of a complex dynamics between the text contents and context factors such as reader motivation and skill (L\u0026uuml;dtke et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Another explanation may lie in the complex and subtle nature of aesthetic emotions, which are a key component of aesthetic appreciation (Haider et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Menninghaus et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and go beyond basic emotion categories as defined by Ekman et al. (1978). Concerning the valence of emotions, the instructor\u0026rsquo;s expressions were not limited to negative and positive, learners identified and understood these emotions and eventually generated their own aesthetic appreciation. Notably, the instructor\u0026rsquo;s embodied emotions were not aesthetic emotions, but emotions of poetic content which were necessary for learners to simulate and empathize with for producing aesthetic evaluations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLearners outperformed on the comprehension test in the expressive instructor condition relative to the neutral condition. Prosody is important in signaling emotions, and prosody behaviors associated with enthusiastic emotions are prone to produce social reinforcers (Frick, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e). Much of the world\u0026rsquo;s poetry follows a definite regularity in prosodic form, such as a pattern of pitches or stresses (Beum \u0026amp; Shapiro, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Prosodic cues in a poem can amplify the emotion evoked by the poem's content to make a successful work of art (Johnson-Laird \u0026amp; Oatley, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In current educational settings, the professional onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo; content-related prosody with an enthusiastic and empathetic affect would evoke learners\u0026rsquo; involvement and mental simulation of the poetic situation, with comprehension fostered. Compared to seemingly subtle emotional cues embodied in voice, the onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s facial expression was much more visible. Expressive facial expressions have been confirmed to promote learning (Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, facial expressions were not relevant to the learning process in previous researches, among which were mostly happy expressions. In this study, the instructor displayed happy facial expressions in the introduction of the course, which led to increased motivation (Horovitz \u0026amp; Mayer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In the following course, mixed emotions of the poem were conveyed through her facial expressions, then learners recognized her emotional contagion, resulting in a more intuitive sense of the emotions in the poetic context for learners. Moreover, those emotions were utilized by learners to imagine and construct the poet\u0026rsquo;s poetic situation, leading to improved comprehension (Dong et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, an expressive onscreen instructor failed to foster learners\u0026rsquo; emotions and cognitive loads compared to a neutral onscreen instructor. A recent meta-analysis has shown that expressive instructors can promote learners\u0026rsquo; positive emotions (\u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.26, Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). But the instructor\u0026rsquo;s expressions in this study not only contained positive ingredients in the introduction of the course, but also more complex components such as sadness, pity and love for the motherland. These emotions account for a larger proportion of the poem, therefore, the change in the positive emotions were not detected. This result suggested further improvement in the measures of emotions, such as using more differentiated emotion items on aesthetics (Menninghaus et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Regarding cognitive loads, a recent study revealed that an instructor\u0026rsquo;s expressive embodied cue can decrease intrinsic and extraneous loads compared to the neutral cue, which is inconsistent with our study (Liew et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). It may be that learners devoted more mental resources to the emotional processing of poetry, and lacked awareness of the fluctuations in cognitive loads. It is consistent with Pi et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026rsquo; finding, which may be that the positive effect of affective instructors on (aesthetic) emotions was offset by the perception at the cognitive level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding research question 2, the MP had a more positive effect on learners\u0026rsquo; poetic comprehension than the RP. This finding is inconsistent with previous studies on effects of different picture types in the natural science domains of science and mathematics (Cooper et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Lindner, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), while it is aligned with results in learning of an expository text and proverbs (Danielson et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ramonda, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This result may due to the domain specificity. The RP provides a mental scaffold at an early stage of information processing by presenting visuospatial information corresponding to texts (Eitel et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it promotes students\u0026rsquo; performance in natural subjects, in which straightforward and objective languages are typically used. However, poems are more opaque and full of metaphors as surface cues, which make them harder to understand (Johnson-Laird \u0026amp; Oatley, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, processing the surface meaning of texts is not enough; learners need to savor the meaning beyond the literal lines. There is little or no relation between decorative pictures and corresponding texts, but facilitation of learners' mental model construction will be achieved by establishing inferential connections when decorative these pictures metaphorically depict the text\u0026rsquo;s model (Danielson et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). That is, compared with the RP, the decorative picture expanded and supplemented the hidden meaning of poetic texts, thus, the MP fostered in-depth comprehension of literary texts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding research question 3, the effect of the expressive onscreen instructor on aesthetic appreciation be moderated by picture types. Specifically, the same significant interaction pattern was found on comprehension and aesthetic ratings, indicating learners\u0026rsquo; better aesthetic appreciation in the MP condition relative to the RP condition when they learned with an expressive instructor, whereas there was no such a significant difference when they learned with a neutral instructor. According to the mood congruency effect, emotions can facilitate the cognitive processing of corresponding emotional materials. In this study, the expressive onscreen instructor's emotional cues that were consistent with the poetic emotions may implicitly activate learners\u0026rsquo; poetry-related emotions, creating a closer connection between the poet and the phoenix and facilitating the learners' in-depth understanding of the poetic metaphor. Therefore, the simulation and construction of the poetic situation were achieved, which in turn fostered aesthetics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImplications and limitations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom a theoretical perspective, this study explored an expressive onscreen instructor\u0026rsquo;s role in a poetry aesthetics in educational scenes. That is, the instructor\u0026rsquo;s embodied expressions have potential for conveying learning-relevant emotions, and foster learners\u0026rsquo; aesthetic appreciation of the poem. In addition, a decorative picture which has a semantic correspondence to the metaphor in a poetic text can have a positive effect on poetry appreciation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePractical design suggestions can be derived from these implications. In literature education, decorative pictures illustrating the target domain of mapping relations can be used in multimedia environments to help students gain in-depth comprehension and aesthetic appreciation of figurative language. Furthermore, instructors are encouraged to recruit their facial expressions and voice enthusiasm to display emotions from instructional contents, evoking learners\u0026rsquo; learning-relevant emotions in the humanities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are limitations to be considered. Firstly, the design of learning materials needs to be refined. We presented the text, picture and instructor image in a continuous but relatively independent way in the slides, which may lead to a split-attention effect in learners. Further studies can use narration instead of written text in learning materials to avoid this effect. Secondly, this study only investigated the short-term effects of different types of pictures. The MP\u0026rsquo;s positive effect may persist over a longer period of time (Danielson et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Thirdly, a female onscreen instructor was used in this study. Effects of emotions embodied in facial expressions and voice enthusiasm by female and male instructor can be different, and there may exist a gender matching effect between the learner's and the instructor's gender.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eData will be made available on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBatič, J., \u0026amp; Haramija, D. (2018). The role of illustration in interpreting a multimodal literary text. \u003cem\u003eThe New Educational Review, 52\u003c/em\u003e(1), 195-205.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaylor, A. L., \u0026amp; Kim, S. (2009). Designing nonverbal communication for pedagogical agents: When less is more. \u003cem\u003eComputers in Human Behavior, 25\u003c/em\u003e(2), 450-457.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBeege, M., \u0026amp; Schneider, S. (2023). 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The different ways to write publishable research articles: Using cluster analysis to uncover patterns of APPRAISAL in discussions across disciplines. \u003cem\u003eJournal of English for Academic Purposes, 63\u003c/em\u003e, 101231.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Central China Normal University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Poetry Aesthetic Appreciation, Onscreen Instructor’s Expression, Emotional Design, Picture Type","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4233583/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4233583/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePoetry, as a quintessential artistic expression, embodies the essence of language and is integral to language curricula. However, its metaphorical linguistic nature makes its emotional expression intricate and veiled, demanding that learners move beyond literal interpretations to comprehend its deeper meanings and foster aesthetic appreciation. This complexity presents a significant challenge to novice learners. Therefore, this study aimed to enhance learners' aesthetic appreciation of poetry by employing an expressive onscreen instructor and exploring the moderating role of picture type. Undergraduate students (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;139) were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions, following a 2 (Onscreen Instructor\u0026rsquo;s Expression: neutral vs. expressive) \u0026times; 2 (Picture Type: representational vs. metaphorically decorative) factorial design. Results revealed that learners with expressive instructors demonstrated greater motivation and aesthetic appreciation compared to those with neutral instructors. Furthermore, the influence of instructor expression on student motivation and aesthetic appreciation was particularly pronounced when utilizing metaphorically decorative pictures. These findings offer practical insights for designing poetic instruction within multimedia environments.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effects of an Onscreen Instructor’s Emotions and Picture Types on Poetry Aesthetic Appreciation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-14 08:43:48","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4233583/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"75edba9f-16a0-43d9-a238-f1d9660b6d35","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 14th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-05-14T08:43:49+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-14 08:43:48","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4233583","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4233583","identity":"rs-4233583","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}