Visualization Analysis of Research Status on Refractory Gold Ore Processing Based on VOSviewer

Visualization Analysis of Research Status on Refractory Gold Ore Processing Based on VOSviewer | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Visualization Analysis of Research Status on Refractory Gold Ore Processing Based on VOSviewer Mao Yang, Jianhe Wan, Wenzhi Dai This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9426166/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract With the progressive depletion of readily treatable gold resources worldwide, refractory gold ores have emerged as a core strategic resource for the sustainable development of the gold industry. Owing to their complex mineralogical composition and intricate dissemination relationships, the research and application of beneficiation technologies for refractory gold ores have long been a focal point and a persistent challenge in the field of mineral processing. This study employs bibliometric methods to retrieve refractory gold ore-related literature indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection (WOS) from January 2008 to December 2025. Using VOSviewer software, a visual analysis was conducted to examine the temporal distribution, national contributions, author co-occurrence networks, institutional collaborations, and keyword co-occurrence patterns within the literature. The results indicate a sustained upward trend in research output, peaking in 2021. An international research community centered on China, Australia, and the United States has formed, with China ranking first globally in both publication volume and international influence. Domestic research efforts are primarily driven by universities and research institutes, though cross-institutional synergy and deep international collaboration remain insufficient. Research hotspots are concentrated on mineralogical characterization, high-efficiency pretreatment methods, and environmentally friendly beneficiation technologies. The overall research trajectory exhibits an evolutionary pathway from fundamental geological studies and mineralogical property analysis toward integrated, green, and high-efficiency combined processes. Notably, green pretreatment strategies, non-cyanide leaching systems, and low-carbon mineral processing have emerged as cutting-edge research frontiers in recent years. From a knowledge mapping perspective, this study provides a panoramic overview of the research landscape, core themes, and emerging trends within the field of refractory gold ore processing. It offers both data-driven support and theoretical reference for researchers seeking to accurately identify research directions and pursue original investigations, and further serves as a decision-making basis for the efficient and environmentally responsible exploitation of refractory gold resources in China. Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences refractory gold ore bibliometrics visualization analysis Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1. Introduction Gold (Au) is a significant strategic resource, valued not only for its monetary worth but also for its extensive applications in the electronics industry [ 1 , 2 ] 、communication equipment [ 3 – 5 ] 、and healthcare [ 6 – 8 ] among other fields. As the world's largest gold producer, China possesses abundant gold resources. However, with prolonged high-intensity exploitation, readily treatable and high-grade gold resources amenable to conventional beneficiation and metallurgy have progressively diminished, rendering refractory gold ores the predominant target for current exploitation and utilization. [ 9 ] 。Refractory gold ores primarily refer to complex ores where gold exists in the form of fine or sub-microscopic particles within sulfide minerals like pyrite and arsenopyrite [ 10 , 11 ] , or is bound by the "gold robbing" effect of carbonaceous and clay minerals, resulting in a gold recovery rate of less than 80% by conventional cyanidation [ 12 ] 。According to differences in process mineralogical characteristics and mineral occurrence states, they can be classified into fine disseminated gold ores, carbonaceous gold ores, and complex polymetallic sulfide gold ores, etc. [ 13 ] 。Existing studies indicate that more than one-third of the world's gold resources are classified as refractory gold ores, yet their degree of exploitation and utilization remains relatively low. [ 14 ] 。Such ores are typically characterized by dense sulfide encapsulation, the "preg-robbing" effect induced by carbonaceous matter, and fine to ultrafine dissemination. These intrinsic attributes render conventional beneficiation and leaching processes ineffective for achieving high recovery rates, leading not only to substantial resource wastage but also to potentially elevated environmental burdens, thereby impeding the green and sustainable development of the gold industry. [ 15 , 16 ] 。Therefore, how to develop and utilize refractory gold ores has become a current research hotspot. In recent years, scholars worldwide have conducted extensive research on refractory gold ore beneficiation, accumulating a wealth of theoretical and technological knowledge. However, the research directions in this field are diverse, and research subjects are scattered, making it difficult for traditional literature reviews to systematically outline the research context, accurately identify core hotspots, and predict development trends. Bibliometrics combined with visualization analysis tools offers an effective approach to address this issue. Among these tools, VOSviewer, with its powerful network construction and visualization capabilities, can reveal the intrinsic knowledge structure, research hotspot clusters, academic collaboration patterns, and development trends within a field through correlation analysis of units such as authors, institutions, keywords, and references in massive literature data. It has been widely applied in analyzing research status across various disciplines [ 17 ] 。 Based on this, this study utilizes the Web of Science (WOS) core collection database as the data foundation and employs VOSviewer software for bibliometric analysis and visualization of research literature in the field of refractory gold ore processing. By analyzing characteristics such as the temporal evolution, spatial distribution, collaboration networks, and keyword clustering characteristics of relevant literature, this research aims to systematically clarify the research directions, core hotspots, and development frontiers in this field. This provides a reference for researchers to define research directions and conduct innovative studies, while also offering theoretical support for technological upgrading and high-quality development in the gold industry. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Data Source The Web of Science (WOS) database was used for the literature search. "Refractory gold ore" served as the core search term, with common subtypes such as carbonaceous, tellurium-bearing, and Carlin-type ores also included to avoid omitting key literature. The search query was set as: ((((ALL=(refractory gold ore*)) OR TS=(carbonaceous gold ore*)) OR TS=(tellurium-bearing gold ore*)) OR TS=(fine disseminated gold ore*)) OR TS=(carlin type gold ore*), The search period was set from January 2008 to December 2025. After excluding literature irrelevant to the topic, a total of 722 English literatures were retrieved. 2.2 Data Processing Excel 2021 was used to statistically analyze the temporal distribution of publications. NoteExpress reference management software was employed for deduplication, screening, and format conversion. VOSviewer 1.6.20 software was utilized for co-occurrence, clustering, and burst analysis of research institutions, authors, and keywords. 2.3 Technical Route Using VOSviewer software, a visual analysis was conducted on the annual publication output, national output, author output, institutional output, and keywords of the retrieved 722 English documents. Combined with an in-depth interpretation of the literature content, a technical route of "Data Visualization - Feature Extraction - Conclusion Formulation" was constructed, as shown in Fig. 1 . 3. Data Visualization 3.1 Annual Variation in Publication Output A total of 722 English literatures related to refractory gold ores published between 2008 and 2025 were included in the study. The temporal distribution characteristics of these publications were analyzed and mapped, as shown in Fig. 2 . The overall research trend on refractory gold ores showed a fluctuating increase starting since 2008, with the first peak in publications occurring in 2019, reaching its highest point in 2021 (71 publications). Since then, the overall trend has continued to show fluctuating growth. This reflects sustained attention to research in this field, with research interest steadily increasing alongside resource demands and technological development. 3.2 National Literature Output and Collaboration VOSviewer was used to generate a density clustering map of national collaboration for the English literatures on refractory gold ores, involving 62 countries in total. Ten countries had a cumulative publication output exceeding 20 documents. As shown in Fig. 3 and Table 1 , China is the leading producer in this field, with 295 publications, accounting for 40.86% of the total and ranking first globally. This is followed by Australia (149 publications, 13.91%), the United States (94 publications, 8.78%), and Canada (86 publications, 8.03%). Table 1 Top 15 countries by publication output in the field of refractory gold ores (2008–2025) Countries Documents Citations Total link Strength PEOPLES R CHINA 295 6194 21.00 AUSTRALIA 149 6751 45.31 USA 94 3842 40.87 CANADA 86 2148 24.98 RUSSIA 73 1974 27.04 BRAZIL 28 490 17.50 SOUTH AFRICA 25 289 11.56 ENGLAND 23 1023 44.48 GERMANY 21 556 26.48 FRANCE 20 353 17.65 FINLAND 17 575 26.88 JAPAN 16 486 30.38 IRAN 15 262 17.47 TURKIYE 13 41 3.15 KAZAKHSTAN 12 39 3.25 The density clustering analysis map of national distribution and collaboration (Fig. 4 ) shows that the node representing China is at the center of the network, with the largest halo and the highest thermal intensity (represented by orange-yellow color), highlighting China's prominent performance in the field of refractory gold ores. It indicates that China has the highest research output and the broadest international collaboration network, occupies an important international position, and is a dominant country in this field. The United States, Australia, and Canada form secondary cores, residing in the same core cluster as China. They are important participant countries in refractory gold ore research and constitute the core international research network in this field. From the perspective of research content clustering characteristics, a pronounced divergence in research orientation has emerged between Chinese and international scholarship. Over 70% of the research output from Chinese scholars is concentrated on beneficiation process optimization, engineering scale-up of pretreatment technologies, and industrial trials, with a primary focus on resolving practical production challenges at the mine site and a strong emphasis on engineering application. In contrast, more than 60% of the research conducted in developed countries such as Australia, the United States, and Canada is centered on fundamental theoretical investigations, including ore-forming geochemistry, lattice characteristics of gold-bearing minerals, in-situ characterization of gold occurrence states, and interfacial reaction mechanisms of minerals, reflecting a more pronounced emphasis on basic science. The disconnect between these two research streams constitutes a core impediment to technological breakthroughs in the field: Fundamental theoretical findings have not been effectively translated to guide the customized development of engineered processes, while conversely, the technical bottlenecks identified in engineering applications have failed to stimulate targeted investigations in basic theory. This has resulted in an industry-wide predicament often described as "the separation of fundamental research and applied engineering," akin to two parallel tracks that rarely intersect. Addressing this disconnect represents a central imperative for future international collaboration and cross-disciplinary synergy. 3.3 Institutional Literature Output and Collaboration Table 2 Top 10 institutions by publication output in the field of refractory gold ores (2008–2025). Affiliations Documents Citations Total link Strength CHINA UNIVERSITY OF GEOSCIENCES 99 2434 24.59 CHINESE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 77 2252 29.25 RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 60 1922 32.03 INSTITUTE OF GEOCHEMISTRY CAS 46 1354 29.43 CHINA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 43 774 18.00 UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA 38 2305 60.66 CENTRAL SOUTH UNIVERSITY 35 782 22.34 UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA 32 1512 47.25 UNIVERSITY OF CHINESE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES CAS 31 883 28.48 CHINESE ACADEMY OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES 28 710 25.36 The results of the visual analysis of publishing institutions for English literatures on refractory gold ores using VOSviewer are shown in Fig. 5 , with the top 10 institutions by publication output listed in Table 2 . It can be seen from Table 2 that the institution with the highest number of publications is China University of Geosciences (99 publications, 2434 citations, total link strength 24.59), followed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (77 publications, 2252 citations, total link strength 29.25). Among the top 10 institutions, Chinese institutions occupy 6 positions, with a cumulative publication output of 313 documents, accounting for 60.3% of the total output of the top 10 institutions (519 documents). This fully demonstrates the dominant position of Chinese institutions in this field of research. Figure 5 reveals that domestic institutions occupy an absolute core position in the collaboration network of this field, forming a collaboration pattern with China University of Geosciences as the "central hub." As the institution with the highest publication output (99 documents) and a total link strength of 24.59, China University of Geosciences is the core node of the entire collaboration network. Collaboration relationships for most domestic institutions revolve around it, including substantial collaborations with other top 10 domestic institutions such as the Chinese Academy of Sciences, China Geological Survey, and Central South University. The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) system acts as a secondary hub, demonstrating strong network connectivity. The total link strength of CAS (29.25) and the Institute of Geochemistry, CAS (29.43) are both higher than that of China University of Geosciences. They not only form close collaborations with core domestic institutions but also serve as bridges connecting other domestic research forces (such as the University of Western Australia, University of Queensland, US Geological Survey, etc.). The cumulative total link strength of the domestic institutions among the top 10 is 152.11, accounting for 45.1% of the total link strength of the top 10 institutions (337.38), reflecting the collaborative foundation among domestic core institutions. However, from the perspective of the network density, although a core radiation network has formed among domestic institutions, connections between some small and medium-sized research institutions and the core institutions are relatively weak, and a comprehensive and collaborative cooperation system has not yet been established. There is still much room for improvement in the closeness of cooperation among domestic institutions. Based on the thematic clustering of the literature, the research characteristics and specialized strengths of key domestic institutions have been further delineated, thereby providing precise guidance for cross-institutional collaborative innovation: China University of Geosciences: Its core strengths lie in the metallogenic geological setting of refractory gold deposits, process mineralogical characterization, and in-situ characterization of gold occurrence states, positioning it as a central hub for fundamental mineralogical research in this field within China. Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) System: It has established an academic stronghold in the fields of interfacial chemistry of gold-bearing minerals, mechanisms of bio-oxidation pretreatment, and fundamental theories of non-cyanide leaching systems, serving as a pivotal nexus for the translation of fundamental research into applied technologies. Central South University & Northeastern University: These institutions have achieved prominent outcomes in molecular design of flotation reagents, engineering of pressure oxidation processes, and intelligent control of beneficiation circuits, exhibiting the strongest orientation toward engineering application in the field. China Geological Survey: Its research focus is centered on national-scale resource exploration of refractory gold deposits, mineral resource potential assessment, and regional metallogenic regularity, thereby providing essential foundational data support for the advancement of the industry. 3.4 Author Literature Output and Collaboration By creating a co-citation network view of researchers in this field, the leading figures and core authors can be identified. This study used VOSviewer to create a collaboration network view of relevant researchers, with analysis results shown in Fig. 6 and Table 3 . Table 3 shows that among the top 10 authors by publication output, six are from China, with five having published more than 14 papers (inclusive 14 papers). Zhuojun Xie (19 publications) is the author with the highest output and also acts as a "hub" within his team. However, as seen in Fig. 6 , in terms of the scale of international collaboration, except for China, collaboration in other countries has not formed a large-scale system. The field overall is dominated by regional or team-internal collaboration, with large-scale international collaboration not being mainstream. Although the top 10 authors include four international scholars (Large, Ross R; Santosh, M; Cline, Jean; Hagemann, Steffen G.), and some exhibit strong single-node connectivity (e.g., Large, Ross R's total link strength of 110.38, far exceeding most Chinese scholars), these international scholars are mostly located within their own independent collaboration clusters and have not formed cross-national, cross-regional large-scale collaboration networks. Specifically, international collaboration is only manifested as sporadic linkages between a few teams. For example, cross-collaboration between international and Chinese scholars exists only in very few clusters like the red cluster. Most collaboration clusters where international scholars are located are still dominated by team collaboration within a single country, lacking effective synergy with core teams from other countries. Overall, except for China, collaboration between other countries and between other countries and China has not reached a large scale. The collaboration scale is small and coverage is narrow. International collaboration remains in a dispersed, early stage with significant potential for expansion. Table 3 Top 10 authors by publication output in the field of refractory gold ores (2008–2025). Authors Documents Citations Total link Strength Zhuojun Xie 19 388 20.42 Tan, Qinping 18 337 18.72 Large, Ross R 16 1766 110.38 Xia, Yong 16 361 22.56 hu, ruizhong 14 807 57.64 Liu, Jianzhong 14 111 7.03 Santosh, M 12 242 20.17 Liu, Jiajun 12 301 25.08 Cline, Jean 11 597 54.27 Hagemann, Steffen G. 11 146 13.27 4. Analysis of Research Status on Different Types of Refractory Gold Ores 4.1 Keyword Analysis The core of keyword co-occurrence analysis is to construct a relationship network by calculating the co-occurrence frequency of keywords in the literature of a field, thereby exploring research hotspots and evolutionary trends within the discipline. In the network map, each node represents a keyword. A larger node area indicates higher frequency and greater research enthusiasm. 4.1.1 Keyword Co-occurrence VOSviewer was used to draw the keyword co-occurrence network diagram, shown in Fig. 7 . A total of 3463 English keywords were obtained, with 48 having a frequency ≥ 24. Figure 7 shows that, through color (red/green) and node distribution, two core directions are divided: "Metallogenic Mechanism of Refractory Gold Ores" (red cluster) and "Processing and Utilization of Refractory Gold Ores" (green cluster). "Geochemistry" and "mineralization" are core keywords in the red cluster, focusing on the metallogenic background, element occurrence, fluid inclusions of refractory gold ores, while also being linked to specific regions such as the Youjiang Basin [ 18 – 20 ] and South China [ 21 , 22 ] . "Pyrite," "recovery," and "pretreatment" are core keywords in the green cluster, focusing on beneficiation processes for refractory gold ores, such as leaching, flotation, pretreatment technologies (including oxidation roasting [ 23 , 24 ] 、pressure oxidation [ 25 – 28 ] 、bio-oxidation [ 29 – 31 ] and microwave methods [ 32 – 34 ] , as well as engineering issues like mineral behavior and resource recovery efficiency. Among these, "pyrite" is at the network core and is the key node connecting the two clusters. It belongs both to the gold-hosting minerals in the metallogenic process (red cluster) and is a core reason for being "refractory" in beneficiation (green cluster): during the beneficiation stage, gold exists as microscopic or invisible gold within the crystal lattice or defects of pyrite; during beneficiation, the stable crystal structure and surface physicochemical properties of pyrite make it difficult for conventional processes to disrupt its structure and recover gold. " Pyrite and other sulfides " here refer not to ordinary sulfides but specifically to composite sulfides rich in impurities like arsenic and antimony, with arsenian pyrite being a typical representative. These sulfides are the core gold-hosting minerals in refractory gold ores. "Mineral behavior" refers to the physicochemical properties—such as dissolution, oxidation, and flotation adsorption—exhibited by these sulfides during processing under the influence of process conditions like temperature, reagents, and pressure. Their behavioral characteristics directly determine the selection and optimization direction of beneficiation processes. Figure 7 intuitively reflects the research logic in the refractory gold ore field from "metallogenic mechanism (red) to processing/utilization (green)" and also shows that "characteristics of gold-hosting minerals" are the core link connecting basic research and applied research. 4.1.2 Keyword Burst Analysis Keyword burst analysis refers to a significant increase in research focused on a particular keyword during a certain stage of a field's development, often due to policies or societal attention. As shown in Table 4 , "pyrite" ranks first with 133 occurrences, followed by "gold," "mineralization," "carlin-type," etc., indicating that the research core in this field revolves around the "occurrence state of gold in pyrite" and the "metallogenic process of Carlin-type gold deposits." The high frequency of "arsenian pyrite" and "invisible gold" further echoes the root cause of being "refractory"—gold occurring in composite sulfides like arsenian pyrite, making recovery by conventional processes difficult. Total link strength reflects the closeness of keyword associations. The total link strength of "pyrite" (451) is much higher than other keywords, indicating it is the core node connecting "geological genesis" and "technological research." This is because pyrite is one of the main gold carriers in refractory gold ores. The content of "invisible" gold is directly proportional to the arsenic content and fineness of pyrite grains [35], and it does not respond to traditional pyrite depression methods, posing challenges to current beneficiation prospects [36]. The strong correlation of geological keywords directly determines the direction and focus of technological development. For example, in response to the high frequency of "arsenian pyrite," the mineral processing field has formed a technological path centered on "destroying the structure of arsenian pyrite to release encapsulated gold," giving rise to pretreatment technologies like oxidation roasting and pressure oxidation. The core logic of these technologies is to oxidize and decompose the lattice structure of arsenian pyrite through chemical or biological means, exposing the microscopic gold, thereby improving subsequent gold recovery efficiency. The relatively lower link strength of technological keywords like "recovery" and "oxidation" suggests that while technological research is a key focus in the field, it mostly concentrates on optimizing single processes and has not yet formed comprehensive linkage innovation with geological keywords. That is, there is insufficient targeting in current research towards "customizing processing technologies based on the characteristics of gold-hosting minerals under different metallogenic backgrounds," which is also one of the core breakthrough directions for the future mineral processing field. In summary, Table 4 clearly presents the research characteristics of the refractory gold ore field: with "pyrite" and "gold" as dual cores, geological themes (mineralization, Carlin-type, geochemistry) dominate in both occurrence frequency and association strength. Technological themes revolve around the geological characteristics causing "refractoriness." Overall, a research pattern of "geological genesis analysis as the foundation, technological process development as the application" has formed. The high-frequency appearance of "arsenian pyrite and invisible gold" is precisely the key clue connecting the entire field's research logic. Table 4 Ranking of top 20 keywords by frequency. 1 keyword occurrences total link strength pyrite 133 451 2 gold 113 282 3 mineralization 104 334 4 carlin-type 83 330 5 geochemistry 76 313 6 evolution 69 197 7 origin 66 211 8 arsenian pyrite 60 240 9 orogenic gold 60 169 10 ore 59 209 11 invisible gold 58 224 12 recovery 55 160 13 oxidation 48 139 14 arsenopyrite 47 173 15 la-icp-ms 45 179 16 flotation 41 83 17 fluid inclusions 41 148 18 ores 40 101 19 tectonic evolution 39 145 20 sulfur isotopes 37 170 4.1.3 Keyword Clustering Analysis The keyword clustering density map (Fig. 8 ) clearly presents the core context and popularity distribution of research in the refractory gold ore field. "Pyrite" and "gold" are absolute centers (orange-red high-heat areas) and the absolute core research objects in the field, with all research themes revolving around these two cores. "Arsenopyrite," "invisible gold," "carlin-type," "mineralization," etc., are adjacent to the core nodes, representing high-heat research directions. Judging from the distribution on the map, geological keywords such as "carlin-type", "geochemistry", "mineralization", and "invisible gold" are concentrated in the left and central areas, focusing on basic research such as the metallogenic background and geochemical characteristics of deposits like Carlin-type. The adjacent distribution of "invisible gold" and "arsenopyrite" reveals that gold occurring in microscopic-submicroscopic forms within sulfides like pyrite is the fundamental reason making direct recovery difficult with conventional beneficiation [ 11 , 37 ] 。As the map extends to the right, keywords gradually transition to technological directions like "oxidation," "pretreatment," "recovery," and "leaching," reflecting the technological response to the "refractory" geological characteristics—exposing gold particles through oxidation, pretreatment, etc., followed by recovery via leaching processes. Additionally, keywords like "kinetics" and "dissolution" reflect in-depth discussion on process mechanisms and efficiency. In summary, research in the refractory gold ore field takes "gold occurrence characteristics" as the core link, with the pyrite-gold system as the core, forming a complete logical chain of "geological genesis analysis - technical difficulty identification - beneficiation process development." Further combining keyword analysis with literature content, the research focus of different types of refractory gold ores can be summarized. 4.2 Arsenical Sulfide Type Arsenical sulfide-type gold deposits are formed in mesothermal to hypothermal, mesozonal to hypozonal environments. Gold predominantly occurs as encapsulated gold or refractory lattice-bound gold hosted within pyrite and arsenopyrite. The ores typically exhibit elevated arsenic contents and dense sulfide textures, which collectively render the gold inaccessible to conventional exposure and subsequent leaching. Kravtsova, R. G. et al. [ 38 ] analyzed the Natalka gold deposit in northeastern Russia and found that most microscopic-submicroscopic gold is enriched in arsenopyrite and pyrite, accounting for 20% of the total gold in the ore. For this specific ore type, existing research is primarily centered on the destruction of the sulfide encapsulation structure. Typical pretreatment technologies employed for this purpose include oxidative roasting, pressure oxidation, and bio-oxidation. Among these, bio-oxidation has garnered considerable attention owing to its distinct advantages, notably mild reaction conditions and a comparatively lower environmental burden. M.Z. Mubarok et al. [ 39 ] used Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans for bio-oxidative pretreatment of a refractory gold concentrate, followed by cyanidation at neutral pH for gold recovery. Experimental results showed that the highest gold recovery for the high-sulfur concentrate was 91.4%, 18% higher than the direct cyanidation extraction rate of the untreated concentrate.This indicates that for arsenical sulfide-type refractory gold ores, the critical step lies in the destruction of the encapsulation structure through pretreatment, thereby enabling the liberation of finely disseminated gold, which can subsequently be combined with green leaching technologies. 4.3 Carlin-Type (Fine-Disseminated) Gold Ores Carlin-type (fine-disseminated) gold ores are of epithermal origin. Gold occurs as nanometer-sized or lattice gold disseminated in quartz and carbonate minerals, with fine particle size and uniform distribution. Conventional grinding is difficult to achieve monomer dissociation. The geological genesis of refractory gold ores focuses on the metallogenic mechanism of gold ores and the occurrence state of microgold. Licheng Ma et al. [ 40 ] revealed that the gold particles in Carlin-type gold ores are finely distributed, and gold occurs in sulfides such as pyrite in the form of micro-submicroscopic particles. The technical difficulty in processing Carlin-type gold ores lies in how to release the microgold encapsulated in pyrite and arsenopyrite. In response to this specific challenge, a combined process flowsheet consisting of "fine grinding — flotation concentration — pretreatment — intensified leaching" has been progressively established for Carlin-type gold ores. Within this framework, technologies such as pressure oxidation, roasting, and non-cyanide leaching have garnered extensive research interest. Zhang, L et al. [ 41 ] proposed a new pressure oxidation, sodium jarosite decomposition pretreatment and non-cyanide extraction process for a typical Carlin-type gold concentrate in Guizhou. The results show that the acid pressure oxidation pretreatment process can efficiently realize the mineral phase reconstruction of Carlin-type gold ores. After acid pressure oxidation pretreatment, the leaching efficiency of gold in the oxygen pressure leaching residue can reach 81.8%, achieving efficient and clean gold extraction.It is thus evident that the technical crux for Carlin-type gold ores resides in the coupling of mineral phase transformation with the leaching process, so as to achieve the efficient liberation and clean extraction of ultrafine gold particles. 4.4 Carbonaceous Type Gold Ores Carbonaceous gold ores are refractory ores containing organic carbon, occurring in black (or carbonaceous) rock series and sedimentary rock series. They typically contain fine-grained gold encapsulated within the crystals of iron sulfide minerals like pyrite, pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite. Carbonaceous matter has strong adsorption ((the "gold robbing" effect), presenting a dual refractory challenge.The principal technical challenge associated with this ore type lies in the tendency of dissolved gold to be re-adsorbed by carbonaceous constituents during the leaching process, thereby significantly diminishing the ultimate gold recovery. Targeting the "gold robbing effect", carbonaceous gold ores focus on carbon-suppressing pretreatment and decarburization processes, with oxidative roasting as the main pretreatment method. Jin, JP et al. [ 42 ] carried out oxidative roasting on carbonaceous fine-grained gold ores from Shaanxi Province, China. The results show that during the oxidative roasting process, carbonaceous substances (organic carbon and graphite carbon) and pyrite are completely decomposed at 600°C, the carbonaceous components are burned, and pyrite is oxidized to hematite. With the increase of roasting temperature from 400°C to 650°C, the gold leaching rate increases from 82.33% to 91.28%.This indicates that by effectively attenuating or eliminating the preg-robbing capacity of carbonaceous matter, the subsequent gold extraction performance can be significantly enhanced. The critical imperative for future processing of such ores lies in balancing decarburization efficiency, energy consumption control, and environmental impact, with the overarching goal of achieving green and high-efficiency pretreatment. 4.5 Polymetallic Associated Type Gold Ores (containing Te, Cu, Pb, etc.) Polymetallic associated type gold ores form in multi-stage hydrothermal activity environments. Gold is often associated with tellurides, copper-lead-zinc sulfides, occurring as solid solutions or inclusions within polymetallic minerals. Competitive adsorption and co-precipitation between metals can occur during beneficiation. The Yangzhaiyu gold deposit in the Xiaoqinling district, southern margin of the North China Craton, is a Mesozoic vein-type deposit hosted in Archean amphibolite-facies gneiss of the Taihua Group. The main ore-bearing rocks are gold-bearing quartz veins. Pyrite is the main sulfide, classified into three generations (G1, G2, G3): G1 has extremely low gold content, G2 contains a small amount of visible gold and invisible gold, and G3 has the highest content of invisible gold. Gold is mainly positively correlated with Te and Ag, predominantly occurring as gold-bearing telluride minerals, whereas the role of As is notably insignificant. [ 43 ] For this ore type, ongoing research has progressively converged upon a technical framework characterized by "preferential separation — staged treatment — synergistic leaching." Specifically, this entails the initial separation and concentration of associated valuable metals, followed by staged processing tailored to the distinct mineralogical characteristics of different components, ultimately enabling the comprehensive recovery of both the primary gold and associated metals.Lorenzo-Tallafigo J. et al. [ 44 ] used Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans to treat black iron ore for recovering lead, gold, and silver. After bio-oxidative pretreatment, lead recovery increased to 96.4%, gold recovery improved from 17.3% to 86.4%, and the refractoriness of the sulfide ore rich in lead, nitrogen, and gold was removed.This finding underscores that the crux for polymetallic co-associated refractory gold ores does not reside in the isolated extraction of gold alone, but rather in the construction of a beneficiation-metallurgy synergistic flowsheet predicated upon mineralogical differentiation and guided by the principle of comprehensive resource utilization. 5. Discussion 5.1 General Understanding of Refractory Gold Ore Research A comprehensive synthesis of publication trends, collaboration networks, and keyword analysis reveals that research on refractory gold ores has undergone a marked evolution from an earlier phase of relatively dispersed investigations centered on ore genesis, gold-bearing minerals, and conventional oxidation processes, toward a current integrated research stage wherein pretreatment technologies, mineral behavior regulation, and green gold extraction constitute the core thematic pillars. From the perspective of knowledge structure, ore-forming geochemistry and mineralogical understanding remain the foundational underpinnings of the field, while the trajectory of process technology development is unequivocally oriented toward higher efficiency, lower energy consumption, and reduced environmental footprint. The degree of coupling between fundamental research and engineering practice is increasingly recognized as a critical indicator of the field's innovative capacity. 5.2 Major Issues in Current Research Despite the sustained increase in research intensity within this field in recent years, several noteworthy issues persist. First, from the perspective of collaboration networks, although domestic research capacity occupies a dominant position, a high-level collaborative innovation network has yet to be fully established, and the depth of inter-institutional cooperation as well as the degree of internationalization remain insufficient. Second, in terms of keyword interrelationships, the linkage between fundamental geological research and process technology development still requires strengthening, and investigations into tailored process design that specifically address diverse metallogenic settings and gold occurrence characteristics remain relatively inadequate. Third, while green pretreatment technologies have become a prominent research focus, they continue to face pragmatic challenges in areas such as scale-up application, process stability, cost control, and environmental assessment. 5.3 Future Development Directions Future research on refractory gold ores should be advanced with emphasis on the following priority areas: First, efforts should be directed toward strengthening the interdisciplinary integration of process mineralogy, geochemistry, and process metallurgy, with the objective of establishing a systematic research paradigm encompassing "mineral occurrence characteristics — process response mechanisms — technical route optimization." Second, collaborative optimization should be pursued around green technologies such as bio-oxidation, microwave-assisted oxidation, pressure oxidation, and alternative lixiviants, with a view toward overcoming the bottlenecks constraining large-scale industrial application. Third, the cross-validation of multi-source bibliometric tools should be enhanced. The combined application of software such as CiteSpace, Bibliometrix, and VOSviewer is recommended to improve the robustness and reliability of research conclusions derived from bibliometric analyses. Fourth, greater attention should be accorded to the content analysis of highly cited literature, core patents, and industrial case studies, so as to amplify the practical relevance and guidance that research findings offer to industrial operations. Fifth, it is imperative to deepen international collaboration and cross-institutional synergy, thereby propelling the development of refractory gold ore beneficiation and gold extraction technologies toward the overarching goals of higher efficiency, reduced environmental burden, and enhanced comprehensive resource utilization capability. 6. Conclusions Based on 722 English-language documents from the Web of Science (WOS) database between 2008 and 2025, this study employed bibliometric methods combined with VOSviewer to visually analyze characteristics such as annual publication output, national output, author output, institutional output, and keywords. It systematically analyzed the research status, hotspot characteristics, and developmental context in the field of refractory gold ores, leading to the following conclusions: Research on refractory gold ore processing shows an overall steady growth trend. The international research network is centered on China, Australia, and the United States. China holds a dominant position in terms of publication output and the coverage of international collaboration networks. Domestic research is primarily led by universities and research institutes, but there is still room for improvement in the closeness of collaboration between institutions and scholars, as well as the depth of international cooperation. Keyword analysis indicates that research hotspots are predominantly concentrated in the areas of mineralogy, pretreatment technologies, and intensified leaching processes. Pyrite and arsenian pyrite not only constitute the principal mineral carriers central to the study of refractory gold ores, but also serve as the critical nexus linking fundamental geological investigations with engineering technology research. The hotspot research results and technical routes of different types of refractory gold ores have their own focuses: arsenic-bearing sulfide gold ores take "oxidative pretreatment + non-cyanide leaching" as the core technical route to overcome the problem of sulfide encapsulation; Carlin-type gold ores have formed a technical system of "fine grinding - flotation enrichment - biological/microwave pretreatment - efficient leaching" to solve the problem of dissociation and recovery of fine-grained gold; carbonaceous gold ores focus on "carbon suppression/decarburization + targeted leaching" to crack the "gold robbing" effect; polymetallic symbiotic gold ores adopt the route of "priority separation - staged treatment - synergistic leaching" to realize the comprehensive recovery of gold and associated metals. The research context presents a development trend from traditional cyanidation processes to green technologies. In recent years, pretreatment technologies such as oxidative roasting, pressure oxidation, biooxidation, and microwave methods have gradually become emerging hotspots. In the future, it is necessary to further strengthen the research and development and application of green pretreatment technologies, focusing on breaking the scale-up application bottlenecks of low-pollution, low-energy-consumption technologies like bio-oxidation and microwave oxidation. At the research method level, multiple bibliometric tools such as CiteSpace and Bibliometrix can be combined to carry out multi-dimensional and multi-level cross-validation analysis to improve the reliability and comprehensiveness of research conclusions; content analysis methods can be introduced to conduct in-depth interpretation of highly cited literatures and core patents in the field to provide more comprehensive support for technological innovation; international cooperation and cross-institutional collaboration should be deepened to promote the continuous upgrading of refractory gold ore processing technologies and the high-quality development of the industry. Declarations Declaration of Competing Interes t The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Funding This study was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No. 52304129). Author Contribution MaoYang:Writing - original draft, Visualization,Software, Methodology, Investigation. WenzhiDai:review & editing, Investigation,Conceptualization.JianheWan:Investigation Data Availability The datasets used and analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Ghobashy, M. M. et al. Gold nanoparticles in microelectronics advancements and biomedical applications[J] 301 (MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING B-ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL SOLID-STATE MATERIALS, 2024). Wekalao, J. et al. Graphene and Gold Metasurface-Based Terahertz Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor for Explosive Detection[J]. PLASMONICS 19 (6), 3131–3145 (2024). He, T. et al. Manganese-Dioxide-Coating-Instructed Plasmonic Modulation of Gold Nanorods for Activatable Duplex-Imaging-Guided NIR-II Photothermal-Chemodynamic Therapy[J]. Adv. Mater. , 33 (13). (2021). Wekalao, J. et al. 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W. et al. A systematic review of gold extraction: Fundamentals, advancements, and challenges toward alternative lixiviants[J] 440 (JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS, 2022). van Eck, N. J. & Waltman, L. Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping[J]. SCIENTOMETRICS 84 (2), 523–538 (2010). Gao, W. et al. U-Pb Dating on Hydrothermal Rutile and Monazite from the Badu Gold Deposit Supports an Early Cretaceous Age for Carlin-Type Gold Mineralization in the Youjiang Basin, Southwestern China[J]. Econ. Geol. 116 (6), 1355–1385 (2021). Li, J. W. et al. Genesis of gold and antimony deposits in the Youjiang metallogenic province, SW China: Evidence from in situ oxygen isotopic and trace element compositions of quartz[J] 116 (ORE GEOLOGY REVIEWS, 2020). Zhuo, Y. Z. et al. Trace elements and C-O isotopes of calcite from Carlin-type gold deposits in the Youjiang Basin, SW China: Constraints on ore-forming fluid compositions and sources[J] 113 (ORE GEOLOGY REVIEWS, 2019). Li, W. et al. Complementary Textural, Trace Element, and Isotopic Analyses of Sulfides Constrain Ore-Forming Processes for the Slate-Hosted Yuhengtang Au Deposit, South China[J]. Econ. Geol. 116 (8), 1825–1848 (2021). Xu, B. et al. Late Cretaceous granites from the giant Dulong Sn-polymetallic ore district in Yunnan Province, South China: Geochronology, geochemistry, mineral chemistry and Nd-Hf isotopic compositions[J]. LITHOS , 21854–21872. (2015). Ma, L. C. et al. Mineral Phase Evolution during Oxidation Roasting Pretreatment of Typical Carlin Gold Ore and Effects on Gold Leaching Efficiency[J]. MINERALS , 13 (4). (2023). Qin, H. et al. Recovery of gold from sulfide refractory gold ore: Oxidation roasting pretreatment and gold extraction[J]. Miner. Eng. , 164. (2021). Kim, C. S. et al. Thermodynamic Behavior of Pyrite and Arsenopyrite in Preoxidation for Chlorination Leaching of Refractory Gold Concentrate[J]. JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY, 2024. (2024). Tanaka, M. et al. Biooxidation of Gold-, Silver, and Antimony- Bearing Highly Refractory Polymetallic Sulfide Concentrates, and its Comparison with Abiotic Pretreatment Techniques[J]. Geomicrobiol J. 32 (6), 538–548 (2015). Wang, S., Wu, J. J. & Jiao, F. Pretreatment and Extraction of Gold from Refractory Gold Ore in Acidic Conditions[J]. MINERALS , 15 (4). (2025). Zhang, X. W. et al. Unraveling the dissociation mechanism of gold in carbonaceous gold ore during vacuum roasting pretreatment: Effect of pyrite[J]. Miner. Eng. , 184. (2022). Konadu, K. T. et al. Sequential pretreatment of double refractory gold ore (DRGO) with a thermophilic iron oxidizing archeaon and fungal crude enzymes[J]. Miner. Eng. , 13886–13894. (2019). Sakai, R. et al. Laccase-mediator system for enzymatic degradation of carbonaceous matter in the sequential pretreatment of double refractory gold ore from Syama mine. Mali[J] HYDROMETALLURGY , 212. (2022). Tanaka, M. et al. Biooxidation of Gold-, Silver, and Antimony- Bearing Highly Refractory Polymetallic Sulfide Concentrates, and its Comparison with Abiotic Pretreatment Techniques[J]. Geomicrobiol J. 32 (6), 538–548 (2015). Cho, K. et al. Recovery of Gold from the Refractory Gold Concentrate Using Microwave Assisted Leaching[J]. METALS , 10 (5). (2020). Seflek, C. & Bayat, O. Microwave-Assisted Grinding of Bolkardag (Nigde, Turkey) Gold Ore and Enhanced Cyanide Leachability[J] Vol. 115 (METALLURGICAL RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY, 2018). 5. Yogurtcuoglu, E. Investigation of the effect of cyanidation after microwave roasting treatment on refractory gold/silver ores by characterization studies[J] Vol. 59 (PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF MINERAL PROCESSING, 2023). 1. Rogozhnikov, D. A. et al. Leaching Kinetics of Sulfides from Refractory Gold Concentrates by Nitric Acid[J]. METALS , 9 (4). (2019). Jefferson, M. et al. Effect of pyrite textures and composition on flotation performance: A review[J]. Miner. Eng. , 201. (2023). Sousa, R. et al. A systematic review of sustainable gold extraction from raw ores using alternative leaching reagents[J] 9 (EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES AND SOCIETY, 2022). Kravtsova, R. G. et al. Distribution Features and Species of Finely Dispersed and Invisible Gold in Arsenopyrite and Pyrite from the Natalka Deposit (Northeastern Russia)[J] Vol. 67, 143–177 (GEOLOGY OF ORE DEPOSITS, 2025). 2. Mubarok, M. Z. et al. Improving gold recovery from refractory gold ores through biooxidation using iron-sulfur-oxidizing/sulfur-oxidizing mixotrophic bacteria[J]. HYDROMETALLURGY , 16869–16875. (2017). Ma, L. C. et al. Mineral Phase Evolution during Oxidation Roasting Pretreatment of Typical Carlin Gold Ore and Effects on Gold Leaching Efficiency[J]. MINERALS , 13 (4). (2023). Zhang, L. et al. Extraction of gold from typical Carlin gold concentrate by pressure oxidation pretreatment-Sodium jarosite decomposition and polysulfide leaching[J]. HYDROMETALLURGY , 208. (2022). Jin, J. et al. Mineral phase and structure changes during roasting of fine-grained carbonaceous gold ores and their effects on gold leaching efficiency[J]. Chin. J. Chem. Eng. 27 (05), 1184–1190 (2019). Bi, S. J. et al. Gold distribution in As-deficient pyrite and telluride mineralogy of the Yangzhaiyu gold deposit, Xiaoqinling district, southern North China craton[J]. Miner. Deposita . 46 (8), 925–941 (2011). Lorenzo-Tallafigo, J. et al. An alternative approach to recover lead, silver and gold from black gossan (polymetallic ore). Study of biological oxidation and lead recovery stages[J]. J. Clean. Prod. , 207510–207521. (2018). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9426166","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":633542666,"identity":"005c2657-d1e2-4411-9b4e-b72039af7f02","order_by":0,"name":"Mao Yang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Guizhou University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mao","middleName":"","lastName":"Yang","suffix":""},{"id":633542667,"identity":"fa568958-deb5-4ce9-9cc4-8ba4c31f1d52","order_by":1,"name":"Jianhe Wan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Guizhou 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11:23:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9426166/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9426166/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108443676,"identity":"42e0845a-4bee-4c8c-9e9a-8a65885eaf2e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 17:20:25","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":735260,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTechnical route diagram\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9426166/v1/5d25b0ad174bbfa1114410ed.png"},{"id":108493497,"identity":"e7f1a380-37cf-4123-8a14-e1e2132ed9dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 10:00:43","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16914,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAnnual publication trend on refractory gold ores from 2008 to 2025.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9426166/v1/b654f7755bad7b099818f1dd.png"},{"id":108443677,"identity":"04ec3815-6485-46c6-9dca-7a151ee197cb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 17:20:25","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":46998,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNational publication output chart.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9426166/v1/665c089235246a80677cd58b.png"},{"id":108443679,"identity":"b4350c06-3c75-4913-bd81-6d34fe1b6bf8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 17:20:25","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":202808,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDensity clustering analysis of national distribution and collaboration.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9426166/v1/6251516d7fac0458c9d78672.png"},{"id":108493785,"identity":"9cd5cb1d-c846-4946-9779-8649dccf99f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 10:01:41","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":173047,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInstitutional collaboration relationship network diagram.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9426166/v1/07a1d42487b4e7a1de0416d8.png"},{"id":108443681,"identity":"6a94ea2d-dbd3-4e30-b806-3186a982ace0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 17:20:25","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":163345,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAuthor collaboration relationship network diagram.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9426166/v1/83b26c40dc4783fdf15322f8.png"},{"id":108443682,"identity":"9851dfa8-f06e-4a46-8243-3759ca0d68e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 17:20:25","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":462737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eKeyword network co-occurrence diagram.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9426166/v1/ab2d63b5b88287023f0b1c66.png"},{"id":108493493,"identity":"c8e27d85-09d7-445b-97d3-29e983196a3b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 10:00:42","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":357142,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eKeyword clustering density map\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9426166/v1/dbe575cd8d6fe4cc1b3a5d62.png"},{"id":108803737,"identity":"eb3e7caa-3091-40f5-861c-bbc1937fcd6a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:05:11","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2648557,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9426166/v1/f558d3ed-db0f-4b47-821e-47923b06738a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Visualization Analysis of Research Status on Refractory Gold Ore Processing Based on VOSviewer","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGold (Au) is a significant strategic resource, valued not only for its monetary worth but also for its extensive applications in the electronics industry \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e、communication equipment \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e、and healthcare \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e among other fields. As the world's largest gold producer, China possesses abundant gold resources. However, with prolonged high-intensity exploitation, readily treatable and high-grade gold resources amenable to conventional beneficiation and metallurgy have progressively diminished, rendering refractory gold ores the predominant target for current exploitation and utilization.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e。Refractory gold ores primarily refer to complex ores where gold exists in the form of fine or sub-microscopic particles within sulfide minerals like pyrite and arsenopyrite \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, or is bound by the \"gold robbing\" effect of carbonaceous and clay minerals, resulting in a gold recovery rate of less than 80% by conventional cyanidation \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e。According to differences in process mineralogical characteristics and mineral occurrence states, they can be classified into fine disseminated gold ores, carbonaceous gold ores, and complex polymetallic sulfide gold ores, etc.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e。Existing studies indicate that more than one-third of the world's gold resources are classified as refractory gold ores, yet their degree of exploitation and utilization remains relatively low. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e。Such ores are typically characterized by dense sulfide encapsulation, the \"preg-robbing\" effect induced by carbonaceous matter, and fine to ultrafine dissemination. These intrinsic attributes render conventional beneficiation and leaching processes ineffective for achieving high recovery rates, leading not only to substantial resource wastage but also to potentially elevated environmental burdens, thereby impeding the green and sustainable development of the gold industry.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e。Therefore, how to develop and utilize refractory gold ores has become a current research hotspot. In recent years, scholars worldwide have conducted extensive research on refractory gold ore beneficiation, accumulating a wealth of theoretical and technological knowledge. However, the research directions in this field are diverse, and research subjects are scattered, making it difficult for traditional literature reviews to systematically outline the research context, accurately identify core hotspots, and predict development trends. Bibliometrics combined with visualization analysis tools offers an effective approach to address this issue. Among these tools, VOSviewer, with its powerful network construction and visualization capabilities, can reveal the intrinsic knowledge structure, research hotspot clusters, academic collaboration patterns, and development trends within a field through correlation analysis of units such as authors, institutions, keywords, and references in massive literature data. It has been widely applied in analyzing research status across various disciplines\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e。\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on this, this study utilizes the Web of Science (WOS) core collection database as the data foundation and employs VOSviewer software for bibliometric analysis and visualization of research literature in the field of refractory gold ore processing. By analyzing characteristics such as the temporal evolution, spatial distribution, collaboration networks, and keyword clustering characteristics of relevant literature, this research aims to systematically clarify the research directions, core hotspots, and development frontiers in this field. This provides a reference for researchers to define research directions and conduct innovative studies, while also offering theoretical support for technological upgrading and high-quality development in the gold industry.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Data Source\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Web of Science (WOS) database was used for the literature search. \"Refractory gold ore\" served as the core search term, with common subtypes such as carbonaceous, tellurium-bearing, and Carlin-type ores also included to avoid omitting key literature. The search query was set as: ((((ALL=(refractory gold ore*)) OR TS=(carbonaceous gold ore*)) OR TS=(tellurium-bearing gold ore*)) OR TS=(fine disseminated gold ore*)) OR TS=(carlin type gold ore*), The search period was set from January 2008 to December 2025. After excluding literature irrelevant to the topic, a total of 722 English literatures were retrieved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Data Processing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcel 2021 was used to statistically analyze the temporal distribution of publications. NoteExpress reference management software was employed for deduplication, screening, and format conversion. VOSviewer 1.6.20 software was utilized for co-occurrence, clustering, and burst analysis of research institutions, authors, and keywords.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Technical Route\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing VOSviewer software, a visual analysis was conducted on the annual publication output, national output, author output, institutional output, and keywords of the retrieved 722 English documents. Combined with an in-depth interpretation of the literature content, a technical route of \"Data Visualization - Feature Extraction - Conclusion Formulation\" was constructed, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Data Visualization","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Annual Variation in Publication Output\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 722 English literatures related to refractory gold ores published between 2008 and 2025 were included in the study. The temporal distribution characteristics of these publications were analyzed and mapped, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The overall research trend on refractory gold ores showed a fluctuating increase starting since 2008, with the first peak in publications occurring in 2019, reaching its highest point in 2021 (71 publications). Since then, the overall trend has continued to show fluctuating growth. This reflects sustained attention to research in this field, with research interest steadily increasing alongside resource demands and technological development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 National Literature Output and Collaboration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eVOSviewer was used to generate a density clustering map of national collaboration for the English literatures on refractory gold ores, involving 62 countries in total. Ten countries had a cumulative publication output exceeding 20 documents. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, China is the leading producer in this field, with 295 publications, accounting for 40.86% of the total and ranking first globally. This is followed by Australia (149 publications, 13.91%), the United States (94 publications, 8.78%), and Canada (86 publications, 8.03%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTop 15 countries by publication output in the field of refractory gold ores (2008\u0026ndash;2025)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCountries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDocuments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCitations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal link Strength\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePEOPLES R CHINA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e295\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6194\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAUSTRALIA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e149\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6751\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3842\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCANADA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRUSSIA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1974\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBRAZIL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOUTH AFRICA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eENGLAND\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGERMANY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e556\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFRANCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e353\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFINLAND\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e575\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJAPAN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e486\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIRAN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e262\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTURKIYE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKAZAKHSTAN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe density clustering analysis map of national distribution and collaboration (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) shows that the node representing China is at the center of the network, with the largest halo and the highest thermal intensity (represented by orange-yellow color), highlighting China's prominent performance in the field of refractory gold ores. It indicates that China has the highest research output and the broadest international collaboration network, occupies an important international position, and is a dominant country in this field. The United States, Australia, and Canada form secondary cores, residing in the same core cluster as China. They are important participant countries in refractory gold ore research and constitute the core international research network in this field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the perspective of research content clustering characteristics, a pronounced divergence in research orientation has emerged between Chinese and international scholarship. Over 70% of the research output from Chinese scholars is concentrated on beneficiation process optimization, engineering scale-up of pretreatment technologies, and industrial trials, with a primary focus on resolving practical production challenges at the mine site and a strong emphasis on engineering application. In contrast, more than 60% of the research conducted in developed countries such as Australia, the United States, and Canada is centered on fundamental theoretical investigations, including ore-forming geochemistry, lattice characteristics of gold-bearing minerals, in-situ characterization of gold occurrence states, and interfacial reaction mechanisms of minerals, reflecting a more pronounced emphasis on basic science.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe disconnect between these two research streams constitutes a core impediment to technological breakthroughs in the field: Fundamental theoretical findings have not been effectively translated to guide the customized development of engineered processes, while conversely, the technical bottlenecks identified in engineering applications have failed to stimulate targeted investigations in basic theory. This has resulted in an industry-wide predicament often described as \"the separation of fundamental research and applied engineering,\" akin to two parallel tracks that rarely intersect. Addressing this disconnect represents a central imperative for future international collaboration and cross-disciplinary synergy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Institutional Literature Output and Collaboration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTop 10 institutions by publication output in the field of refractory gold ores (2008\u0026ndash;2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffiliations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDocuments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCitations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal link Strength\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCHINA UNIVERSITY OF GEOSCIENCES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2434\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCHINESE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1922\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINSTITUTE OF GEOCHEMISTRY CAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1354\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCHINA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e774\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCENTRAL SOUTH UNIVERSITY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e782\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1512\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUNIVERSITY OF CHINESE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES CAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e883\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCHINESE ACADEMY OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e710\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the visual analysis of publishing institutions for English literatures on refractory gold ores using VOSviewer are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, with the top 10 institutions by publication output listed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. It can be seen from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e that the institution with the highest number of publications is China University of Geosciences (99 publications, 2434 citations, total link strength 24.59), followed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (77 publications, 2252 citations, total link strength 29.25). Among the top 10 institutions, Chinese institutions occupy 6 positions, with a cumulative publication output of 313 documents, accounting for 60.3% of the total output of the top 10 institutions (519 documents). This fully demonstrates the dominant position of Chinese institutions in this field of research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e reveals that domestic institutions occupy an absolute core position in the collaboration network of this field, forming a collaboration pattern with China University of Geosciences as the \"central hub.\" As the institution with the highest publication output (99 documents) and a total link strength of 24.59, China University of Geosciences is the core node of the entire collaboration network. Collaboration relationships for most domestic institutions revolve around it, including substantial collaborations with other top 10 domestic institutions such as the Chinese Academy of Sciences, China Geological Survey, and Central South University.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) system acts as a secondary hub, demonstrating strong network connectivity. The total link strength of CAS (29.25) and the Institute of Geochemistry, CAS (29.43) are both higher than that of China University of Geosciences. They not only form close collaborations with core domestic institutions but also serve as bridges connecting other domestic research forces (such as the University of Western Australia, University of Queensland, US Geological Survey, etc.). The cumulative total link strength of the domestic institutions among the top 10 is 152.11, accounting for 45.1% of the total link strength of the top 10 institutions (337.38), reflecting the collaborative foundation among domestic core institutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, from the perspective of the network density, although a core radiation network has formed among domestic institutions, connections between some small and medium-sized research institutions and the core institutions are relatively weak, and a comprehensive and collaborative cooperation system has not yet been established. There is still much room for improvement in the closeness of cooperation among domestic institutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the thematic clustering of the literature, the research characteristics and specialized strengths of key domestic institutions have been further delineated, thereby providing precise guidance for cross-institutional collaborative innovation:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina University of Geosciences: Its core strengths lie in the metallogenic geological setting of refractory gold deposits, process mineralogical characterization, and in-situ characterization of gold occurrence states, positioning it as a central hub for fundamental mineralogical research in this field within China.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) System: It has established an academic stronghold in the fields of interfacial chemistry of gold-bearing minerals, mechanisms of bio-oxidation pretreatment, and fundamental theories of non-cyanide leaching systems, serving as a pivotal nexus for the translation of fundamental research into applied technologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentral South University \u0026amp; Northeastern University: These institutions have achieved prominent outcomes in molecular design of flotation reagents, engineering of pressure oxidation processes, and intelligent control of beneficiation circuits, exhibiting the strongest orientation toward engineering application in the field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina Geological Survey: Its research focus is centered on national-scale resource exploration of refractory gold deposits, mineral resource potential assessment, and regional metallogenic regularity, thereby providing essential foundational data support for the advancement of the industry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Author Literature Output and Collaboration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy creating a co-citation network view of researchers in this field, the leading figures and core authors can be identified. This study used VOSviewer to create a collaboration network view of relevant researchers, with analysis results shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows that among the top 10 authors by publication output, six are from China, with five having published more than 14 papers (inclusive 14 papers). Zhuojun Xie (19 publications) is the author with the highest output and also acts as a \"hub\" within his team. However, as seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, in terms of the scale of international collaboration, except for China, collaboration in other countries has not formed a large-scale system. The field overall is dominated by regional or team-internal collaboration, with large-scale international collaboration not being mainstream. Although the top 10 authors include four international scholars (Large, Ross R; Santosh, M; Cline, Jean; Hagemann, Steffen G.), and some exhibit strong single-node connectivity (e.g., Large, Ross R's total link strength of 110.38, far exceeding most Chinese scholars), these international scholars are mostly located within their own independent collaboration clusters and have not formed cross-national, cross-regional large-scale collaboration networks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecifically, international collaboration is only manifested as sporadic linkages between a few teams. For example, cross-collaboration between international and Chinese scholars exists only in very few clusters like the red cluster. Most collaboration clusters where international scholars are located are still dominated by team collaboration within a single country, lacking effective synergy with core teams from other countries. Overall, except for China, collaboration between other countries and between other countries and China has not reached a large scale. The collaboration scale is small and coverage is narrow. International collaboration remains in a dispersed, early stage with significant potential for expansion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTop 10 authors by publication output in the field of refractory gold ores (2008\u0026ndash;2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDocuments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCitations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal link Strength\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZhuojun Xie\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e388\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTan, Qinping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e337\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge, Ross R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1766\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eXia, Yong\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehu, ruizhong\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e807\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu, Jianzhong\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSantosh, M\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e242\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu, Jiajun\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e301\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCline, Jean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e597\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHagemann, Steffen G.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Analysis of Research Status on Different Types of Refractory Gold Ores","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e4.1 Keyword Analysis\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe core of keyword co-occurrence analysis is to construct a relationship network by calculating the co-occurrence frequency of keywords in the literature of a field, thereby exploring research hotspots and evolutionary trends within the discipline. In the network map, each node represents a keyword. A larger node area indicates higher frequency and greater research enthusiasm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.1.1 Keyword Co-occurrence\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003eVOSviewer was used to draw the keyword co-occurrence network diagram, shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. A total of 3463 English keywords were obtained, with 48 having a frequency\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;24. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows that, through color (red/green) and node distribution, two core directions are divided: \"Metallogenic Mechanism of Refractory Gold Ores\" (red cluster) and \"Processing and Utilization of Refractory Gold Ores\" (green cluster). \"Geochemistry\" and \"mineralization\" are core keywords in the red cluster, focusing on the metallogenic background, element occurrence, fluid inclusions of refractory gold ores, while also being linked to specific regions such as the Youjiang Basin \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR19\" citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e and South China \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. \"Pyrite,\" \"recovery,\" and \"pretreatment\" are core keywords in the green cluster, focusing on beneficiation processes for refractory gold ores, such as leaching, flotation, pretreatment technologies (including oxidation roasting \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e、pressure oxidation \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26 CR27\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e、bio-oxidation \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR30\" citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e and microwave methods \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR33\" citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, as well as engineering issues like mineral behavior and resource recovery efficiency. Among these, \"pyrite\" is at the network core and is the key node connecting the two clusters. It belongs both to the gold-hosting minerals in the metallogenic process (red cluster) and is a core reason for being \"refractory\" in beneficiation (green cluster): during the beneficiation stage, gold exists as microscopic or invisible gold within the crystal lattice or defects of pyrite; during beneficiation, the stable crystal structure and surface physicochemical properties of pyrite make it difficult for conventional processes to disrupt its structure and recover gold. \" Pyrite and other sulfides \" here refer not to ordinary sulfides but specifically to composite sulfides rich in impurities like arsenic and antimony, with arsenian pyrite being a typical representative. These sulfides are the core gold-hosting minerals in refractory gold ores. \"Mineral behavior\" refers to the physicochemical properties\u0026mdash;such as dissolution, oxidation, and flotation adsorption\u0026mdash;exhibited by these sulfides during processing under the influence of process conditions like temperature, reagents, and pressure. Their behavioral characteristics directly determine the selection and optimization direction of beneficiation processes. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e intuitively reflects the research logic in the refractory gold ore field from \"metallogenic mechanism (red) to processing/utilization (green)\" and also shows that \"characteristics of gold-hosting minerals\" are the core link connecting basic research and applied research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.1.2 Keyword Burst Analysis\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003eKeyword burst analysis refers to a significant increase in research focused on a particular keyword during a certain stage of a field's development, often due to policies or societal attention. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \"pyrite\" ranks first with 133 occurrences, followed by \"gold,\" \"mineralization,\" \"carlin-type,\" etc., indicating that the research core in this field revolves around the \"occurrence state of gold in pyrite\" and the \"metallogenic process of Carlin-type gold deposits.\" The high frequency of \"arsenian pyrite\" and \"invisible gold\" further echoes the root cause of being \"refractory\"\u0026mdash;gold occurring in composite sulfides like arsenian pyrite, making recovery by conventional processes difficult.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal link strength reflects the closeness of keyword associations. The total link strength of \"pyrite\" (451) is much higher than other keywords, indicating it is the core node connecting \"geological genesis\" and \"technological research.\" This is because pyrite is one of the main gold carriers in refractory gold ores. The content of \"invisible\" gold is directly proportional to the arsenic content and fineness of pyrite grains [35], and it does not respond to traditional pyrite depression methods, posing challenges to current beneficiation prospects [36]. The strong correlation of geological keywords directly determines the direction and focus of technological development. For example, in response to the high frequency of \"arsenian pyrite,\" the mineral processing field has formed a technological path centered on \"destroying the structure of arsenian pyrite to release encapsulated gold,\" giving rise to pretreatment technologies like oxidation roasting and pressure oxidation. The core logic of these technologies is to oxidize and decompose the lattice structure of arsenian pyrite through chemical or biological means, exposing the microscopic gold, thereby improving subsequent gold recovery efficiency. The relatively lower link strength of technological keywords like \"recovery\" and \"oxidation\" suggests that while technological research is a key focus in the field, it mostly concentrates on optimizing single processes and has not yet formed comprehensive linkage innovation with geological keywords. That is, there is insufficient targeting in current research towards \"customizing processing technologies based on the characteristics of gold-hosting minerals under different metallogenic backgrounds,\" which is also one of the core breakthrough directions for the future mineral processing field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e clearly presents the research characteristics of the refractory gold ore field: with \"pyrite\" and \"gold\" as dual cores, geological themes (mineralization, Carlin-type, geochemistry) dominate in both occurrence frequency and association strength. Technological themes revolve around the geological characteristics causing \"refractoriness.\" Overall, a research pattern of \"geological genesis analysis as the foundation, technological process development as the application\" has formed. The high-frequency appearance of \"arsenian pyrite and invisible gold\" is precisely the key clue connecting the entire field's research logic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRanking of top 20 keywords by frequency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekeyword\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoccurrences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003etotal link strength\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epyrite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e451\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003egold\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e282\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emineralization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e334\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecarlin-type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e330\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003egeochemistry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e313\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eevolution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eorigin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003earsenian pyrite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eorogenic gold\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einvisible gold\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003erecovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoxidation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e139\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003earsenopyrite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e173\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ela-icp-ms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e179\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eflotation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efluid inclusions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eores\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003etectonic evolution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esulfur isotopes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e4.1.3 Keyword Clustering Analysis\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe keyword clustering density map (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) clearly presents the core context and popularity distribution of research in the refractory gold ore field. \"Pyrite\" and \"gold\" are absolute centers (orange-red high-heat areas) and the absolute core research objects in the field, with all research themes revolving around these two cores. \"Arsenopyrite,\" \"invisible gold,\" \"carlin-type,\" \"mineralization,\" etc., are adjacent to the core nodes, representing high-heat research directions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJudging from the distribution on the map, geological keywords such as \"carlin-type\", \"geochemistry\", \"mineralization\", and \"invisible gold\" are concentrated in the left and central areas, focusing on basic research such as the metallogenic background and geochemical characteristics of deposits like Carlin-type. The adjacent distribution of \"invisible gold\" and \"arsenopyrite\" reveals that gold occurring in microscopic-submicroscopic forms within sulfides like pyrite is the fundamental reason making direct recovery difficult with conventional beneficiation \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e。As the map extends to the right, keywords gradually transition to technological directions like \"oxidation,\" \"pretreatment,\" \"recovery,\" and \"leaching,\" reflecting the technological response to the \"refractory\" geological characteristics\u0026mdash;exposing gold particles through oxidation, pretreatment, etc., followed by recovery via leaching processes. Additionally, keywords like \"kinetics\" and \"dissolution\" reflect in-depth discussion on process mechanisms and efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, research in the refractory gold ore field takes \"gold occurrence characteristics\" as the core link, with the pyrite-gold system as the core, forming a complete logical chain of \"geological genesis analysis - technical difficulty identification - beneficiation process development.\" Further combining keyword analysis with literature content, the research focus of different types of refractory gold ores can be summarized.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Arsenical Sulfide Type\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eArsenical sulfide-type gold deposits are formed in mesothermal to hypothermal, mesozonal to hypozonal environments. Gold predominantly occurs as encapsulated gold or refractory lattice-bound gold hosted within pyrite and arsenopyrite. The ores typically exhibit elevated arsenic contents and dense sulfide textures, which collectively render the gold inaccessible to conventional exposure and subsequent leaching. Kravtsova, R. G. et al.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e analyzed the Natalka gold deposit in northeastern Russia and found that most microscopic-submicroscopic gold is enriched in arsenopyrite and pyrite, accounting for 20% of the total gold in the ore.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor this specific ore type, existing research is primarily centered on the destruction of the sulfide encapsulation structure. Typical pretreatment technologies employed for this purpose include oxidative roasting, pressure oxidation, and bio-oxidation. Among these, bio-oxidation has garnered considerable attention owing to its distinct advantages, notably mild reaction conditions and a comparatively lower environmental burden. M.Z. Mubarok et al.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eused \u003cem\u003eAcidithiobacillus ferrooxidans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAcidithiobacillus thiooxidans\u003c/em\u003e for bio-oxidative pretreatment of a refractory gold concentrate, followed by cyanidation at neutral pH for gold recovery. Experimental results showed that the highest gold recovery for the high-sulfur concentrate was 91.4%, 18% higher than the direct cyanidation extraction rate of the untreated concentrate.This indicates that for arsenical sulfide-type refractory gold ores, the critical step lies in the destruction of the encapsulation structure through pretreatment, thereby enabling the liberation of finely disseminated gold, which can subsequently be combined with green leaching technologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Carlin-Type (Fine-Disseminated) Gold Ores\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarlin-type (fine-disseminated) gold ores are of epithermal origin. Gold occurs as nanometer-sized or lattice gold disseminated in quartz and carbonate minerals, with fine particle size and uniform distribution. Conventional grinding is difficult to achieve monomer dissociation. The geological genesis of refractory gold ores focuses on the metallogenic mechanism of gold ores and the occurrence state of microgold. Licheng Ma et al. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e revealed that the gold particles in Carlin-type gold ores are finely distributed, and gold occurs in sulfides such as pyrite in the form of micro-submicroscopic particles. The technical difficulty in processing Carlin-type gold ores lies in how to release the microgold encapsulated in pyrite and arsenopyrite.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn response to this specific challenge, a combined process flowsheet consisting of \"fine grinding \u0026mdash; flotation concentration \u0026mdash; pretreatment \u0026mdash; intensified leaching\" has been progressively established for Carlin-type gold ores. Within this framework, technologies such as pressure oxidation, roasting, and non-cyanide leaching have garnered extensive research interest. Zhang, L et al.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e proposed a new pressure oxidation, sodium jarosite decomposition pretreatment and non-cyanide extraction process for a typical Carlin-type gold concentrate in Guizhou. The results show that the acid pressure oxidation pretreatment process can efficiently realize the mineral phase reconstruction of Carlin-type gold ores. After acid pressure oxidation pretreatment, the leaching efficiency of gold in the oxygen pressure leaching residue can reach 81.8%, achieving efficient and clean gold extraction.It is thus evident that the technical crux for Carlin-type gold ores resides in the coupling of mineral phase transformation with the leaching process, so as to achieve the efficient liberation and clean extraction of ultrafine gold particles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Carbonaceous Type Gold Ores\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbonaceous gold ores are refractory ores containing organic carbon, occurring in black (or carbonaceous) rock series and sedimentary rock series. They typically contain fine-grained gold encapsulated within the crystals of iron sulfide minerals like pyrite, pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite. Carbonaceous matter has strong adsorption ((the \"gold robbing\" effect), presenting a dual refractory challenge.The principal technical challenge associated with this ore type lies in the tendency of dissolved gold to be re-adsorbed by carbonaceous constituents during the leaching process, thereby significantly diminishing the ultimate gold recovery.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTargeting the \"gold robbing effect\", carbonaceous gold ores focus on carbon-suppressing pretreatment and decarburization processes, with oxidative roasting as the main pretreatment method. Jin, JP et al. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e carried out oxidative roasting on carbonaceous fine-grained gold ores from Shaanxi Province, China. The results show that during the oxidative roasting process, carbonaceous substances (organic carbon and graphite carbon) and pyrite are completely decomposed at 600\u0026deg;C, the carbonaceous components are burned, and pyrite is oxidized to hematite. With the increase of roasting temperature from 400\u0026deg;C to 650\u0026deg;C, the gold leaching rate increases from 82.33% to 91.28%.This indicates that by effectively attenuating or eliminating the preg-robbing capacity of carbonaceous matter, the subsequent gold extraction performance can be significantly enhanced. The critical imperative for future processing of such ores lies in balancing decarburization efficiency, energy consumption control, and environmental impact, with the overarching goal of achieving green and high-efficiency pretreatment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.5 Polymetallic Associated Type Gold Ores (containing Te, Cu, Pb, etc.)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolymetallic associated type gold ores form in multi-stage hydrothermal activity environments. Gold is often associated with tellurides, copper-lead-zinc sulfides, occurring as solid solutions or inclusions within polymetallic minerals. Competitive adsorption and co-precipitation between metals can occur during beneficiation. The Yangzhaiyu gold deposit in the Xiaoqinling district, southern margin of the North China Craton, is a Mesozoic vein-type deposit hosted in Archean amphibolite-facies gneiss of the Taihua Group. The main ore-bearing rocks are gold-bearing quartz veins. Pyrite is the main sulfide, classified into three generations (G1, G2, G3): G1 has extremely low gold content, G2 contains a small amount of visible gold and invisible gold, and G3 has the highest content of invisible gold. Gold is mainly positively correlated with Te and Ag, predominantly occurring as gold-bearing telluride minerals, whereas the role of As is notably insignificant.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor this ore type, ongoing research has progressively converged upon a technical framework characterized by \"preferential separation \u0026mdash; staged treatment \u0026mdash; synergistic leaching.\" Specifically, this entails the initial separation and concentration of associated valuable metals, followed by staged processing tailored to the distinct mineralogical characteristics of different components, ultimately enabling the comprehensive recovery of both the primary gold and associated metals.Lorenzo-Tallafigo J. et al. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e used \u003cem\u003eAcidithiobacillus ferrooxidans\u003c/em\u003e to treat black iron ore for recovering lead, gold, and silver. After bio-oxidative pretreatment, lead recovery increased to 96.4%, gold recovery improved from 17.3% to 86.4%, and the refractoriness of the sulfide ore rich in lead, nitrogen, and gold was removed.This finding underscores that the crux for polymetallic co-associated refractory gold ores does not reside in the isolated extraction of gold alone, but rather in the construction of a beneficiation-metallurgy synergistic flowsheet predicated upon mineralogical differentiation and guided by the principle of comprehensive resource utilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.1 General Understanding of Refractory Gold Ore Research\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA comprehensive synthesis of publication trends, collaboration networks, and keyword analysis reveals that research on refractory gold ores has undergone a marked evolution from an earlier phase of relatively dispersed investigations centered on ore genesis, gold-bearing minerals, and conventional oxidation processes, toward a current integrated research stage wherein pretreatment technologies, mineral behavior regulation, and green gold extraction constitute the core thematic pillars. From the perspective of knowledge structure, ore-forming geochemistry and mineralogical understanding remain the foundational underpinnings of the field, while the trajectory of process technology development is unequivocally oriented toward higher efficiency, lower energy consumption, and reduced environmental footprint. The degree of coupling between fundamental research and engineering practice is increasingly recognized as a critical indicator of the field\u0026apos;s innovative capacity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.2 Major Issues in Current Research\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the sustained increase in research intensity within this field in recent years, several noteworthy issues persist. First, from the perspective of collaboration networks, although domestic research capacity occupies a dominant position, a high-level collaborative innovation network has yet to be fully established, and the depth of inter-institutional cooperation as well as the degree of internationalization remain insufficient. Second, in terms of keyword interrelationships, the linkage between fundamental geological research and process technology development still requires strengthening, and investigations into tailored process design that specifically address diverse metallogenic settings and gold occurrence characteristics remain relatively inadequate. Third, while green pretreatment technologies have become a prominent research focus, they continue to face pragmatic challenges in areas such as scale-up application, process stability, cost control, and environmental assessment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.3 Future Development Directions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuture research on refractory gold ores should be advanced with emphasis on the following priority areas:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst, efforts should be directed toward strengthening the interdisciplinary integration of process mineralogy, geochemistry, and process metallurgy, with the objective of establishing a systematic research paradigm encompassing \u0026quot;mineral occurrence characteristics \u0026mdash; process response mechanisms \u0026mdash; technical route optimization.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSecond, collaborative optimization should be pursued around green technologies such as bio-oxidation, microwave-assisted oxidation, pressure oxidation, and alternative lixiviants, with a view toward overcoming the bottlenecks constraining large-scale industrial application.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThird, the cross-validation of multi-source bibliometric tools should be enhanced. The combined application of software such as CiteSpace, Bibliometrix, and VOSviewer is recommended to improve the robustness and reliability of research conclusions derived from bibliometric analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFourth, greater attention should be accorded to the content analysis of highly cited literature, core patents, and industrial case studies, so as to amplify the practical relevance and guidance that research findings offer to industrial operations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFifth, it is imperative to deepen international collaboration and cross-institutional synergy, thereby propelling the development of refractory gold ore beneficiation and gold extraction technologies toward the overarching goals of higher efficiency, reduced environmental burden, and enhanced comprehensive resource utilization capability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eBased on 722 English-language documents from the Web of Science (WOS) database between 2008 and 2025, this study employed bibliometric methods combined with VOSviewer to visually analyze characteristics such as annual publication output, national output, author output, institutional output, and keywords. It systematically analyzed the research status, hotspot characteristics, and developmental context in the field of refractory gold ores, leading to the following conclusions:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eResearch on refractory gold ore processing shows an overall steady growth trend. The international research network is centered on China, Australia, and the United States. China holds a dominant position in terms of publication output and the coverage of international collaboration networks. Domestic research is primarily led by universities and research institutes, but there is still room for improvement in the closeness of collaboration between institutions and scholars, as well as the depth of international cooperation.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKeyword analysis indicates that research hotspots are predominantly concentrated in the areas of mineralogy, pretreatment technologies, and intensified leaching processes. Pyrite and arsenian pyrite not only constitute the principal mineral carriers central to the study of refractory gold ores, but also serve as the critical nexus linking fundamental geological investigations with engineering technology research.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe hotspot research results and technical routes of different types of refractory gold ores have their own focuses: arsenic-bearing sulfide gold ores take \u0026quot;oxidative pretreatment + non-cyanide leaching\u0026quot; as the core technical route to overcome the problem of sulfide encapsulation; Carlin-type gold ores have formed a technical system of \u0026quot;fine grinding - flotation enrichment - biological/microwave pretreatment - efficient leaching\u0026quot; to solve the problem of dissociation and recovery of fine-grained gold; carbonaceous gold ores focus on \u0026quot;carbon suppression/decarburization + targeted leaching\u0026quot; to crack the \u0026quot;gold robbing\u0026quot; effect; polymetallic symbiotic gold ores adopt the route of \u0026quot;priority separation - staged treatment - synergistic leaching\u0026quot; to realize the comprehensive recovery of gold and associated metals.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe research context presents a development trend from traditional cyanidation processes to green technologies. In recent years, pretreatment technologies such as oxidative roasting, pressure oxidation, biooxidation, and microwave methods have gradually become emerging hotspots. In the future, it is necessary to further strengthen the research and development and application of green pretreatment technologies, focusing on breaking the scale-up application bottlenecks of low-pollution, low-energy-consumption technologies like bio-oxidation and microwave oxidation.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAt the research method level, multiple bibliometric tools such as CiteSpace and Bibliometrix can be combined to carry out multi-dimensional and multi-level cross-validation analysis to improve the reliability and comprehensiveness of research conclusions; content analysis methods can be introduced to conduct in-depth interpretation of highly cited literatures and core patents in the field to provide more comprehensive support for technological innovation; international cooperation and cross-institutional collaboration should be deepened to promote the continuous upgrading of refractory gold ore processing technologies and the high-quality development of the industry.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003e \u003cb\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interes\u003c/b\u003et\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No. 52304129).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaoYang:Writing - original draft, Visualization,Software, Methodology, Investigation. WenzhiDai:review \u0026amp; editing, Investigation,Conceptualization.JianheWan:Investigation\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGhobashy, M. M. et al. \u003cem\u003eGold nanoparticles in microelectronics advancements and biomedical applications[J]\u003c/em\u003e 301 (MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING B-ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL SOLID-STATE MATERIALS, 2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWekalao, J. et al. Graphene and Gold Metasurface-Based Terahertz Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor for Explosive Detection[J]. \u003cem\u003ePLASMONICS\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e19\u003c/b\u003e (6), 3131\u0026ndash;3145 (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHe, T. et al. 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An alternative approach to recover lead, silver and gold from black gossan (polymetallic ore). Study of biological oxidation and lead recovery stages[J]. \u003cem\u003eJ. Clean. Prod.\u003c/em\u003e, 207510\u0026ndash;207521. (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"refractory gold ore, bibliometrics, visualization analysis","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9426166/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9426166/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWith the progressive depletion of readily treatable gold resources worldwide, refractory gold ores have emerged as a core strategic resource for the sustainable development of the gold industry. Owing to their complex mineralogical composition and intricate dissemination relationships, the research and application of beneficiation technologies for refractory gold ores have long been a focal point and a persistent challenge in the field of mineral processing. This study employs bibliometric methods to retrieve refractory gold ore-related literature indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection (WOS) from January 2008 to December 2025. Using VOSviewer software, a visual analysis was conducted to examine the temporal distribution, national contributions, author co-occurrence networks, institutional collaborations, and keyword co-occurrence patterns within the literature. The results indicate a sustained upward trend in research output, peaking in 2021. An international research community centered on China, Australia, and the United States has formed, with China ranking first globally in both publication volume and international influence. Domestic research efforts are primarily driven by universities and research institutes, though cross-institutional synergy and deep international collaboration remain insufficient. Research hotspots are concentrated on mineralogical characterization, high-efficiency pretreatment methods, and environmentally friendly beneficiation technologies. The overall research trajectory exhibits an evolutionary pathway from fundamental geological studies and mineralogical property analysis toward integrated, green, and high-efficiency combined processes. Notably, green pretreatment strategies, non-cyanide leaching systems, and low-carbon mineral processing have emerged as cutting-edge research frontiers in recent years. From a knowledge mapping perspective, this study provides a panoramic overview of the research landscape, core themes, and emerging trends within the field of refractory gold ore processing. It offers both data-driven support and theoretical reference for researchers seeking to accurately identify research directions and pursue original investigations, and further serves as a decision-making basis for the efficient and environmentally responsible exploitation of refractory gold resources in China.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Visualization Analysis of Research Status on Refractory Gold Ore Processing Based on VOSviewer","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-04 17:20:17","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9426166/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-07T13:11:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-07T08:55:56+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-01T03:58:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"221975989986706935138059845823167417448","date":"2026-04-26T08:24:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-25T02:01:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"212308025557269970633615116021503164330","date":"2026-04-23T21:16:34+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"182187317760697414405704694679856345527","date":"2026-04-23T10:31:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-23T07:35:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-22T07:02:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-18T02:52:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-18T02:52:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2026-04-15T11:10:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c8556028-3236-4a34-9e15-0f94918e08f1","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 4th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-07T13:11:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-07T08:55:56+00:00","index":34,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-01T03:58:50+00:00","index":33,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[{"id":67431045,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"},{"id":67431046,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences"},{"id":67431047,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-07T13:25:17+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-04 17:20:17","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9426166","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9426166","identity":"rs-9426166","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}