Materials and methods
Cell culture
Human glioblastoma cell lines T98G and U‐251 were cultur
ed in Dulbecco’s modified
Eagle’s medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Biowest) and 1%
penicillin/streptomycin solution (10000 U/mL) (ThermoFisher Scientific), at 37°C in a
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humidified atmosphere with 5% CO2. T98G was kindly provided by Dr. Theodossis
Theodossiou and U‐251 was purchased from CLS Cell Line Servic (Eppelheim, Germany). Both
cell lines were verified by short tandem repeat analysis (Eurofins).
Drug treatment
Inhibitors of ATM (AZD1390) and ATR (VE‐822/berzosertib), both from Selleck
Chemicals, were given to cells 15‐30 min prior to irradiation for X‐ray and carbon ion
experiments
, or immediately after irradiation for proton experiments. In clonogenic survival
assays the inhibitors were removed after 24 hours of exposure, otherwise they were present
until the end of the experiment.
Cell irradiation
Proton irradiation was performed at the Oslo cyclotron labor atory (University of
Oslo) with an MC‐35 cyclotron (Scanditronix) with a beam energy of 15.5 MeV. The beamline
and setup has been described previously [24, 25]. The cells were irradiated in two positions;
in front of the Bragg peak and at the distal end. The dose rate was the same for both
positions. The medium was removed during irradiation and fresh mediu
m was added
immediately after irradiation. Carbon ion irradiation was performed using the IRABAT 95
MeV beam line at the GANIL facility (Caen, France), with further details described in [26]. X‐
rays (160 kV, 6.3 mA, Faxitron) were delivered at 1 Gy/min (filtration 0.8 mm Be + 0.5 mm
Cu).
The LET valu
es for carbon ions were estimated at 28 and 73 keV/µm and for protons
7 and 38 keV/µm. In our study we have termed the lowest LET value for each particle type
"low‐LET" wit h the purpose of separately comparing the two LET values within each
radiation modality. The LET for 160 kVp X‐rays is ~4 keV/µm [27].
Flow cytometry
Cells were fixed in 70% ice cold ethanol. To eliminate sample‐to‐sample variation, we
added an aliquot of barcoded reference cells stained with Alexa Fluor 647 Succinimid yl Ester
(0.02 µg/µL) (ThermoFisher Scientific) to all samples. Samples were stained with mouse anti‐
γH2AX (Ser139), clone JBW301 (Millipore), conjugated to FITC (1:1000) or not (1:500), the
latter followed by Alexa Fluor 488 anti‐mouse IgG (1:500, Molecular Probes). DNA was
stained with Hoechst 33258 (Sigma‐Aldrich). Samples were analysed on an LSR II flow
cytometer (BD Life Sciences) or on a CytoFLEX (V5‐B4‐R3) (B
eckman Coulter). Results were
analysed in FlowJo v.10.6.1 software (BD Life Sciences), using the Watson Pragmatic
algorithm for cell cycle analysis. Instrument service on the LSR II was provided by the Flow
Cytometry Core Facilit
y (OUS).
Clonogenic survival assay
Cells were seeded in triplicate 6 cm dishes (500‐6000 cells/dish), 18‐24 h prior to
treatment with X‐rays and inhibitors. When colonies appeared (10‐14 days), cells were fixed
with 70 % ethanol and stained with methylene bl ue. Colonies with >50 cells were counted.
For experiments with carbon ions, the same procedure was followed, except that cells were
seeded in T‐25 culture flasks at densities of 750‐15000 cells/flask.
Western blotting
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Cell lysis and immunoblotting was performed as previously described [28], with the
exception that Criterion TGX Stain‐free gels (Bio‐Rad) were used. Protein concentration was
not measured in samples shown in Figure 1. The antibodies used are listed in Table S1.
Protein bands were quantified in the ImageLab 4.1 software. A dilution series of one of the
samples was included for accurat
e quantification.
Enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) of secreted IFNβ
Growth medium supernatants were collected from the cell samples. Duplicates of 50
µl of concentrate were subjected to IFN‐β measurement by ELISA (Human IFN‐beta DuoSET
ELISA, R&D Systems), af ter 20X upconcentration (Amicon Ultracel‐10, Merck) of the
supernatants as previously described [28]. The protein concentration of remaining adherent
cells at time of harvest was measured as described above for western blot samples, and used
for normalization of ELISA IFN‐β read‐outs.
Statistics
One‐ or two‐sample, two‐tailed Student’s t test with significance lev el set to 0.05 was
used to obtain p‐values, indicated with an asterisk for p < 0.05 in bar charts.
Discussion
Radiotherapy with high energy X‐rays is a cornerstone of cancer treatment. Recently,
the interest in understanding radiation‐induced immune effects has escalated, with the goal
to optimize combination treatments with immunotherapy. Inhibitors of DNA repair may
counteract tumor radioresistance, and may in addition enhance the antitumor immune
effects. Part
icle radiotherapy with protons or carbon ions is currently being expanded in
many countries, and increased immune signaling has also been observed in response to
these radiation modalities [31, 32]. However, knowledge about how DNA repair inhibitors
modulate antitumor immune effects after particle irradiation has been lacking. To our
knowledge, our study is the first to report effects on the IFN response after treatmen t with
ATR and ATM inhibitors in combination with high‐LET particle irradiation.
Notably, these inhibitors may be even more suitable for combinations with particles
as opposed to conventional X‐ray radiotherapy. The radiosensitizing effects of the inhibitors
on the surrounding nor
mal tissue, including immune cells, will likely be reduced, due to the
beneficial depth dose distribution of particle radiation. We thus expect improved tumor‐
selective radiosensitizing effects and possibly improved antitumor immune response with
particle irradiation. In support of the latter, recent clinical reports suggest that proton and
carbon ion radiotherapy induce less lymphopenia compared to classical radiotherapy [33,
34]
. Our data suggest that a further benefit from combining ATR and ATM inhibitors with
particle irradiation may be obtained through activation of the innate immune response
within the tumor cells themselves.
In U‐251 cells the radiation‐induced IFN‐β signali ng correlated with abrogation of the
G2 checkpoint. Cells treated with the ATR inhibitor were not arrested and showed increased
IFN‐β signaling. The ATM inhibitor, by contrast, prolonged the G2 arrest and gave little
increase in IFN signaling. In T98G cells, both inhibitors induced IFN‐β signaling, even though
their eff
ect on the G2 checkpoint was similar to that observed in U‐251. Cytosolic exposure
of DNA from ruptured micronuclei is most likely a main cause for increased IFN‐β production
after ATR inhibition in both cell lines, as previously reported for combination with X‐
irradiation in other cell types [28, 35]. However, other mechanisms are likely at play after
ATM inhibition, as the G2 arrest is prolonged. In the absence of irradiation, ATM inhi
bition
causes leakage of mitochondrial DNA into the cytosol [36]. This response may be enhanced
by radiation‐induced mitochondrial damage. Furthermore, a more direct effect of ATM
inhibition on signal transduction has been shown, where reduced ATM activity caus
es
elevated SRC phosphorylation leading to TBK1 activation [22].
Interestingly, the levels of secreted IFN‐β from T98G were much higher when the
inhibitors were combined with high‐LET than low‐LET irradiation. The mechanism underlying
this effect is not known and would be interesting to explore in future studies. Pointin g
towards possible mechanisms, studies have shown that more micronuclei are formed in cells
exposed to high‐LET than low‐LET irradiation [13, 37, 38], likely due to induction of more
complex DNA damage. Furthermore, in addition to cytosolic DNA of nuclear or
mitochondrial origin [18, 30, 39, 40], IFN‐β signali ng may also be triggered by cytosolic RNA
as described in previous studies with X‐irradiation [17, 18]. The RNA can be transcribed from
cytosolic DNA or leak from mitochondria [41], but could also stem from reactivation of
retroelements [42, 43] through radiation‐induced decompaction of chromatin. Notably, a
recent study showed a more pronounced IFN‐β signaling after proton as compared to X‐
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irradiation, which was caused by proton‐induced derepression of transposable elements
[44].
In conclusion, we have shown that ATR inhibition combined with low‐ or high‐LET
irradiation enhances type 1 IFN signaling in GBM cells. Furthermore, ATM inhibition can also
enhance IFN signaling, as shown for one of the cell lines. The ATR and ATM inhibitors used in
this study hav
e been combined with classical radiotherapy in clinical trials for brain
metastases (NCT02589522) and GBM (NCT03423628), respectively. GBM is typically highly
radioresistant as well as invasive. Our results suggest that ATR or ATM inhibitors could
increase tumor cell radiosensitivity and may als o enhance radiation‐induced immune
signaling. The combination of these inhibitors with radiotherapy could thus likely facilitate
eradication of the main tumor, and also help eliminating invasive cells outside the irradiation
field by promoting antitumor immune effects. Likely, triple combinations of radiotherapy,
radiosensitizing drug and immune checkpoint blockade might be most useful. In this
approach the ATR/ATM inhibitor is us
ed to increase tumor radiosensitivity and the
antitumor immune effects of radiotherapy, while potential immunosuppressive effects, such
as increased PD‐L1 presentation, are counteracted by the immune checkpoint inhibitor.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization (GER, MT, DIS, RGS); Formal analysis (GER, AEM, RGS)
; Funding acquisition
(DIS, RGS); Investigation (GER, MT, AMS, AEM, AG); Methodology (NFJE, EM, FC, MT, GER);
Project administration (DIS, RGS); Resources (DIS, FC, EM, RGS); Supervision (DIS, FC, RGS);
Visualization (GER, AEM, MT, RGS);Writing ‐ original draft (GER, RGS); and Writing ‐ review &
editing (all authors).
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12
Figure legends
Figure 1. Activation of the DNA damage response is stronger in GBM exposed to high‐LET
as compared to low‐LET irradiation at similar radiation dose.
(A) Representative immunoblot from T98G, showing phosphorylated ATM and CHK1 at 1
and 4 h after 2 and 6 Gy of proton irradiation. Left: a dilution curve showing dynamic range
of antibodies. (B) Quantification of signal intensity of the indicated markers from two or
more experiments similar to that shown in A, for both T98G and U‐251. Values are
normalized to the 6 Gy hig
h‐LET sample. Dots indicate individual experiments. Error bars:
SEM (n = 3). (C) Quantification of γH2AX intensity as measured by flow cytometry 0.5 h after
proton irradiation. Error bars: SEM (n = 4). (D) DNA profiles obtained by flow cytometry
showing cell cycl
e distribution at 24 h after exposure to 6 Gy of low‐ vs. high‐LET protons.
Upper panels: U‐251, lower panels: T98G. (E) Cell cycle distribution of U‐251 cells 24 h after
irradiation with 4 Gy of carbon ions (C‐ions), comparing low and high LET.
Figure 2. The radiation‐induced G2 checkpoint is abrogated by ATR inhibition and
prolonged by ATM inhibition.
(A) DNA profiles showing cell cycle distribution at 24 h after treatment with ATR and ATM
inhibitors in combination with X‐irradiation. Left: T98G, right: U‐251. (B) DNA profiles at 24 h
after treatment with the inhibitors and carbon ions, comparing low and high LET. (C)
Quantification from cell cycle anal ysis performed on data as in B. Error bars: SEM (n = 3).
Figure 3. ATM and ATR inhibitors enhance radiosensitivity after both low and high‐LET
irradiation
Clonogenic survival of U‐251 cells irradiated with 2 and 4 Gy of X‐ray (left panel) or 1 and 2
Gy of carbon ions (middle and right panels) in combination with ATR and ATM inhibitors.
Survival fractions relative to non‐irradiated samples are plotted. The average survival
fractions after treatment with the inhibitors alone were 0.6 (A
TRi) and 0.8 (ATMi) for the
experiments with X‐rays, and 0.7 (ATRi) and 0.9 (ATMi) for the experiments with carbon ions.
Error bars: SEM (n = ≥3).
Figure 4. ATR inhibition increases type 1 IFN signaling after both low‐LET and high‐LET
irradiation in U‐251 cells
(A) Left: Representative immunoblot showing phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) in U‐251 cells
at 72 h after treatment with 4, 5 and 6 Gy of X‐ray in combination with indicated inhibitors.
Asterisk indicates a dilution of the sample treated with 5 Gy and 250nM ATRi. Right:
Quantification of pSTAT1 relative to total protein, normalized to the sam ple treated with 5
Gy in combination with 250 nM of ATRi, Error bars: SEM (n = 7). (B) Left: Representative
immunoblot showing pSTAT1 in U‐251 cells at 72 h after treatment with 4 Gy of low‐ and
high‐LET carbon ion irradiation in combination with indicated inhibitors. Asterisk indicates a
dilution of th
e sample treated with 4 Gy high LET and 250nM ATRi. Right: Quantification of
pSTAT1 relative to total protein, normalized to the sample treated with 4 Gy high LET in
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13
combination with 250 nM of ATRi, Error bars: SEM (n = 3). (C) Correlation analysis between
pSTAT1 and IFN‐β secretion in X‐irradiated samples. Signal intensity of pSTAT1 as measured
by immunoblotting on samples as in A (relative to 6 Gy ATRi 250 nM) are plotted against
levels of secreted IFN‐β measured in growth medium from the same samples. The IFN‐β
values have been normalized to the amount of pro
tein of the adherent cells at time of
harvest. The red dots show pSTAT1 signals from carbon ion irradiated samples that have
been analyzed in the same immunoblot as the X‐irradiated sa mples, in order to estimate the
IFN‐β level upon co‐treatment with C‐ions and ATRi. (n.s.: not significant).
Figure 5. IFN signaling is heavily induced in T98G cells treated with high‐LET irradiation
combined with ATR inhibitor.
(A) Analysis of pSTAT1 in T98G cells, similarly as in Fig 4A except that values are normalized
to the sample treated with 5 Gy and 100 nM ATRi. Error bars: SEM (n ≥ 5). (B) Levels of
secreted IFN‐β measured by ELISA relative to the amount of protein of the adherent cells at
time of harvest, compari
ng all radiation modalities. Proton and carbon ion irradiated
samples are from the same experiments as in S3B. For X‐ray irradiated samples n ≥ 3. Data
from individual experiments are displayed as dots.
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14
Table 1 RBE at SF50
Dose (Gy) RBE
X‐ray C‐ion C‐ion
low high low high
‐ 3.0 1.6 1.1 1.9 2.7
ATMi 10 nM 1.5 0.9 0.8 1.7 2.0
ATRi 100 nM 2.0 1.1 0.9 1.9 2.3
RBE values of C‐ions with radiation doses of C‐ions and X‐rays required for killing 50 % of U‐251 cells
in a clonogenic survival assay.
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The copyright holder for this preprintthis version posted June 14, 2024. ; https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.12.598643doi: bioRxiv preprint
.CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International licensemade available under a
(which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is
The copyright holder for this preprintthis version posted June 14, 2024. ; https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.12.598643doi: bioRxiv preprint
.CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International licensemade available under a
(which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is
The copyright holder for this preprintthis version posted June 14, 2024. ; https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.12.598643doi: bioRxiv preprint
.CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International licensemade available under a
(which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is
The copyright holder for this preprintthis version posted June 14, 2024. ; https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.12.598643doi: bioRxiv preprint