Examining the Level of Executive Functions in the Arabic Language among Third-Grade Students with Typical Literacy Development and Dyslexia

Examining the Level of Executive Functions in the Arabic Language among Third-Grade Students with Typical Literacy Development and Dyslexia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Examining the Level of Executive Functions in the Arabic Language among Third-Grade Students with Typical Literacy Development and Dyslexia Mahmoud Gharaibeh, Mohammad Nayef Ayasrah, Abdullah Basulayyim This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7786621/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study examined the role of executive functions (EFs), specifically inhibition, rapid automatic switching (RAS), and combined inhibition/switching, in Arabic-speaking third-grade students with typical literacy development and those with developmental dyslexia. Given the orthographic complexity and diglossia of the Arabic language, this research aimed to determine whether deficits in EFs contribute to the reading difficulties experienced by children with dyslexia. A comparative cross-sectional design was used to assess 55 students (23 typical, 22 dyslexic) from Abu Dhabi schools using adapted tasks measuring inhibition (Stroop Test), RAS, and combined inhibition/switching. The results revealed that students with dyslexia performed significantly worse across all EF tasks and demonstrated slower processing times. These findings underscore the critical role of EFs in literacy development and highlight the need for early EF screening and intervention strategies in Arabic-speaking educational settings. The research advances our knowledge of dyslexia in non-Western languages and recommends culturally appropriate EF training for struggling readers. Executive functions in Arabic language dyslexia Inhibition RAS Combined inhibition/switching Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Executive functions (EFs) are a collection of cognitive capabilities that enable individuals to participate in socially appropriate and purposeful actions, while also facilitating adaptive responses to novel circumstances, governed by conscious regulation (Diamond, 2020 ). Cognitive capabilities such as inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching are fundamental to students' academic learning (Khng, 2023 ). These skills are critical for excelling in academic performance, particularly in the area of literacy development (Altemeier et al., 2008 ). Dyslexia and related learning disabilities are linked with impairments in EFs (Moura et al., 2014 ; Varvara et al., 2014 ), and as a result, the reading ability of the affected individuals is compromised (Khan & Lal, 2023 ). The condition in which an individual is unable to recognize, spell, and decode words accurately or fluently is termed as dyslexia (Roitsch & Watson, 2019 ; Snowling et al., 2020 ). Dyslexia is considered a neurological disorder rather than just a simple problem related to reading because multiple domains, such as EFs, working memory (WM), and phonological processing, are associated with it (Pasqualotto & Venuti, 2020 ). EFs help an individual better organize information, manage cognitive loads, and apply cognitive flexibility (CF). All these processes play a vital role in literacy development and becoming a successful reader (Butterfuss & Kendeou, 2018 ; Cristofori et al., 2019 ). Although extensive research related to EFs and dyslexia has been conducted in English or other alphabetic languages, studies related to the Arabic language are scarce in this regard (Metanis, 2022 ). Arabic language is a Semitic language with a unique orthographic structure and complexity in diglossia (spoken vs. written forms) (Saiegh-Haddad & Schiff, 2025 ). These characteristics make Arabic language a challenge, especially for children with dyslexia (Abu-Liel et al., 2021 ; Schiff & Saiegh-Haddad, 2017 ). Moreover, Arabic short vowel diacritical markings can also affect reading fluency and comprehension in students with dyslexia (Abu-Rabia, 2019 ). Arabic is the native language of approximately 420 million people, yet studies on literacy development and EFs in Arabic are few. Therefore, understanding the association between EFs and dyslexia in Arabic-speaking children is crucial. This study examines inhibition, RAS, and simultaneous inhibition/switching in Arabic-speaking third graders with standard literacy development and dyslexia. 2. Literature Review 2.1. Dyslexia in the Arabic Language The Arabic language presents unique challenges for literacy development due to its diglossia nature and orthographic complexity (Abu-Liel et al., 2021 ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the written form of the language, while spoken Arabic dialects vary across regions (Azaz & Alfaifi, 2022 ). This diglossia creates additional cognitive demands on Arabic-speaking children, as they must acquire proficiency in both the spoken and written forms of the language (Ibrahim, 2024 ; Tarabeh et al., 2025 ). Arabic orthography is distinguished by its complex morphology, right-to-left script, and the use of diacritical markings to indicate short vowels (Jouhar, 2020 ; Yassin et al., 2020 ). Diacritical markings in completely vowelized text offer crucial phonological information that facilitates word recognition (Midhwah & Alhawary, 2020 ). However, readers must rely on morphological and contextual signals to correctly identify words in a non-vowelized text, which is more common in advanced reading materials (Asadi et al., 2023 ). Deficits in phonological awareness and morphological processing cause children with dyslexia to have difficulty reading non-vowelized Arabic text frequently (Oweini & Awada, 2022 ; Smail et al., 2025 ). Numerous studies have shown that WM, phonological awareness, and rapid automatized naming (RAN) are important indicators of reading proficiency in Arabic-speaking children (Alhwaiti, 2024 ; Gharaibeh et al., 2021 ; Hassanein et al., 2022 ; Mercugliano et al., 2024 ). However, the role of EFs, such as inhibition and switching, in Arabic-speaking children with dyslexia remains underexplored. Given the orthographic and cognitive demands of the Arabic language, it is likely that EF deficits play a significant role in the reading difficulties experienced by children with dyslexia. 2.2. EFs and Literacy Development EFs are very important for literacy development because they help children control their behavior, attention, and thought processes during reading and writing (Cartwright & Duke, 2023 ). The three core EFs under investigation in this study are as follows: Inhibition The ability to suppress irrelevant or automatic responses to focus on task-relevant information. RAS The capacity to switch between tasks, stimuli, or mental sets efficiently. Combined Inhibition/Switching The integrated ability to inhibit automatic responses while simultaneously switching between tasks or mental representations. Research has shown that deficits in EFs are associated with reading difficulties, particularly in children with dyslexia (Varvara et al., 2014 ). Inhibitory control and CF issues are common in children with dyslexia, which can make it difficult for them to interpret words, focus when reading, and balance conflicting cognitive demands (Cadime et al., 2024 ). A meta-analysis by Ober et al. ( 2020 ) reported that children with dyslexia consistently perform poorly on EF tasks compared to their typically developing peers, underscoring the importance of these processes in literacy development. 2.3. The Role of EFs in Dyslexia EFs, particularly inhibition and switching, are integral to the reading process (Tarchi et al., 2021 ). Inhibition allows readers to suppress irrelevant information and focus on decoding words, while switching enables them to alternate between phonological and orthographic representations (Ruffini et al., 2024 ). For example, a child reading an unfamiliar word must inhibit automatic responses and use phonological decoding strategies to identify the correct pronunciation (Scanlon & Anderson, 2020 ). Similarly, CF allows readers to shift between decoding unfamiliar words and integrating contextual information to comprehend the overall meaning of a sentence (Duke & Cartwright, 2021 ). Children with dyslexia often exhibit deficits in these EFs, leading to difficulties with word recognition, fluency, and comprehension (Khan & Lal, 2023 ). Inhibition deficits can result in frequent reading errors, as children may struggle to suppress automatic but incorrect responses (Jaffe & Bolger, 2023 ; Smith-Spark & Gordon, 2022 ). RAS is a key predictor of reading fluency (Lee & Stoodley, 2024 ). Deficits in RAS have been consistently observed in children with dyslexia across different languages (Farah et al., 2021 ). Combined inhibition/switching, which requires the integration of inhibitory control and CF, is also impaired in children with dyslexia, further exacerbating their reading difficulties (Peng et al., 2022 ). 2.4. Theoretical Framework EFs (inhibition, WM, and CF) control learning and goal-directed behavior (Diamond, 2020 ). These abilities are essential for literacy because they help children manage their focus, block out unimportant stimuli, and adjust to changing reading requirements (Butterfuss & Kendeou, 2018 ). Reading difficulties are closely linked to deficiencies in EFs, which are more noticeable in children with dyslexia (Ober et al., 2020 ; Varvara et al., 2014 ). The theoretical framework of the present study is based upon the Dual-Route Model (Coltheart et al., 2001 ) and the Working Memory Model (Baddeley, 2020 ). According to the Dual-Route Model proposed by Coltheart et al. ( 2001 ), there are 2 pathways that help in word recognition. The lexical approach serves to identify well-known whole words. The phonological or sub-lexical approach uses grapheme-phoneme relations to decode unknown words. Both routes face significant obstacles in Arabic. Diglossia, the difference between spoken dialects and written MSA, reduces word familiarity and affects the lexical path (Asadi et al., 2023 ). Frequent removal of diacritical marks impedes the sub-lexical pathway, leading to increased ambiguity in meaning and pronunciation (Jouhar, 2020 ). Strong inhibition (to disregard unnecessary dialectal forms) and CF (to switch between decoding techniques) are necessary for the effective use of both routes, and dyslexia frequently impairs these abilities (Saiegh-Haddad et al., 2022 ). The Working Memory Model by Baddeley ( 2020 ) describes that reading requires the coordinated functioning of the phonological loop (involved in storing linguistic information on a temporary basis), the visuospatial sketchpad (involved in managing orthographic and visual data), and the central executive (involved in directing attention and managing cognitive control). The right-to-left script, diacritical markings, and morphological intricacy of Arabic orthography put a significant strain on the executive and visuospatial systems (ALmenaye, 2009 ). Due to their frequently low WM capacity, children with dyslexia find it more difficult to remember both visual and phonological information at the same time when reading (Menghini et al., 2011 ). Young readers have particular difficulties in reading due to the diglossia nature and complex morphology of the Arabic language (Saiegh-Haddad, 2012 ). Ambiguity is increased in un-vowelized text by diacritical omission (Mijlad & Younoussi, 2019 ). Moreover, complex word analysis is necessary for morphological parsing (Al-Sughaiyer & Al-Kharashi, 2004 ). The cognitive challenges of transitioning between spoken and written forms are increasing in diglossia (Ibrahim, 2024 ). The cognitive strain on EFs is increased by these traits. As a result, EF impairments may make it more difficult for Arabic-speaking children with dyslexia to handle these demands. 2.5. Rationale of the present study While previous studies have examined the role of EFs in dyslexia, most of this research has been conducted in non-Arabic languages. There is a need for studies that investigate EFs in Arabic-speaking children, particularly in relation to dyslexia. The present study addresses this gap by examining inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching in third-grade students with typical literacy development and those with dyslexia in the Arabic language. As these three EF components are mostly linked to dyslexia across a variety of languages (Farah et al., 2021 ), therefore, researchers gave priority to inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching. The requirements of Arabic reading (e.g., asking children to flexibly shift between un-vowelized and vowelized words, and suppress competing dialectal pronunciations) are directly linked to inhibition and switching (Balshe, 2022 ). Another component of EF is WM or updating (which is important for development of literacy in general) but has been less consistently impaired in dyslexia and is not as closely related to the orthographic difficulties of Arabic (Ibrahim, 2024 ). Additionally, researchers chose a small number of EF tasks that were age-appropriate and most theoretically related to our study topics to reduce testing fatigue in young participants. Understanding the cognitive deficits associated with dyslexia in Arabic-speaking populations will help inform the development of culturally and linguistically appropriate interventions. 2.5. Research Question The study will address the following research question: What are the differences in inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching performance between third-grade students with typical literacy development and those with dyslexia? 3. Methodology 3.1. Procedure The procedure of the current study consists of the following steps: First, the researchers obtained permission from the Ministry of Education (MoE) in Abu Dhabi to recruit participants from several primary schools within the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. The principal and the teachers working in the respective schools also gave the researcher permission to conduct the study at the schools. Additionally, the researcher obtained consent from parents to allow their children to participate in the study. The researchers trained the educators in the schools regarding the conduction of tests related to inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching in the classroom settings. A pilot study was conducted prior to the conduction of the present study to ensure the validity and reliability of the instruments used in the study. Then, the researchers used stratified random sampling to select participants from these schools. A total of 55 students with diverse socioeconomic backgrounds were selected for the study and divided into 2 groups: typically developing children (TDC) and children with developmental dyslexia (CDD). Both groups were subjected to tasks related to inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching in their regular classroom for 30–45 minutes sessions. The researchers made sure that the sessions are conducted in a quiet, distraction-free environment. The researchers collected the data at the end of the sessions, combined it with different schools, and then analyzed it. 3.2. Research Design The researchers adopted a comparative cross-sectional design to examine the levels of EFs among third-grade students in the Arabic language, focusing on children with typical literacy development and those with dyslexia. This appropriate design allowed for direct comparisons between the two groups on the specified EFs, namely inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching (Cai et al., 2023 ). 3.3. Participants A total of 55 third-grade Arabic-speaking students (23 typically developing children and 22 students with dyslexia) were recruited from public schools in Abu Dhabi. The selection process followed a two-stage procedure. First, stratified random sampling was used at the school level to ensure representation across socioeconomic backgrounds. Second, within each school, children were screened for eligibility based on school records and teacher referrals. This approach allowed us to identify students with documented dyslexia diagnoses, who represented a smaller proportion of the population, while also recruiting a comparison group of typically developing readers. The dyslexia group (n = 22) consisted of students with a recent school-based diagnosis of developmental dyslexia, confirmed by special education departments within the previous 12 months. Diagnoses were based on standardized Arabic literacy assessments covering reading accuracy, fluency, phonological awareness, and rapid automatized naming. Children were classified as dyslexic if they performed at least 1.5 standard deviations below the mean on two or more measures. The typically developing group (n = 23) included students with no history of learning difficulties and performance within the expected range on the same standardized literacy assessments. To minimize potential confounding factors, groups were matched as closely as possible on demographic variables including age, gender, and socioeconomic status. In addition, a non-verbal reasoning test (Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices) was administered to both groups to ensure cognitive equivalence. Only students scoring within the average range (≥ 25th percentile) were included in the final sample. Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of all the study participants. All the participants were enrolled in class 3 of schools working under MoE and all residents of Abu Dhabi. Table 1 Demographics of the study participants Variable Sub-variable TDC CDD Total n (%) n (%) N (%) Gender Male 14 15 29 Female 13 13 26 Age 8 11 11 22 9 16 17 33 Nationality Emirati 15 16 31 Expatriate 12 12 24 The inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study participants are described in Fig. 1 . 3.3. Dyslexia Diagnosis Only students who received a dyslexia diagnosis based on their academic records were included in this research. The schools' standardized exams, which evaluated comprehension, phonological awareness (PA), RAN, word reading accuracy, and word reading speed, were used to make these diagnoses. The participants' profiles already included the scores in relation to age norms. These tests were not re-administered because of the pre-existing data. Rather, individuals' school reports were used to create subgroups. This strategy made sure that researchers made use of the thorough diagnostic data that was already available, preserving the intervention's integrity and focus. 3.4. Instruments The following instruments were used to assess EFs and reading performance: 3.4.1. Inhibition The Stroop Color-Word Test (Stroop, 1935 ), adapted for Arabic, was used to investigate the EF of inhibition by assessing the ability to suppress automatic word reading in favor of naming the ink color. Students were presented with incongruent stimuli, such as the word " أحمر(red)" printed in blue ink and instructed to name the ink color while ignoring the word meaning. The amount of time students took to finish the inhibition task determined their score. This task is particularly suited for Arabic-speaking populations due to its linguistic adaptation, ensuring cultural and cognitive relevance (Ibrahim, 2024 ). The results were analyzed by comparing the time taken (in seconds) to complete the inhibition task by children with dyslexia and typical readers. 3.4.2. RAS The RAS task was employed to investigate the EF of RAS. The RAS task was adapted from the RAS, Letters and Numbers subtest described by Wolf ( 1986 ) and modified by using culturally relevant objects and single-digit numbers familiar to Arabic-speaking children. For example, objects commonly found in the region (e.g., "تفاحة" for apple, "قلم" for pen, etc.) and numbers (e.g., "واحد" for one, "اثنان" for two, etc.) were used in the task. Written word forms were not used. The choice of pictorial and numeric stimuli was intended to minimize orthographic demands and reduce the risk of confounding reading ability with EF performance. During the task, students first practiced a simple naming sequence (e.g., objects only or numbers only) to ensure familiarity with the procedure. In the alternating phase, they will switch between naming an object and a number of an adjacent stimulus. The total time taken to complete the task was documented by researchers. This task has been shown to be effective in identifying deficits in cognitive switching among students with dyslexia compared to their typically developing peers (Wolf, 1986 ). The data allowed the researchers to conduct a detailed analysis of RAS performance, enabling comparisons of processing speed and switching accuracy between the two groups. 3.4.3. Combined Inhibition/Switching A combined inhibition/switching task was adapted from the Color–Word Interference Test (in this task, the student must rapidly switch between reading words written inside a box and identifying the color of the text) by using culturally relevant symbols and categories familiar to Arabic-speaking children. For example, cards featured symbols such as Arabic numerals, geometric shapes, and culturally significant images (e.g., "هلال" for crescent, "نجمة" for star). This task required students to sort cards according to changing rules (e.g., color, shape, or number), assessing their CF and ability to inhibit previously learned rules while transitioning to new sorting criteria. During the task, participants initially sorted cards according to one rule (e.g., color) until a change in rule was indicated (e.g., switch to shape or number), with explicit instruction, requiring them to infer the new rule. The D-KEFS Inhibition/Switching score was calculated as described by Delis et al. ( 2001 ) based on the time taken by each student to complete the task. This method provides insights into both inhibition and switching abilities, which are critical components of EFs. Additionally, comparative analysis between typical readers and students with dyslexia will help identify specific challenges faced by the latter group in managing CF and inhibitory control (Papadopoulos et al., 2020 ). 3.4.4. Reliability and Validity A pilot study was conducted with 10 participants (5 from each group) to ensure the cultural and linguistic validity of the tasks. Feedback from the pilot study was used to refine instructions, stimuli, and scoring protocols. To ensure the reliability of the tasks used to assess EFs and reading performance, internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was evaluated. Cronbach’s alpha for EFs (Inhibition Time, RAS Time, Inhibition/Switching Time) was 0.96, showing excellent reliability and strong internal consistency within EF measures. 3.5. Data Analysis Data was analyzed using SPSS software. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable. Independent samples t-tests were conducted to compare EF performance between typical readers and students with dyslexia. A significance level of p < 0.05 was calculated to assess the significance of differences (Mesquida & Lakens, 2024). Effect sizes were calculated using Hedges' correction, as t-test was applied and sample size of the two groups under study were not equal (n = 23 for TDC and n = 22 for CDD) . 3.6. Ethical Considerations Ethical approval was obtained from Al Ain University’s institutional review board (IRB). Written informed consent was obtained from parents or guardians, and verbal assent was also obtained from participants. All data was anonymized, and participants had the right to withdraw from the study at any time. 4. Results Significant differences were observed in the performance of typical students and students with dyslexia regarding the EFs under study. The inhibition performance of typical students was significantly higher (Table 2 ) as they took less time (39.73 ± 2.38 seconds) to complete the task as compared to students with dyslexia, who took significantly more time (53.41 ± 2.57 seconds). A similar pattern was also observed for RAS and combined inhibition/switching (Table 2 ), as typical students took less time (39.73 ± 2.38 seconds and 56.91 ± 3.30 seconds) as compared to students with dyslexia (53.41 ± 2.57 seconds and 72.59 ± 2.80 seconds), respectively. Table 2 Comparison of (a) inhibition, (b) RAS, and (c) inhibition/switching performance between TDC (n = 23) and CDD (n = 22) EF Task Group Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean T Df P-value Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% CI of the Difference Lower Upper Inhibition Time (sec) Typical 32.26 3.427 0.715 -18.376 43 < 0.0001* -16.057 0.874 -17.820 -14.295 Dyslexia 48.32 2.297 0.490 RAS Time (sec) Typical 39.74 2.378 0.496 -18.509 43 < 0.0001* -13.670 0.739 -15.159 -12.180 Dyslexia 53.41 2.576 0.549 Inhibition/Switching Time (sec) Typical 56.91 3.302 0.688 -17.127 43 2.5), with combined inhibition/Switching showing slightly larger effect size than RAS and inhibition. The pattern of results suggests that both EFs measures reliably distinguish between typical readers and those with dyslexia (Table 2 ). The extremely large effect sizes suggest these measures could be valuable for screening and assessment purposes. Table 3 Calculation of Effect sizes (Hedges' correction) for the studied EF parameters Parameter Hedges' correction Standardizer a Point Estimate 95% Confidence Interval Lower Upper Inhibition Time (sec) 2.983 -5.384 -6.647 -4.105 RAS Time (sec) 2.521 -5.423 -6.694 -4.137 Combined Inhibition/Switching Time (sec) 3.124 -5.018 -6.213 -3.808 a. The denominator used in estimating the effect sizes. Hedges' correction uses the pooled standard deviation, plus a correction factor. 5. Discussion Inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching are three EFs that were compared between third-grade Arabic-speaking children with developmental dyslexia and those with typical literacy development. These EFs are crucial for children as they help in literacy development by controlling attention, blocking out irrelevant stimuli, and transitioning between various language representations (Altemeier et al., 2008 ; Varvara et al., 2014 ). Children with dyslexia in the present study showed lower performance across all EF tasks compared to their normally developing peers. In this regard, the present study’s results are consistent with literature that provides evidence that frequent poor executive functioning (e.g., CF and inhibition) is observed in children with dyslexia (Chutko et al., 2022 ; Dadgar et al., 2022 ; Peng et al., 2022 ). The EF tasks’ performances of children with dyslexia in the current study are in line with the meta-analysis by Ober et al. ( 2020 ), which highlighted a substantial link between EF impairments and poor comprehension and decoding abilities. Our findings further supports the observation of Peng et al. ( 2022 ) that children with dyslexia typically suffer with activities demanding multiple cognitive demands (i.e., combined inhibition/switching). The present study's results are especially important in the context of Arabic because of the Arabic language's diglossia and orthographic intricacy. Children who speak Arabic face additional cognitive demands as they have to process both vowelized and unvowelized forms as well as switch between spoken dialects and MSA (Abu-Liel et al., 2021 ; Ibrahim, 2024 ). EF impairments in children with dyslexia make it difficult to manage these cognitive demands. So, the present study is in line with Abu-Liel et al. ( 2021 ) and Ibrahim ( 2024 ). The RAS impairments of children with dyslexia in the current study also support the observations made by Farah et al. ( 2021 ) and Wolf ( 1986 ), who reported RAS to be a reliable indicator of reading fluency. Furthermore, the gap between typical children and children with dyslexia in the present study regarding combined inhibition/switching performance confirms the findings of Papadopoulos et al. ( 2020 ), who contended that integrated EF tasks present substantial difficulties for children with dyslexia since they need constant cognitive adaptation. The extremely large effect sizes reported in Table 2 make a compelling case for the inclusion of EF measures in dyslexia screening protocols. Given that these EF tasks (inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching) were able to reliably differentiate between groups, their diagnostic utility should not be underestimated. These findings align with recommendations by Farah et al. ( 2021 ) and Peng et al. ( 2022 ) that call for more integrative, multi-domain approaches to dyslexia assessment, especially in non-Western linguistic environments where conventional tools may fall short. 5.1. Implications and Recommendations The findings of the present study have significant implications for intervention designs and educational policy in Arabic-speaking contexts. Early evaluation of EF abilities should be incorporated into regular literacy assessments since there is a definite correlation between EF performance and reading ability, especially in a linguistically difficult educational settings like Arabic. Additionally, EF training, which includes games and activities that improve inhibitory control, CF, and processing speed, should be incorporated into intervention programs for students with dyslexia in addition to phonological awareness and decoding abilities. Compared to language-focused therapies alone, such multimodal techniques are probably going to yield greater long-term results. This study’s results recommend that EF tests should be used in early grades of school to find out children who could struggle with reading. With Cohen’s d values indicating highly sensitive differentiation, EF tasks such as the Stroop test, RAS naming, and rule-switching activities could be adopted as reliable screening tools for identifying children at risk for dyslexia. Educators should be trained regarding the value of EFs, and they should be provided with tools that can help children with dyslexia in their regular classrooms. Promotion of the creation of standardized EF assessment instruments that are tailored to Arabic language and culture should be done. 5.2. Limitations Despite the study's strong evidence, it must be noted that it has some limitations. First, the generalizability is limited by the sample size (N = 55). The results of the future studies would be strengthened with a bigger and more varied cohort of other Arabic-speaking locations. Second, a moment in time is captured by the design. Longitudinal research could shed light on how EF deficiencies change over time and affect the development of literacy. Third, pre-existing academic tests, which might differ in rigor and consistency between schools, served as the basis for the dyslexia diagnosis in the present study. Fourth, Several EF tasks included reading or naming components. In particular, the Stroop Color–Word task inherently involves orthographic processing, which may inflate group differences because children with dyslexia are expected to struggle more with word-based tasks. Although the RAS task was adapted to use pictures and numbers to minimize reading demands, this overlap between EF and literacy skills should be considered when interpreting results. Fifth, despite their cultural adaptation, the EF tests might not accurately represent the range of executive functioning in every situation, and dependability would be improved by additional psychometric validation. 6. Conclusion It is concluded CDD perform worse than TDC in executing EF tasks specifically (inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching). By concentrating on Arabic, a language with particular linguistic requirements, the results close a significant gap in the literature. Improving reading skills of CDD and promoting inclusive literacy development in Arabic-speaking areas may be possible by addressing EF impairments through early identification and focused intervention. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors are very thankful to all the associated personnel in any reference that contributed in/for the purpose of this research. Funding This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Competing interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Ethical approval Ethical approval was granted by Al Ain University’s Ethical Committee (approval number: COP/ AREC/ AN/25_27) for the present study, Consent to Participate Verbal consent was taken from all the study participants before their participation in the study. Availability of data and materials The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Abu-Liel, A. K., Ibrahim, R., & Eviatar, Z. (2021). Reading in multiple Arabics: effects of diglossia and orthography. Reading and Writing , 34 (9), 2291–2316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10143-8 Abu-Rabia, S. (2019). The Role of Short Vowels in Reading Arabic: A Critical Literature Review. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research , 48 (4), 785–795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-019-09631-4 Al-Sughaiyer, I. A., & Al-Kharashi, I. A. (2004). Arabic morphological analysis techniques: A comprehensive survey. 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Trends in Neuroscience and Education , 36 , 100239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2024.100239 Saiegh-Haddad, E. (2012). Literacy Reflexes of Arabic Diglossia. In M. Leikin, M. Schwartz, & Y. Tobin (Eds.), Current Issues in Bilingualism: Cognitive and Socio-linguistic Perspectives (pp. 43–55). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2327-6_3 Saiegh-Haddad, E., Laks, L., & McBride, C. (2022). Handbook of Literacy in Diglossia and in Dialectal Contexts (1st ed.). Springer Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80072-7 Saiegh-Haddad, E., & Schiff, R. (2025). Diglossic and Orthographic Features of Reading Comprehension in Standard Arabic: The Primacy of the Spoken Language. Reading Research Quarterly , 60 (1), e598. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.598 Scanlon, D. M., & Anderson, K. L. (2020). Using Context as an Assist in Word Solving: The Contributions of 25 Years of Research on the Interactive Strategies Approach. 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Rapid alternating stimulus naming in the developmental dyslexias. Brain and Language , 27 (2), 360–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(86)90025-8 Yassin, R., Share, D. L., & Shalhoub-Awwad, Y. (2020). Learning to Spell in Arabic: The Impact of Script-Specific Visual-Orthographic Features [Original Research]. Frontiers in Psychology , 11 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02059 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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12:34:13","extension":"html","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":145165,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7786621/v1/e16e8cd4541ed3330740a6d0.html"},{"id":93775966,"identity":"9e164ed0-1fa3-40be-bccc-f9df5ac2bc84","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 12:34:12","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":149980,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSelection criteria for the study participants\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7786621/v1/99cb29bb1feba22dfdaff640.png"},{"id":96605172,"identity":"7fa868be-4cdb-44fc-8007-3a8557937540","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-24 09:20:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":977580,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7786621/v1/5fc23784-67b5-4545-9f1d-01fd6e69b7f0.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eExamining the Level of Executive Functions in the Arabic Language among Third-Grade Students with Typical Literacy Development and Dyslexia\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eExecutive functions (EFs) are a collection of cognitive capabilities that enable individuals to participate in socially appropriate and purposeful actions, while also facilitating adaptive responses to novel circumstances, governed by conscious regulation (Diamond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Cognitive capabilities such as inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching are fundamental to students' academic learning (Khng, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These skills are critical for excelling in academic performance, particularly in the area of literacy development (Altemeier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Dyslexia and related learning disabilities are linked with impairments in EFs (Moura et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Varvara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), and as a result, the reading ability of the affected individuals is compromised (Khan \u0026amp; Lal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe condition in which an individual is unable to recognize, spell, and decode words accurately or fluently is termed as dyslexia (Roitsch \u0026amp; Watson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Snowling et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Dyslexia is considered a neurological disorder rather than just a simple problem related to reading because multiple domains, such as EFs, working memory (WM), and phonological processing, are associated with it (Pasqualotto \u0026amp; Venuti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). EFs help an individual better organize information, manage cognitive loads, and apply cognitive flexibility (CF). All these processes play a vital role in literacy development and becoming a successful reader (Butterfuss \u0026amp; Kendeou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Cristofori et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough extensive research related to EFs and dyslexia has been conducted in English or other alphabetic languages, studies related to the Arabic language are scarce in this regard (Metanis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Arabic language is a Semitic language with a unique orthographic structure and complexity in diglossia (spoken vs. written forms) (Saiegh-Haddad \u0026amp; Schiff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These characteristics make Arabic language a challenge, especially for children with dyslexia (Abu-Liel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Schiff \u0026amp; Saiegh-Haddad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, Arabic short vowel diacritical markings can also affect reading fluency and comprehension in students with dyslexia (Abu-Rabia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eArabic is the native language of approximately 420\u0026nbsp;million people, yet studies on literacy development and EFs in Arabic are few. Therefore, understanding the association between EFs and dyslexia in Arabic-speaking children is crucial. This study examines inhibition, RAS, and simultaneous inhibition/switching in Arabic-speaking third graders with standard literacy development and dyslexia.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Dyslexia in the Arabic Language\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Arabic language presents unique challenges for literacy development due to its diglossia nature and orthographic complexity (Abu-Liel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the written form of the language, while spoken Arabic dialects vary across regions (Azaz \u0026amp; Alfaifi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This diglossia creates additional cognitive demands on Arabic-speaking children, as they must acquire proficiency in both the spoken and written forms of the language (Ibrahim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Tarabeh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eArabic orthography is distinguished by its complex morphology, right-to-left script, and the use of diacritical markings to indicate short vowels (Jouhar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Yassin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Diacritical markings in completely vowelized text offer crucial phonological information that facilitates word recognition (Midhwah \u0026amp; Alhawary, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, readers must rely on morphological and contextual signals to correctly identify words in a non-vowelized text, which is more common in advanced reading materials (Asadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Deficits in phonological awareness and morphological processing cause children with dyslexia to have difficulty reading non-vowelized Arabic text frequently (Oweini \u0026amp; Awada, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Smail et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumerous studies have shown that WM, phonological awareness, and rapid automatized naming (RAN) are important indicators of reading proficiency in Arabic-speaking children (Alhwaiti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Gharaibeh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Hassanein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Mercugliano et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, the role of EFs, such as inhibition and switching, in Arabic-speaking children with dyslexia remains underexplored. Given the orthographic and cognitive demands of the Arabic language, it is likely that EF deficits play a significant role in the reading difficulties experienced by children with dyslexia.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. EFs and Literacy Development\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEFs are very important for literacy development because they help children control their behavior, attention, and thought processes during reading and writing (Cartwright \u0026amp; Duke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The three core EFs under investigation in this study are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInhibition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ability to suppress irrelevant or automatic responses to focus on task-relevant information.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRAS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe capacity to switch between tasks, stimuli, or mental sets efficiently.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCombined Inhibition/Switching\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe integrated ability to inhibit automatic responses while simultaneously switching between tasks or mental representations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch has shown that deficits in EFs are associated with reading difficulties, particularly in children with dyslexia (Varvara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Inhibitory control and CF issues are common in children with dyslexia, which can make it difficult for them to interpret words, focus when reading, and balance conflicting cognitive demands (Cadime et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). A meta-analysis by Ober et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) reported that children with dyslexia consistently perform poorly on EF tasks compared to their typically developing peers, underscoring the importance of these processes in literacy development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. The Role of EFs in Dyslexia\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEFs, particularly inhibition and switching, are integral to the reading process (Tarchi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Inhibition allows readers to suppress irrelevant information and focus on decoding words, while switching enables them to alternate between phonological and orthographic representations (Ruffini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). For example, a child reading an unfamiliar word must inhibit automatic responses and use phonological decoding strategies to identify the correct pronunciation (Scanlon \u0026amp; Anderson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, CF allows readers to shift between decoding unfamiliar words and integrating contextual information to comprehend the overall meaning of a sentence (Duke \u0026amp; Cartwright, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren with dyslexia often exhibit deficits in these EFs, leading to difficulties with word recognition, fluency, and comprehension (Khan \u0026amp; Lal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Inhibition deficits can result in frequent reading errors, as children may struggle to suppress automatic but incorrect responses (Jaffe \u0026amp; Bolger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Smith-Spark \u0026amp; Gordon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). RAS is a key predictor of reading fluency (Lee \u0026amp; Stoodley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Deficits in RAS have been consistently observed in children with dyslexia across different languages (Farah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Combined inhibition/switching, which requires the integration of inhibitory control and CF, is also impaired in children with dyslexia, further exacerbating their reading difficulties (Peng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Theoretical Framework\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEFs (inhibition, WM, and CF) control learning and goal-directed behavior (Diamond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These abilities are essential for literacy because they help children manage their focus, block out unimportant stimuli, and adjust to changing reading requirements (Butterfuss \u0026amp; Kendeou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Reading difficulties are closely linked to deficiencies in EFs, which are more noticeable in children with dyslexia (Ober et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Varvara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The theoretical framework of the present study is based upon the Dual-Route Model (Coltheart et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) and the Working Memory Model (Baddeley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the Dual-Route Model proposed by Coltheart et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e), there are 2 pathways that help in word recognition. The lexical approach serves to identify well-known whole words. The phonological or sub-lexical approach uses grapheme-phoneme relations to decode unknown words. Both routes face significant obstacles in Arabic. Diglossia, the difference between spoken dialects and written MSA, reduces word familiarity and affects the lexical path (Asadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Frequent removal of diacritical marks impedes the sub-lexical pathway, leading to increased ambiguity in meaning and pronunciation (Jouhar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Strong inhibition (to disregard unnecessary dialectal forms) and CF (to switch between decoding techniques) are necessary for the effective use of both routes, and dyslexia frequently impairs these abilities (Saiegh-Haddad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Working Memory Model by Baddeley (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) describes that reading requires the coordinated functioning of the phonological loop (involved in storing linguistic information on a temporary basis), the visuospatial sketchpad (involved in managing orthographic and visual data), and the central executive (involved in directing attention and managing cognitive control). The right-to-left script, diacritical markings, and morphological intricacy of Arabic orthography put a significant strain on the executive and visuospatial systems (ALmenaye, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Due to their frequently low WM capacity, children with dyslexia find it more difficult to remember both visual and phonological information at the same time when reading (Menghini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eYoung readers have particular difficulties in reading due to the diglossia nature and complex morphology of the Arabic language (Saiegh-Haddad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Ambiguity is increased in un-vowelized text by diacritical omission (Mijlad \u0026amp; Younoussi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, complex word analysis is necessary for morphological parsing (Al-Sughaiyer \u0026amp; Al-Kharashi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The cognitive challenges of transitioning between spoken and written forms are increasing in diglossia (Ibrahim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The cognitive strain on EFs is increased by these traits. As a result, EF impairments may make it more difficult for Arabic-speaking children with dyslexia to handle these demands.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5. Rationale of the present study\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile previous studies have examined the role of EFs in dyslexia, most of this research has been conducted in non-Arabic languages. There is a need for studies that investigate EFs in Arabic-speaking children, particularly in relation to dyslexia. The present study addresses this gap by examining inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching in third-grade students with typical literacy development and those with dyslexia in the Arabic language. As these three EF components are mostly linked to dyslexia across a variety of languages (Farah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), therefore, researchers gave priority to inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching. The requirements of Arabic reading (e.g., asking children to flexibly shift between un-vowelized and vowelized words, and suppress competing dialectal pronunciations) are directly linked to inhibition and switching (Balshe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Another component of EF is WM or updating (which is important for development of literacy in general) but has been less consistently impaired in dyslexia and is not as closely related to the orthographic difficulties of Arabic (Ibrahim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, researchers chose a small number of EF tasks that were age-appropriate and most theoretically related to our study topics to reduce testing fatigue in young participants. Understanding the cognitive deficits associated with dyslexia in Arabic-speaking populations will help inform the development of culturally and linguistically appropriate interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5. Research Question\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study will address the following research question:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat are the differences in inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching performance between third-grade students with typical literacy development and those with dyslexia?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe procedure of the current study consists of the following steps:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst, the researchers obtained permission from the Ministry of Education (MoE) in Abu Dhabi to recruit participants from several primary schools within the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe principal and the teachers working in the respective schools also gave the researcher permission to conduct the study at the schools. Additionally, the researcher obtained consent from parents to allow their children to participate in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe researchers trained the educators in the schools regarding the conduction of tests related to inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching in the classroom settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eA pilot study was conducted prior to the conduction of the present study to ensure the validity and reliability of the instruments used in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThen, the researchers used stratified random sampling to select participants from these schools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 55 students with diverse socioeconomic backgrounds were selected for the study and divided into 2 groups: typically developing children (TDC) and children with developmental dyslexia (CDD).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth groups were subjected to tasks related to inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching in their regular classroom for 30\u0026ndash;45 minutes sessions. The researchers made sure that the sessions are conducted in a quiet, distraction-free environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe researchers collected the data at the end of the sessions, combined it with different schools, and then analyzed it.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Research Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe researchers adopted a comparative cross-sectional design to examine the levels of EFs among third-grade students in the Arabic language, focusing on children with typical literacy development and those with dyslexia. This appropriate design allowed for direct comparisons between the two groups on the specified EFs, namely inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching (Cai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Participants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 55 third-grade Arabic-speaking students (23 typically developing children and 22 students with dyslexia) were recruited from public schools in Abu Dhabi. The selection process followed a two-stage procedure. First, stratified random sampling was used at the school level to ensure representation across socioeconomic backgrounds. Second, within each school, children were screened for eligibility based on school records and teacher referrals. This approach allowed us to identify students with documented dyslexia diagnoses, who represented a smaller proportion of the population, while also recruiting a comparison group of typically developing readers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe dyslexia group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22) consisted of students with a recent school-based diagnosis of developmental dyslexia, confirmed by special education departments within the previous 12 months. Diagnoses were based on standardized Arabic literacy assessments covering reading accuracy, fluency, phonological awareness, and rapid automatized naming. Children were classified as dyslexic if they performed at least 1.5 standard deviations below the mean on two or more measures. The typically developing group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23) included students with no history of learning difficulties and performance within the expected range on the same standardized literacy assessments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo minimize potential confounding factors, groups were matched as closely as possible on demographic variables including age, gender, and socioeconomic status. In addition, a non-verbal reasoning test (Raven\u0026rsquo;s Coloured Progressive Matrices) was administered to both groups to ensure cognitive equivalence. Only students scoring within the average range (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;25th percentile) were included in the final sample. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the demographic characteristics of all the study participants. All the participants were enrolled in class 3 of schools working under MoE and all residents of Abu Dhabi.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDemographics of the study participants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-variable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTDC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCDD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNationality\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmirati\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExpatriate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study participants are described in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Dyslexia Diagnosis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOnly students who received a dyslexia diagnosis based on their academic records were included in this research. The schools' standardized exams, which evaluated comprehension, phonological awareness (PA), RAN, word reading accuracy, and word reading speed, were used to make these diagnoses. The participants' profiles already included the scores in relation to age norms. These tests were not re-administered because of the pre-existing data. Rather, individuals' school reports were used to create subgroups. This strategy made sure that researchers made use of the thorough diagnostic data that was already available, preserving the intervention's integrity and focus.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4. Instruments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe following instruments were used to assess EFs and reading performance:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.1. Inhibition\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Stroop Color-Word Test (Stroop, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1935\u003c/span\u003e), adapted for Arabic, was used to investigate the EF of inhibition by assessing the ability to suppress automatic word reading in favor of naming the ink color. Students were presented with incongruent stimuli, such as the word \" أحمر(red)\" printed in blue ink and instructed to name the ink color while ignoring the word meaning. The amount of time students took to finish the inhibition task determined their score. This task is particularly suited for Arabic-speaking populations due to its linguistic adaptation, ensuring cultural and cognitive relevance (Ibrahim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The results were analyzed by comparing the time taken (in seconds) to complete the inhibition task by children with dyslexia and typical readers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.2. RAS\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe RAS task was employed to investigate the EF of RAS. The RAS task was adapted from the RAS, Letters and Numbers subtest described by Wolf (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) and modified by using culturally relevant objects and single-digit numbers familiar to Arabic-speaking children. For example, objects commonly found in the region (e.g., \"تفاحة\" for apple, \"قلم\" for pen, etc.) and numbers (e.g., \"واحد\" for one, \"اثنان\" for two, etc.) were used in the task. Written word forms were not used. The choice of pictorial and numeric stimuli was intended to minimize orthographic demands and reduce the risk of confounding reading ability with EF performance. During the task, students first practiced a simple naming sequence (e.g., objects only or numbers only) to ensure familiarity with the procedure. In the alternating phase, they will switch between naming an object and a number of an adjacent stimulus. The total time taken to complete the task was documented by researchers. This task has been shown to be effective in identifying deficits in cognitive switching among students with dyslexia compared to their typically developing peers (Wolf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). The data allowed the researchers to conduct a detailed analysis of RAS performance, enabling comparisons of processing speed and switching accuracy between the two groups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.3. Combined Inhibition/Switching\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA combined inhibition/switching task was adapted from the Color\u0026ndash;Word Interference Test (in this task, the student must rapidly switch between reading words written inside a box and identifying the color of the text) by using culturally relevant symbols and categories familiar to Arabic-speaking children. For example, cards featured symbols such as Arabic numerals, geometric shapes, and culturally significant images (e.g., \"هلال\" for crescent, \"نجمة\" for star). This task required students to sort cards according to changing rules (e.g., color, shape, or number), assessing their CF and ability to inhibit previously learned rules while transitioning to new sorting criteria. During the task, participants initially sorted cards according to one rule (e.g., color) until a change in rule was indicated (e.g., switch to shape or number), with explicit instruction, requiring them to infer the new rule. The D-KEFS Inhibition/Switching score was calculated as described by Delis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) based on the time taken by each student to complete the task. This method provides insights into both inhibition and switching abilities, which are critical components of EFs. Additionally, comparative analysis between typical readers and students with dyslexia will help identify specific challenges faced by the latter group in managing CF and inhibitory control (Papadopoulos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.4. Reliability and Validity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA pilot study was conducted with 10 participants (5 from each group) to ensure the cultural and linguistic validity of the tasks. Feedback from the pilot study was used to refine instructions, stimuli, and scoring protocols. To ensure the reliability of the tasks used to assess EFs and reading performance, internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha) was evaluated. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha for EFs (Inhibition Time, RAS Time, Inhibition/Switching Time) was 0.96, showing excellent reliability and strong internal consistency within EF measures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5. Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData was analyzed using SPSS software. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable. Independent samples t-tests were conducted to compare EF performance between typical readers and students with dyslexia. A significance level of p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 was calculated to assess the significance of differences (Mesquida \u0026amp; Lakens, 2024). Effect sizes were calculated using Hedges' correction, as t-test was applied and sample size of the two groups under study were not equal (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23 for TDC and n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22 for CDD) .\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.6. Ethical Considerations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was obtained from Al Ain University\u0026rsquo;s institutional review board (IRB). Written informed consent was obtained from parents or guardians, and verbal assent was also obtained from participants. All data was anonymized, and participants had the right to withdraw from the study at any time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eSignificant differences were observed in the performance of typical students and students with dyslexia regarding the EFs under study. The inhibition performance of typical students was significantly higher (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) as they took less time (39.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.38 seconds) to complete the task as compared to students with dyslexia, who took significantly more time (53.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.57 seconds). A similar pattern was also observed for RAS and combined inhibition/switching (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), as typical students took less time (39.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.38 seconds and 56.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.30 seconds) as compared to students with dyslexia (53.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.57 seconds and 72.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.80 seconds), respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparison of (a) inhibition, (b) RAS, and (c) inhibition/switching performance between TDC (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23) and CDD (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF Task\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStd. Deviation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStd. Error Mean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Difference\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStd. Error Difference\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95% CI of the Difference\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInhibition Time (sec)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTypical\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.427\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.715\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-18.376\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-16.057\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.874\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-17.820\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-14.295\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDyslexia\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.490\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRAS Time (sec)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTypical\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.378\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.496\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-18.509\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-13.670\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.739\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-15.159\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-12.180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDyslexia\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.576\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.549\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInhibition/Switching Time (sec)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTypical\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.302\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.688\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-17.127\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-15.678\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.915\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-17.524\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-13.832\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDyslexia\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.806\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.598\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"12\"\u003e*Significant at 0.01 level\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll EF measures show very large effect sizes (Cohen's d\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2.5), with combined inhibition/Switching showing slightly larger effect size than RAS and inhibition. The pattern of results suggests that both EFs measures reliably distinguish between typical readers and those with dyslexia (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The extremely large effect sizes suggest these measures could be valuable for screening and assessment purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalculation of Effect sizes (Hedges' correction) for the studied EF parameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHedges' correction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStandardizer\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePoint Estimate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95% Confidence Interval\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInhibition Time (sec)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.983\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5.384\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6.647\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.105\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRAS Time (sec)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.521\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5.423\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6.694\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.137\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCombined Inhibition/Switching Time (sec)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.124\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5.018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6.213\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3.808\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ea. The denominator used in estimating the effect sizes. Hedges' correction uses the pooled standard deviation, plus a correction factor.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eInhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching are three EFs that were compared between third-grade Arabic-speaking children with developmental dyslexia and those with typical literacy development. These EFs are crucial for children as they help in literacy development by controlling attention, blocking out irrelevant stimuli, and transitioning between various language representations (Altemeier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Varvara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Children with dyslexia in the present study showed lower performance across all EF tasks compared to their normally developing peers. In this regard, the present study\u0026rsquo;s results are consistent with literature that provides evidence that frequent poor executive functioning (e.g., CF and inhibition) is observed in children with dyslexia (Chutko et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Dadgar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Peng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe EF tasks\u0026rsquo; performances of children with dyslexia in the current study are in line with the meta-analysis by Ober et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), which highlighted a substantial link between EF impairments and poor comprehension and decoding abilities. Our findings further supports the observation of Peng et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) that children with dyslexia typically suffer with activities demanding multiple cognitive demands (i.e., combined inhibition/switching).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study's results are especially important in the context of Arabic because of the Arabic language's diglossia and orthographic intricacy. Children who speak Arabic face additional cognitive demands as they have to process both vowelized and unvowelized forms as well as switch between spoken dialects and MSA (Abu-Liel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ibrahim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). EF impairments in children with dyslexia make it difficult to manage these cognitive demands. So, the present study is in line with Abu-Liel et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Ibrahim (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe RAS impairments of children with dyslexia in the current study also support the observations made by Farah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Wolf (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e), who reported RAS to be a reliable indicator of reading fluency. Furthermore, the gap between typical children and children with dyslexia in the present study regarding combined inhibition/switching performance confirms the findings of Papadopoulos et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who contended that integrated EF tasks present substantial difficulties for children with dyslexia since they need constant cognitive adaptation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe extremely large effect sizes reported in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e make a compelling case for the inclusion of EF measures in dyslexia screening protocols. Given that these EF tasks (inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching) were able to reliably differentiate between groups, their diagnostic utility should not be underestimated. These findings align with recommendations by Farah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Peng et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) that call for more integrative, multi-domain approaches to dyslexia assessment, especially in non-Western linguistic environments where conventional tools may fall short.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1. Implications and Recommendations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of the present study have significant implications for intervention designs and educational policy in Arabic-speaking contexts. Early evaluation of EF abilities should be incorporated into regular literacy assessments since there is a definite correlation between EF performance and reading ability, especially in a linguistically difficult educational settings like Arabic. Additionally, EF training, which includes games and activities that improve inhibitory control, CF, and processing speed, should be incorporated into intervention programs for students with dyslexia in addition to phonological awareness and decoding abilities. Compared to language-focused therapies alone, such multimodal techniques are probably going to yield greater long-term results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study\u0026rsquo;s results recommend that EF tests should be used in early grades of school to find out children who could struggle with reading. With Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d values indicating highly sensitive differentiation, EF tasks such as the Stroop test, RAS naming, and rule-switching activities could be adopted as reliable screening tools for identifying children at risk for dyslexia. Educators should be trained regarding the value of EFs, and they should be provided with tools that can help children with dyslexia in their regular classrooms. Promotion of the creation of standardized EF assessment instruments that are tailored to Arabic language and culture should be done.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2. Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the study's strong evidence, it must be noted that it has some limitations. First, the generalizability is limited by the sample size (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;55). The results of the future studies would be strengthened with a bigger and more varied cohort of other Arabic-speaking locations. Second, a moment in time is captured by the design. Longitudinal research could shed light on how EF deficiencies change over time and affect the development of literacy. Third, pre-existing academic tests, which might differ in rigor and consistency between schools, served as the basis for the dyslexia diagnosis in the present study. Fourth, Several EF tasks included reading or naming components. In particular, the Stroop Color\u0026ndash;Word task inherently involves orthographic processing, which may inflate group differences because children with dyslexia are expected to struggle more with word-based tasks. Although the RAS task was adapted to use pictures and numbers to minimize reading demands, this overlap between EF and literacy skills should be considered when interpreting results. Fifth, despite their cultural adaptation, the EF tests might not accurately represent the range of executive functioning in every situation, and dependability would be improved by additional psychometric validation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIt is concluded CDD perform worse than TDC in executing EF tasks specifically (inhibition, RAS, and combined inhibition/switching). By concentrating on Arabic, a language with particular linguistic requirements, the results close a significant gap in the literature. Improving reading skills of CDD and promoting inclusive literacy development in Arabic-speaking areas may be possible by addressing EF impairments through early identification and focused intervention.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are very thankful to all the associated personnel in any reference that contributed in/for the purpose of this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was granted by Al Ain University\u0026rsquo;s Ethical Committee (approval number: COP/ AREC/ AN/25_27) for the present study,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVerbal consent was taken from all the study participants before their participation in the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbu-Liel, A. K., Ibrahim, R., \u0026amp; Eviatar, Z. (2021). Reading in multiple Arabics: effects of diglossia and orthography. \u003cem\u003eReading and Writing\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e34\u003c/em\u003e(9), 2291\u0026ndash;2316. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10143-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11145-021-10143-8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbu-Rabia, S. (2019). 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Learning to Spell in Arabic: The Impact of Script-Specific Visual-Orthographic Features [Original Research]. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02059\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02059\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Executive functions in Arabic language, dyslexia, Inhibition, RAS, Combined inhibition/switching","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7786621/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7786621/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the role of executive functions (EFs), specifically inhibition, rapid automatic switching (RAS), and combined inhibition/switching, in Arabic-speaking third-grade students with typical literacy development and those with developmental dyslexia. Given the orthographic complexity and diglossia of the Arabic language, this research aimed to determine whether deficits in EFs contribute to the reading difficulties experienced by children with dyslexia. A comparative cross-sectional design was used to assess 55 students (23 typical, 22 dyslexic) from Abu Dhabi schools using adapted tasks measuring inhibition (Stroop Test), RAS, and combined inhibition/switching. The results revealed that students with dyslexia performed significantly worse across all EF tasks and demonstrated slower processing times. These findings underscore the critical role of EFs in literacy development and highlight the need for early EF screening and intervention strategies in Arabic-speaking educational settings. The research advances our knowledge of dyslexia in non-Western languages and recommends culturally appropriate EF training for struggling readers.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Examining the Level of Executive Functions in the Arabic Language among Third-Grade Students with Typical Literacy Development and Dyslexia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-17 12:34:08","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7786621/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"be4843ee-fb83-4b3a-81ee-6543c7031c8e","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-23T21:53:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-17 12:34:08","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7786621","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7786621","identity":"rs-7786621","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}