Comparative Analysis of Antifungal Properties and Metabolic Profiles in Seagrass Species from Rameshwaram Island, India

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Apart from their ecological significance, seagrasses have potent antifungal properties, indicating potential for diverse applications. The antifungal efficacy of methanolic extracts derived from five seagrass species (Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis, and Syringodium isoetifolium) was assessed against selected pathogenic fungal strains using the agar well diffusion method. The methanolic extract from different seagrasses exhibited notable antifungal activity against Penicillium chrysogenum (Cymodocea serrulata- 19.5mm Halodule pinifolia- 19.9mm Halophila ovalis- 10.3mm Syringodium isoetifolium- 9.6mm). Least inhibition was noted to Candida albicans (Cymodocea serrulate - 4.6 mm, Cymodocea rotundata - 4.3mm and Halodule pinifolia - 6.5 mm). The findings show that methanolic extracts from seagrasses Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule pinifolia, and Enhalus acoroides at concentrations of 500µg and 1000µg exhibited remarkable inhibition of almost all pathogens under study. The samples exhibiting significant antifungal activity were subjected to metabolite profiling using GC-MS. A total of 23 compounds were identified in the methanolic extract of seagrass Cymodocea serrulata, while 25 compounds were detected in the methanolic extract of Halodule pinifolia. This study lays the groundwork for developing bioactive natural products with applications in phytosanitary practices, offering the additional advantages of environmental safety and economic viability. The ecology and the significance of seagrass ecosystems of Rameshwaram Islands is also shown in the manuscript. Seagrass Antifungal activity Penicillium chrysogenum Aspergillus niger Agar well diffusion GC MS Analysis Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Introduction Resistance of fungal pathogens against antifungal agents is an emerging threat worldwide. Most fungal pathogens are opportunistic and are dormant in healthy organisms. In immunocompromised individuals, they show their pathogenicity. When antimicrobial resistance is discussed globally, anti-fungal resistance is often under-recognized, thus making it an emerging crisis. Fungal pathogens infecting humans are evolving resistance to almost all licensed antifungal drugs (Fisher et al. 2022). The antifungal agents in current use exert complications such as host toxicity, unfavorable pharmacokinetics, a limited spectrum of activity, and the development of resistance (Lee et al. 2023). Changing lifestyles and food habits have made the modern human population largely immunodeficient. This causes fungal diseases to invade and cause substantial mortality. Limited available antifungal agents induce primary and secondary drug resistance in yeasts and molds (Perfect & Ghannoum, 2020), risking treatment procedures. Hence, there is an urgent need to discover new natural anti-fungal bioactive compounds that can be employed for treatment procedures after characterization and clinical studies. Bioactive compounds derived from nature and organisms have played a significant role in discovering new pharmacological products. Natural bioactive compounds are diverse chemical small molecules that play crucial roles in cellular processes (Heard et al. 2021). Seagrasses, a group of submerged marine angiosperms, have emerged as fascinating research topics due to their numerous ecological significance and broad potential applications. Seagrass meadows are ecologically valuable due to their services, such as functioning as coastal primary producers, shoreline protectors, and unique habitats for other organisms. Seagrasses support ecosystems by providing provisioning, cultural, regulatory, and ecosystem services. They consist of providing nourishment by serving as nursery areas for 20% of the world's most important fisheries (Unsworth et al. 2019), coastal protection through sediment stabilization, wave reduction, and carbonate sediment provision (Boudouresque et al. 2016; Yadav & Prasad 2023), and water quality enhancements through the capture of human pathogens and high levels of nutrients (Lamb et al. 2017) (Fig. 1 ). The phytoremediation property of seagrass is explained for heavy metal uptake (Lee et al. 2019; Prasad et al. 2022). The carbon sequestration ability of seagrasses as a blue carbon ecosystem is also well documented (Ricart et al. 2020; Stankovic et al. 2021). Despite all these positive ecological services, these fragile and threatened ecosystems are decreasing rapidly in many parts of the world due to pollution, increasing turbidity, sedimentation, eutrophication, and habitat loss (Veettil et al. 2022). While seagrasses have long been recognized for their critical role in marine ecosystems, new research has shown a previously unknown aspect of their biological potential to inhibit pathogenic fungal growth. This discovery caught academic interest and paved the way for developing novel biotechnological solutions with far-reaching implications. Seagrasses are the only marine flowering plants (Division Angiospermae) with about 72 species that fall into four families: Posidoniaceae , Zosteraceae , Hydrocharitaceae , and Cymodoceaceae , all of which are in the order Alismatales (class of monocotyledons) and grow in fully saline environments (Duffy et al. 2019). Based on earlier assessments, seagrasses are found in 191 countries and six global bioregions that extend the tropical and temperate seas. The vast Tropical Indo-Pacific region has the highest seagrass biodiversity globally, with up to 14 species coexisting on reef flats. In India, the total seagrass coverage spans 516.59 km 2 . Palk Bay has the most extensive area (329.70 km 2 ), preceding Chilika Lake (85.47 km 2 ) and the Gulf of Mannar (69.11 km 2 ). Scattered seagrass patches have also been observed in the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat (16.99 km 2 ), Kadmat and Kalpeni of Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea (0.72 km 2 ), and Andaman and Nicobar in the Bay of Bengal (14.6 km 2 ) (Geevarghese et al. 2018). Seagrasses, belonging to families such as Zosteraceae and Hydrocharitaceae, thrive in shallow coastal regions around the world, forming extensive underwater meadows that provide crucial habitats for many marine species. Seagrasses grow vertically and horizontally to absorb sunlight and nutrients from the water and sediment, with blades reaching upwards and roots down and sideways (Fig. 2 . Seagrass meadow ). Because they rely on light for photosynthesis, they are typically found at shallow depths with significant sunlight levels. Seagrass beds or meadows are capable of being monospecific or mixed. One or a couple of species usually prevail in temperate areas, whereas tropical beds are typically diverse. Beyond their ecological importance, some of which were mentioned above, seagrasses have garnered attention for their intriguing chemical composition, which includes a rich reservoir of secondary metabolites. Researchers show that the secondary metabolites give seagrass meadows the sturdiness to become resilient in their stressfully changing conditions. This is because secondary metabolites protect seagrasses against biotic and abiotic stress (Akula & Ravishankar, 2011; Khare et al. 2020). In another study, it was observed that the growth-related metabolites (primary metabolites) were abundant during spring, and stress-related metabolites (secondary metabolites) were abundant during summer (Jung et al. 2022). These products act as deterrents and barriers against biotic invasion and resist stress (Jan et al. 2021). In addition to providing self-defense, the secondary metabolites form some valuable natural products with bioactivities. These compounds have evolved as a defense mechanism against various environmental stressors, including fungal pathogens. In Asian oceanic areas, scrutiny of bioactivity studies has revealed the potential of seagrass against cancer, AIDS, inflammatory conditions, arthritis, malaria, and a wide range of viral, bacterial, and fungal infections. The antimicrobial activity of seagrasses is a huge prospect in the current situation and needs more attention (Amirah et al. 2021; Nur et al. 2021). According to the literature, seagrasses also possess other potential activities like antioxidant, anticancerous, antilarval, and antidiabetic potential (Ghandourah et al. 2021; Kalaivani & Amudha, 2021; Setyoningrum et al. 2020; Sharma et al. 2021; Messina et al. 2021; Bharathi et al. 2019; Purnomo et al. 2019). Researchers have examined the potential of extracts derived from different seagrass species to inhibit the growth and proliferation of pathogenic fungi. These investigations have yielded promising results and revealed the unique chemical profiles of seagrasses, shedding light on the specific bioactive compounds responsible for their antifungal activity. Fungal diseases are initiated by eukaryotic microorganisms and are more challenging to identify and cure than bacterial infections. Being eukaryotic, these pathogens have similarities with host cells. Fungus as a pathogen is neglected to be considered as other pathogens. However, there are emergent fungal diseases, such as fungal keratitis and Exseohilum rostratum , which result in a rare cause of meningitis (Rodrigues & Nosanchuk, 2021). More than 1.5 million people are killed each year by fungal diseases, which affect nearly a billion individuals worldwide (Bongomin et al. 2017). Since 2013, the Leading International Fungal Education (LIFE) portal has projected the global burden of deadly fungal diseases at over 5.7 billion people (more than 80% of the global population) (Bongomin et al. 2017). WHO released the first-ever list of health-threatening fungi (World Health Organization, 2022). Dr. Hanan Balkhy says that fungal infections have emerged from the shadow created by bacterial diseases and anti-microbial resistance (ET Health World 2023). It is now known that fungal infections are becoming more resistant to treatments. With some anti-fungal agents under clinical studies, currently, there are only four classes of antifungal medicines. The increasing trend in fungal infection has raised the need for new antifungal medications, as many currently available drugs have several side effects, are inefficient against novel or recurring fungal strains, and cause rapid progression of resistance. Antifungal compounds are in great demand due to the development of resistance and toxicity to hosts. This requires the search for new molecules with antifungal activity (Armengol et al. 2021). New antifungals are expected to combine critical factors such as long-term viability, outstanding efficacy, low toxicity, and low manufacturing costs. Previous investigations found that seagrasses produce secondary metabolites that act as a defense against marine pathogens (Gono et al. 2022). In recent years, the scientific community has systematically explored the antifungal properties inherent to seagrasses. In a recent study, the antifungal activity of sulfated polysaccharide of Cymodocea nodosa was evaluated, and the zone of highest inhibition was observed against Candida tropicalis (18 mm), Aspergillus niger (15 mm), and Fusarium oxysporum (14.3 mm) (Kolsi et al. 2017). The current study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the phytochemical profile and antifungal potential of methanolic extracts of five different seagrasses ( Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis , and Syringodium isoetifolium ) against selected pathogenic fungal strains using scientific evidence and empirical data. The article also shows the result of phytochemical profiling using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) of the methanolic extract of the seagrass varieties studied. The study aims to offer insights into the potential applications of compounds derived from seagrasses in pharmaceuticals and other industries. This study also aims to contribute to our understanding of seagrasses as a valuable source of natural antifungal agents by synthesizing empirical findings and a comprehensive review of existing scientific literature. Moreover, it highlights the ecological and economic implications of utilizing these remarkable marine plants in the quest for sustainable ways of tackling fungal pathogens, ultimately paving the way for creative developments across various scientific disciplines and industrial sectors. Materials and methods General experimental procedure Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was done using a QP2020 model instrument (Shimadzu) equipped with an AOI 20i autosampler.Column SH Rxi MS (30m x 0.25mm x 0.25µm) was used. Instruments used for the phytochemical analysis include Spectrophotometer: UV –VIS Spectrophotometer, Thermo scientific, Orion Aquamate 8000, pH meter: 361 9322, Systronics, Water bath Rotek Plus: 1990 RotekPlus Cat No: PSW-07, Hot air oven: Rotek 2333 B & C Industries Cat No: RHOM-120. Inoculum details: Inoculums were procured from The Microbial Type Culture Collection and Gene Bank (MTCC) Chandigarh, Government Medical College Thiruvananthapuram, and T D Medical College, Alappuzha. Study area : Fresh samples of seagrasses were collected from nearby areas of Sangumal Beach (9°17'30.59"N lat; 79°19'26.12"E long), situated on Rameshwaram Island, Tamil Nadu, India, (Fig. 3 ) in January 2022. The study area falls within the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve marking a pioneering effort in India and South East Asia, stretching from Pamban Island (Rameshwaram) to Tuticorin in the Bay of Bengal (latitudes 08°47′N − 09°15′N and longitudes 78°12′E 79°14′E). This area was chosen for sampling due to the varying and unique characteristics of the ocean current pattern with seasonal variations, topography, and anthropogenic activities. Sangumal Beach is situated in Palk Bay on Rameswaram Island (9°17' N latitudes; 79°19' E longitudes) and attracts tourists throughout the year owing to the famous pilgrimage place, the Ramanathaswamy temple. A sewage outlet neighboring the current study area discharges sewage from Rameshwaram Island. Especially the seagrass beds in the sampling area exhibit distinct characteristics: They become visible during the lowest low tide in the southwest monsoon period, extending up to a distance of 1–2 km from the coast, whereas during the northeast monsoon period, they remain submerged even at low tide due to the opposing current from the Bay of Bengal flowing towards the coast (Sulochanan et al. 2010). All these factors are relevant to the sampling for the study because they influence the seagrass plants in various ways, including adaptability, growth, and the presence of bioactive compounds. Seagrass collection and preparation To ensure the preservation of their inherent qualities, the seagrasses were expeditiously transferred to the laboratory in zip lock bags, maintaining a temperature of 4℃ throughout transportation. Upon reaching the laboratory, the seagrass samples were cleansed rigorously with tap water to remove debris and epiphytic organisms. Surface sterilization was done using 10% ethanol for three minutes, followed by one minute in 3% sodium hypochlorite, and again in 10% ethanol for three minutes. Then, the samples were thoroughly washed twice in autoclaved distilled water (Supraphon et al. 2013). Taxonomic authentication was done with the help of Dr. Prakash K.S. of Annamalai University. Subsequently, the cleaned specimens were air-dried at ambient room temperature for one week until a consistent weight was achieved. Following desiccation, the dried seagrasses were ground into a fine powder using a high-speed mixer grinder. The powdered seagrass material was then securely stored in separate airtight containers reserved for subsequent analytical procedures. The overall aim, objective, and work plan of this study are represented schematically in Fig. 4 . Plant Extraction Plant extraction serves as the crucial initial phase in the investigation of plant species, as it plays a predominant role in extracting bioactive constituents from plant materials, thereby facilitating their subsequent isolation and characterization. The dried and powdered seagrass samples were subjected to extraction using methanol over eight days (Emmclan et al. 2022). The methanol extract was selected due to the observations made by earlier researchers that the maximum yield (Ishnava et al. 2012) and best activity was obtained in this extract (Kannan et al. 2010; Yuvaraj et al. 2012). Following the extraction period, the supernatant was carefully separated by filtration to refine the extracts further. The resultant extracts were then concentrated using a rotary evaporator under vacuum conditions, maintaining a temperature of 40°C. The concentrated extracts were subsequently subjected to complete desiccation within an oven at the same temperature (40°C) and were securely stored at 4°C, ensuring their stability for subsequent analytical investigations. Phytochemical analysis The phytochemical compositions of methanolic extracts derived from five distinct seagrass species ( Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis, and Syringodium isoetifolium ) were systematically examined using established analytical techniques. Quantification of carbohydrates (Yemm & Willis, 1954), protein (Lowry et al. 1951), lipids (Folch et al. 1957), ash (Marsham et al. 2007), fiber (Horwitz, 1975), phenols (Sadasivam & Manickam, 1992), flavonoids (Zhishen et al. 1999), tannins (Burns, 1971), carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen (Augier et al. 1982) was carried out through standard methodologies. Antifungal activity by agar well diffusion method : The Agar well diffusion method is widely used to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of the test sample. Inoculums were procured from The Microbial Type Culture Collection and Gene Bank (MTCC) Chandigarh, Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram, and T D Medical College, Alappuzha. Four strains collected from MTCC include Candida albicans MTCC. No. 227, Rhizopus stolonifer MTCC No 958, Aspergillus niger MTCC. No. 872 and Pencillium chrysogenum MTCC No. 5108. Other three strains include Aspergillus terrus, Aspergillus fumigatus , and Rhizopus oryzae. The procured samples were sub-cultured in nutrient agar slants and nutrient broth. Mueller-Hinton agar and Potato Dextrose Agar MH096 HiMedia were poured on glass petri plates of the same size and allowed to solidify in a ratio of 1:1. A standardized inoculum of the test organism was uniformly spread on the surface of the plates using sterile cotton swabs. Four wells with a diameter of 8mm (20 mm apart from one another) were punched aseptically with a sterile cork borer in each plate. The test samples were added into the wells designated T1 (500µg concentrated extract) and T2 (1000µg concentrated extract) from 10mg/ml stock. Clotrimazole (40µl from 300 mcg/ml stock) and the solvent used for sample dilution were added as positive and negative controls, respectively. Clotrimazole is a broad-spectrum antimycotic drug primarily utilized in curing various fungal diseases, making it an excellent positive control for antifungal activity. The plates were incubated for 48 hours at 27ºC ± 1ºC, under aerobic conditions. After incubation, the plates were observed, and the zone of fungal growth inhibition around the wells was measured in mm (Magaldi, 2004). Metabolite profiling of positive samples using GC-MS The analysis by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) was conducted using a QP2020 model instrument (Shimadzu) equipped with an AOI 20i autosampler for doing metabolite profiling of the samples. The analysis employed an SH Rxi MS column with dimensions of 30 meters long, 0.25 millimeters in internal diameter, and a stationary phase thickness of 0.25µm. High-purity helium gas (99.999% purity) was the carrier gas maintained at a constant 1.2 mL/min flow rate. The injection volume was set at 0.5 µL in a split mode at a split ratio of 10. The injection temperature was held constant at 300°C. In comparison, the column temperature was programmed from an initial isothermal phase at 70°C for 1 minute, followed by a gradual increase at 100°C/min rate up to a final isothermal phase at 280°C, which was sustained for 10 minutes. The ion source temperature was maintained at 220°C, and the interface temperature was held at 240°C. The mass spectra were acquired using an ionization energy of 70 electronvolts (eV) in the Electron Impact (EI) mode. The entire GC-MS analysis procedure encompassed a total runtime of 30 minutes. Identification of Components The annotation and identification of phytocompounds was achieved by comparing the mass spectra of methanol extract with the extensive library resources provided by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST-17). This process involved cross-referencing the acquired mass spectrum with the comprehensive 62,000 pattern database in the NIST library. Through this comparison, the phytocomponents present in the methanolic extract were discerned, enabling the determination of their respective structures, retention time, molecular formulas, and chemical nomenclature. Results and discussion Phytochemical analysis In the current investigation, the phytochemical screening of the methanolic extract of five distinct seagrass species ( Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis, and Syringodium isoetifolium ) was systematically conducted. The quantification of key components, including carbohydrates, protein, lipids, ash, fiber, phenols, flavonoids, and tannins, was done meticulously using standard methodologies, and the results are comprehensively presented (In supplementary files Table 1 ). The carbohydrate content of the seagrasses studied varied from 2.38 to 7.85%, with Cymodocea species having the most prevalent carbohydrate contents. This is consistent with the findings of Pradheeba et al. (2011) and Rengasamy et al. (2013), who found Cymodocea rotundata to have the highest carbohydrate content (8.7 mg g1). The protein content varied from 5.19 to 13.40%, with Cymodocea rotundata having the highest protein content. Immaculate et al. (2018) estimated protein content to be 19.1% in the Cymodocea genus. According to Athiperumalsami et al. (2008), the high protein content of seagrasses suggests an exciting possibility for utilizing natural marine resources in either raw or processed form to address an ongoing issue of nutritional deficiency in nations with limited infrastructure. The concentration of lipids went from 2.71% in Cymodocea rotundata to 9.36% in Halodule pinifolia , which was nearly identical to studies done by Rengasamy et al. (2013). The percentage of fiber content varied from 17.5 to 24.92% in the current study, with Cymodocea rotundata having the highest. Similarly, Yamamuro and Chirapart (2005) and Rengasamy et al. (2013) observed a high fiber content in Cymodocea rotundata (26.7%), which is consistent with prior research (Dall et al. 1992; Torbatinejad et al. 2007). Fiber is a vital constituent in a healthy diet that is critical for human health because it gives a variety of functional advantages, such as stool bulking, and physiological advantages, such as cholesterol reduction, glycemic control, and weight management through fermenting of different fibers by the gut microbiome. Furthermore, numerous dietetic fiber constituents have antioxidant and immunological activity. In this context, seagrasses demonstrated potential antioxidant (Mettwally et al. 2021; Thinh et al. 2023; Kavitha et al. 2022; Sitania et al. 2023) and anti-diabetic properties (Dilipan et al. 2023). The proportion of ash observed in this study was closely comparable in all species studied, ranging from Cymodocea rotundata (17.94%) to Halodule pinifolia (23.76%). According to the current study findings, Halodule pinifolia exhibits higher concentrations of the essential elements being investigated, namely carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with 34.06%, 5.08%, and 2.52%, respectively. Syringodium isoetifolium has the lowest carbon (23.05%) and hydrogen (3.7%) content, while Halophila ovalis has the lowest nitrogen (1.65%). The current observations are also paralleled by a previous investigation on Thai seagrasses (Yamamuro & Chirapart, 2005). Figure 5 gives a visualization of the results through the Sankey chart, showing the phytochemical analysis of the methanolic extract of seagrasses under study. Antimicrobial compounds, including phenol, flavonoids, and tannin, were also quantified in this study. When compared to other seagrass species, H. pinifolia had a significant amount of tannin (9.531mg g − 1 ) and flavonoids (0.69mg g − 1 ), while Halophila ovalis contained the most phenol (0.94 mg g − 1 ) content. Cymodocea rotundata has the least amount of phenol (0.39 mg g − 1 ) and flavonoid (0.29 mg g − 1 ) content, while Syringodium isoetifolium has the least amount of tannin (1.445mg g − 1 ). Phenolics, the most abundant class of natural substances in plants, exhibit an array of biological properties, especially antifungal activity (Simonetti et al. 2020). Tangon et al. (2021) analyzed the secondary metabolites of H pinifolia to find its potential as a pharmaceutical source and found that this seagrass contained several active secondary metabolites. Figure 6 shows the visualization of results as a Sankey chart of quantification of antifungal compounds in methanolic extract of five different seagrasses. Statistical analysis Correlation analysis: Correlation analysis was performed among the phytochemical data of the seagrasses. Figure 7 shows a positive correlation between carbohydrates and all other components, except lipids, ash, and phenols, with a maximum positive correlation with tannin (0.607mg g − 1 ) and a minimum with nitrogen (0.146%). The protein content negatively correlated to all components except fiber (0.638) and tannin (0.083). In the case of fiber, a positive correlation existed with carbohydrate (0.449) and protein (0.638). Protein and fiber had a high negative correlation, which only showed positive correlations with fiber (0.638%) and tannin (0.083mg g-1) for protein and carbohydrate (0.449%) and protein (0.638) for fiber, respectively. Antifungal compounds, such as phenol and flavonoids, were negatively correlated with carbohydrates (phenol and carbohydrate: -0.389 and flavonoid and carbohydrate: -0.233), protein (phenol and protein: -0.676 and flavonoid and protein: -0.586), and fiber (phenol and fiber: -0.852 and flavonoid and fiber: -0.972). The essential element carbon was positively correlated with parameters except protein (-0.221), fiber (-0.229 and phenol (-0.059). The maximum positive correlation (0.953) was with hydrogen and the minimum positive correlation (0.407) was with lipids Except for protein (-0.407) and fiber (-0.390) hydrogen content was positively correlated with other parameters. In the case of nitrogen, a negative correlation was observed with protein (-0.215) and with fiber (-0.519). Similar to hydrogen, it showed a positive correlation with the rest of the parameters analyzed. Both hydrogen and nitrogen showed a positive correlation with all other parameters except protein (-0.407 for hydrogen and − 0.215mg g − 1 for nitrogen) and fiber (-0.390 mg g − 1 for hydrogen and − 0.519 mg g − 1 for nitrogen). Some of the correlation table values were close to zero, indicating that there may be no relationship between these variables. Antifungal activity The antifungal activity of the selected seagrass species, ( Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis and Syringodium isoetifolium) against selected pathogenic fungal strains was determined by the agar well diffusion method. Antifungal activity was shown as a clear or bland zone around the well of application of extracts and the width of the zone showed the intensity of the activity. The experimental findings revealed a significant and varied inhibitory effect of five distinct seagrass species, Cymodocea serrulata (A), Cymodocea rotundata (B), Halodule pinifolia (C), Halophila ovalis (D), and Syringodium isoetifolium (E), against the growth of the pathogenic fungal strains. Specifically, for Penicillium chrysogenum , the fungal growth within areas treated with different concentrations (500µg and 1000µg) of extract of Syringodium isoetifolium (6.5mm & 9.6mm), Halophila ovalis (6.2mm & 10.3mm), Halodule pinifolia (14.9mm & 19.9 mm) and Cymodocea serrulata (15mm & 19.5mm) exhibited notable inhibition. The methanolic extracts of Cymodocea rotundata demonstrated feeble inhibitory effects (6mm) around areas treated with 1000µg concentration. In the case of Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus fumigatus , the results indicate inhibitory activity by all seagrass extracts specifically at 1000µg concentration. The least inhibitory activity of methanolic extract of seagrasses was shown in the case of Candida albicans ( Cymodocea serrulata (4.6mm), Cymodocea rotundata (4.3mm), Halodule pinifolia (6.5mm), where methanolic extract of Halophila ovalis , and Syringodium isoetifolium shows no inhibitory effect. Specifically, only Cymodocea serrulata and Halodule pinifolia extracts exhibited activity at both concentrations in almost all strains. The antifungal activity of five different seagrasses and standard Clotrimazole against seven pathogenic fungal strains are shown in Fig. 8 . From the currently available literature, many researches shows that various seagrasses have antifungal properties. A recent study carried out to assess the in vitro efficacy of seagrass ( Cymodocea serrulata and Syringodium isoetifolium ) extract against the mycelial growth of Macrophomina phaseolina , indicated that the extract inhibited mycelial growth at 24, 48, and 72 hours after incubation (Somasundaram et al. 2023). In another investigation conducted on Thalassia hemprichii , a seagrass species collected from Egypt's coastal region, three compounds isolated from the crude extract (isoscutellarein 7-O-β-xylopyranoside-2″-O-sulfate, isoscutellarein 7-O—xylopyranoside, and isoscutellarein) were tested against Candida albicans . The results of this investigation suggest that the crude extract from Thalassia hemprichii has higher activity against Candida albicans (Hawas, 2014). Commercially available pharmaceuticals often contain phytochemicals extracted from marine organisms with potential bioactivities. A study conducted by Punginelli et al. (2021) showed the antifungal activity of seagrasses along with other potent activities. From the current investigation, it can be concluded that the methanol extract of the selected seagrasses has potential antifungal activity against pathogenic fungal strains. Hamisi et al. (2023) analyzed the antimicrobial properties of seagrasses in Tanzania, including Cymodocea serrulata and Thalassia hemprichii. They observed significant activity and also observed that extracts of these seagrasses are not otherwise toxic. The results provide a comprehensive overview of the antifungal activity of the five seagrass species against different pathogenic fungal strains (In supplementary files Table 2 ). In this study, the antifungal potential of five distinct seagrass species was investigated, namely Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis, Syringodium isoetifolium , against different prominent fungal strains. The graph explicitly shows that similar antifungal activity with the standard used was shown by Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule pinifolia , and Syringodium isoetifolium. The methanolic extracts of these two seagrasses were selected for bioactive metabolite profiling by GC-MS. The discovery of natural sources with potent antifungal properties is paramount in the hunt for novel and sustainable approaches to combat fungal infections. The experimental results unveiled the notable inhibitory effects of these seagrasses on fungal growth, shedding light on their potential as sources of natural antifungal agents. The outcomes of this investigation demonstrate a substantial inhibitory impact of seagrass extracts against Penicillium chrysogenum and feeble activity against Candida albicans . Notably, extracts derived from Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule pinifolia and Syringodium isoetifolium , when applied at 500µg and 1000µg, exhibited remarkable inhibition of fungal growth. This observation aligns with previous studies highlighting the antifungal properties of seagrasses, emphasizing their potential as valuable reservoirs of bioactive compounds with inhibitory effects on fungal pathogens (Emmanuel et al. 2016; Ross et al. 2008). Cymodocea rotundata, Halophila ovalis , and Syringodium isoetifolium extracts demonstrated inhibitory effects on fungal growth but more significantly at a higher concentration of 1000µg of all pathogens under study. This variation in inhibitory activity among seagrass species may be attributed to differences in their chemical composition, including the presence and concentration of bioactive compounds. Such variations have been reported in previous studies, underlining the influence of seagrass species-specific metabolite profiles on their antifungal properties (Ross et al. 2008; Felšöciová et al. 2020). Current findings reveal a comparatively weaker inhibitory activity of methanolic extracts of seagrasses against Candida albicans . Methanolic extracts of all seagrasses exhibited antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus , and Pencillium chrysogenum but exclusively at a concentration of 1000µg. This discrepancy in activity between the two tested fungal species may be attributed to variations in their susceptibility to the bioactive compounds in seagrass extracts. Such differences in fungal sensitivity to natural antifungal agents have been documented in previous studies and may be influenced by fungal species-specific factors (Bobbarala et al. 2009; Ikegbunam et al. 2016). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that tannins are the principal components responsible for the anti-fungal activity (Fig. 9 ). Tannins are a class of polyphenolic compounds that are located in the vacuoles or surface wax of plants. These secondary metabolites have astringent properties, which make them inedible and hence help plants to get protection from herbivores. There are reports of anti-fungal activity of tannins by different mechanisms of action (Fig. 10 ). Zhu et al. (2019) reported that tannins inhibit spore germination and mycelial growth of fungi. They also induce disruption of the cell wall and plasma membrane by blocking peptidoglycan formation (Dong et al. 2018), which results in the leakage of intra-cellular components. Latté and Kolodziej, (2000) showed that antifungal activity will depend on the structure of the tannin compounds. The phenolic hydroxyl group has been attributed to inhibiting enzyme activity (Scalbert, 1991). Tannins chelate with iron (Chung et al. 1998), inhibit the efflux pump (Tintino et al. 2016) and fatty acids (Wu et al. 2010). Plants produce secondary molecules, and the kind and amount of these depend on a variety of factors, including species, genotype, physiology, phase of development, and the surrounding environment. The ability of plants to produce metabolites is thought to be an adaptive response to stressful conditions in a demanding and dynamic growth environment (Narayani & Srivastava, 2017). The levels of different secondary plant materials affect the metabolic processes that lead to the accumulation of associated natural substances and are highly dependent on the growing conditions. The synthesis of secondary metabolites is also affected by oxalate and metal ions, especially heavy metals (Marschner, 1996). As a result, the metabolites found in seagrasses depend on growth stages, seasons, and other environmental factors. Based on the variations in the presence of metabolites, the intensity of each bioactivity is varied in different seasons and growth stages. Metabolite profiling of extracts using GC-MS analysis The samples showing prominent positive antifungal activities were subjected to metabolite profiling using GC MS. Twenty three compounds were found in the methanolic extract of seagrass Cymodocea serrulata and 25 compounds were found in the methanolic extract of Halodule pinifolia. The chromatogram of methanolic extract of Cymodocea serrulata and Halodule pinifolia are presented in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12 respectively. The active phytocompounds with their compound name, retention time, molecular formula, and molecular weight in the methanolic extract of Cymodocea serrulata and Halodule pinifolia are presented in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively. The current study also attempted to identify the compounds present in the sample showing positive antifungal activity (methanolic extract of Cymodocea serrulata and Halodule pinifolia ) using GC-MS. The 23 compounds found in the methanolic extract of seagrass Cymodocea serrulata included Cyclohexane, octyl-, Cetene, 2,4-Di-tert-butyl phenol, Methyl glycocholate, 3TMS derivative. The 25 compounds found in the methanolic extract of Halodule pinifolia. including compounds such as cyclododecanol, pentadecanal, n-hexadecanoic acid, neophytadiene, eicosane as major constituent. According to the existing literature, many of these compounds have potential bioactivities like anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities (Table 3 ) . According to a recent study, neophytadiene has anxiolytic-like activity and anticonvulsant effects in short-term experiments without sedative-locomotor effects. The findings of the experiments and the molecular docking analysis suggest that the GABAergic system may be involved in the anxiolytic and anticonvulsant activity of neophytadiene (Gonzalez-Rivera et al. 2023). A research investigation of acetone leaf extracts of South African medicinal plants with strong antifungal properties against Fusarium verticillioides , Aspergillus flavus , and Aspergillus ochraceous found identical outcomes for the presence of neophytadiene (Dikhoba et al. 2019). In a recent investigation, it was determined that n-hexadecanoic acid derived from the foliage of Ipomoea eriocarpa exhibits antioxidant properties and displays moderate antibacterial efficacy against S. aureus , B. subtilis , E. coli , and Klebsiella pneumoniae ( Ganesan et al. 2022). Eicosane, an alkane with chemical formula C 20 H 42 , has been identified in a recent study as possessing antioxidant properties, thereby paving the way for exploring its potential in pharmaceutical industries (Balachandran et al. 2023). According to recent scientific findings dotriacontane, a paraffin hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C 32 H 66 , demonstrates promising anticancer activity (Nair et al. 2023). Apart from the compounds listed in the table, most of the constituents separated from the extract of Cymodocea serrulate are reported to have various other bioactivities. Some of these compounds were found to be constituents of extracts with bioactivities along with several other components. 4-Trifluoro acetoxy tetradecane separated from the ethyl acetate fraction of the flower Cassia fistula showed antifungal, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties (Ibrahim et al. 2017). Another study shows the phytochemistry of the traditional medicinal herb Ruellia tuberosa with antioxidant activity and found the presence of methyl derivative of cyclodecanone along with other compounds (Farhan, 2023). 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol is reported to have toxicity against most of the organisms tested (Zhao et al. 2020). This compound is reported from a variety of sources such as microorganisms, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, monocots, and even animals. Essential oil isolated from Euphorbia heterophylla was found to contain 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol and the extract showed antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities, (Adedoyin et al. 2013). 13-Heptadecyn-1-ol was found to be one of the chemical constituents of Cyperus alternifolius L. , which is used as an herbal preparation for various activities, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anthelminthic, nematicide, etc., (Al-Gara et al 2019). Another researcher did a metabolic profiling of some edible mushrooms. Of the various compounds they identified through GC-MS, one was hexadecenoic acid and the mushrooms were reported to have many bioactivities such as antiviral, antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant, neurostimulant, and several other activities (Oni et al. 2020). 1,25-Dihyroxyvitamin D3, a TMS derivative found in the methanol extract of Cymodocea serrulata has a crucial role in human health. Vitamin D3 is also synthesized in human skin, but its deficiency is a global problem that requires supplementation (Deb et al. 2020). Spirost-8-en-11-one, 3-hydroxy- derivatives were also obtained from the seagrass extract that was earlier identified from Bauhinia tementosa (Balabhaskar & Vijayalakshmi, 2021) and Momordica charantia (Wowor et al. 2022). Bauhinia tementosa is used to treat inflammation of the liver, abscesses, tumors, and hyperlipidemia in traditional medicines of Asia and Africa. Momordica charantia is reported to have anti-diabetic properties. 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester is reported to have antioxidant and anticancer activity (Ukwubile et al. 2019). Shage and Amusan, (2020) reported antidiarrhoeal activity of 11-Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester isolated from Acacia nilotica L. Also, antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal activity was identified in Ethyl iso-allocholate (Al-Gara et al. 2019). Akshaya et al. (2021) have reported nematicidal activity in an ethyl acetate extract of mushrooms against M. incognita . Of the 23 phytochemical compounds identified from the extract of Euphorbia heterophylla L. had the compound Octasiloxane, 1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7,9,9,11,11,13,13,15,15-hexadecane methyl, and the plant are reported to have antidiabetic, and hepatoprotective activities. Finose and Gopalakrishnana, (2014) identified Octadecane, 1,1'-[1,3-propanediylbis(oxy)]bis- from the extract of Zingiber nimmonii rhizome, the oil of which is reported to have significant antifungal activity against human pathogenic fungi. Concerning the compounds identified from Halodule pinifolia that are not enlisted in Table 4, other bioactivities are reported. Krishnamurti and Sari, (2023) reported the antimalarial activity of the extract of Coriandrum sativum which contained Cyclododecanol as a component. The anxiolytic-like activity, antidepressant-like activity, and sedative properties of methanol extracts were already reported and Neophytadiene was identified from the extract, and the confirmation of these properties to be due to this compound was done (Gonzalez-Rivera et al. 2023). Anticancer activity of 2-Hexadecene 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl was identified from the leaf extract of Avicennia alba (Eswaraiah et al. 2020). The essential oil extracted from Euphorbia heterophylla , which showed cytotoxic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities had cis, cis-7,10, -Hexadecadienal and other compounds. This compound was also a component Adenia cissampeloides extract which showed a positive effect in managing hypertension and other diseases (Gayathri et al. 2024). The compound 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, (Z, Z,Z) has anti-inflammatory activity (Guerrero et al. 2017). Nisa et al. (2022) reported anticancer properties of Hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester. Kumar et al. (2021) reported anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic, and cancer-prevention properties in 12,15- Octadeca trienoic acid, ethyl ester (Z, Z, Z). Tyagi et al. (2021) reported the antibacterial and antioxidant properties of phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-, phosphite (3:1). Antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity of Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was reported (El-Sayed, 2012). The compound 2,4-Di-tert-butyl-phenol is attributed to have antilarval properties (Nguyen, 2014). The essential oil isolated from Xanthium strumarium , which contains E, E, Z-1,3,12-Nonadecatriene-5,14-diol was found to have antifungal properties (Parveen et al. 2017). Valente et al. (2018) reported the antioxidant capacity of Cholesta-5, 22-dien-3-ol, (3. beta)-. (5á) pregnane-3,20á-diol, 14à,18à- [4-methyl-3- oxo-(1-oxa-4-azabutane-1,4-diyl)]-, diacetate was one of the compounds presents in the Conocarpus erectus leaf oil which is reported to have cytotoxic and anticancerous activity (Safwat et al. 2018). An edible macro fungus Lentinus squarrosulus with the presence of Neophytadiene as one among its constituent phytochemicals showed antimicrobial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, hypocholesterolemic, and anticancer activity (Adeoye-Isijola et al. 2018). From the results of this research, it can be concluded that the majority of the components identified in methanolic extracts of Cymodocea serrulata and Halodule pninifolia have been recognized as antioxidants, antimicrobials, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and which is comparable with the results of recent research works on seagrasses (Das et al. 2023; Narayanan et al. 2023; Al-Ansari et al. 2023; Santoso et al. 2023). It is observed that a change in the environmental conditions changes the quantity of secondary materials and their content and composition (Jan et al. 2021). This is a beneficial aspect as far as anti-microbial contents are concerned. Since the quality of the bioactive content changes bit by bit every time according to the environmental conditions they are exposed to, the chance of development of resistance is minimal, unlike the engineered synthetic anti-microbial compounds. Xi et al. (2021) observed that since most pathogens have high genetic plasticity, it is necessary to use natural antimicrobial agents against pathogens. It was observed that the bioactive potential of metabolites produced by seagrasses varies according to the plant part, age, season, location, and solvent used for extraction (Wisespongpand et al. 2022). This also contributes to the diminished chance of resistance development in fungal pathogens. Ecology of seagrass meadows on Rameshwaram Island The global distribution of seagrasses is poorly studied and found to be about 1,60,000 sq. Km (Fig. 13 ) (Panayotidis et al. 2022). As per the field surveys and satellite data analyzed by the National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, 516.59 sq. km of seagrass meadow is in India (Times of India, 2024). The extent of seagrasses in India is shown in Fig. 14 . Rameswaram Beach of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost state of India, is one of the top 20 tourist destinations in the nation. This beach has a long bridge called the Pamban (meaning snake) Bridge, India’s oldest sea bridge, and the Rameswarm temple (shrine) offering 22 ‘thirthas’ (holy water bodies) (Indian Statistical Institute 2005). Devotees take baths in these thirthas to seek redemption. After bathing, they leave their clothes and belongings as a symbol of leaving their previous sinful life. The seagrass meadows on Rameshwaram Island are part of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve. A significant spread was recorded in seagrass meadows in the Pamban area of Rameshwaram 2004. From 2004 to 2007, the researchers recorded a loss in the extent of the meadows (Senthilkumar & Kannan, 2008). Umamaheswari et al. (2009) recorded a decrease (85.5 sq km) in the spread of seagrass meadows in Rameshwaram, highlighting the need for monitoring and conservation. They mapped 12 seagrass species in this area using satellite remote sensing. The survival and health of seagrasses are contributed by the three-stage symbiotic association between seagrasses, lucinid bivalves, and the sulfide-oxidizing bacteria residing in their gills (Van Der Heide et al. 2012). Rameshwaram Beach has a topography formed through the interaction of aeolian and marine processes (Prabakaran & Anbarasu, 2010). Thus, the topography contributes to the ecology and supports rich and diverse flora and fauna. India has a total of 16 seagrass species. Rameshwaram Islands has 12 identified species of seagrasses distributed either lushly or sparsely (Thangaradjou & Bhatt, 2018). Seagrasses are reported to have a natural biocidal property. Lamb et al. (2017) observed that seagrass ecosystems reduce exposure to bacterial pathogens and minimize pathogen risk to organisms, including humans. The ecosystem services provided by seagrasses vary significantly according to genus and species. Larger species are veterans in their ecological roles (Mtwana et al. 2016). Apart from this, these seagrass meadows and other meadows in Southeast Asia can contribute to the sequestration of 7.03% of CO 2 emissions, thus making them significant contributors to climate mitigation (Stankovic et al. 2021). Recently, these ecosystems have been threatened by pollution, including microplastics and heavy metals (Jeyasanta et al. 2020). Human activities also contribute to the reduction of seagrass meadow extent. Massive management plans are suggested to conserve this unique ecosystem (Senthilkumar &Kannan, 2008). Fungi in the Marine Environment and Antifungal property of Seagrasses Fungi are one of the main categories of organisms in marine environments, as in any other environment. They have many ecological roles, roles in biochemical cycles, symbiotic relationships (Amend et al. 2019; Deveau et al. 2018, Marchese et al. 2021), growth of other organisms enhancing nutrient uptake (Mosier et al. 2016), converting complex organic matter to simpler ones, food web dynamics, etc. However, there are many settings in which fungi create problems in marine ecosystems. Climate change-mediated temperature changes in oceans result in the virulent proliferation of virulent fungal strains, converting them to opportunistic pathogens that pose havoc to other organisms (Pérez-Llano et al. 2023). About 225 fungal species have been identified to affect fish, crustaceans, turtles, etc. (Sarmiento-Ramirez et al. 2014). The proliferation of pathogenetic fungi is further accelerated by the release of plastic debris into oceans, which provide an excellent habitat for the growth of pathogenic fungi. Studies have also shown that the fungi's community structure in debris differs greatly from the fungal diversity in the surrounding seawater (Philippe et al., 2023). The study also observed the pathogenicity of two marine fungi, Fusarium falciforme and F. keratoplasticum kills almost 90% of sea turtle embryos. Nature provides remedies for fungal attacks. Pech-Puch (2023) reported the antifungal potential of sponges from the Yucatan peninsula and was effective against Candida sp. Seagrasses have many fungal microbiomes associated with them, with distinct fungal diversity in roots, rhizomes, and leaves (Panno et al. 2013). They also observe that these fungal microbiomes perform significant roles in the degradation of recalcitrant compounds, detoxification, etc. Poli et al. (2020) show that by existing in mutualistic association, they aid in protecting the host. Harnessing fungal microbiomes in them does not restrict pathogenic fungal attacks in seagrasses. Hence, other marine organisms must have some methods to resist fungal attack. Many species of seagrasses have chemical mechanisms and signaling pathways for fungal defense (Ross et al. 2008). The environmental conditions to which seagrasses are exposed affect their anti-microbial activities (Messina et al. 2019). Conclusion Current research focused on finding the antifungal properties of five selected seagrass species collected from Rameswaram, India. As per previous reports, methanol was found to extract antifungal compounds and hence methanol extract was used for the study. Seven pathogenic fungal strains were used for checking susceptibility to the seagrass extract. Among the five seagrasses studied, Cymodocea serrulata and Halodule pinifolia exhibited higher antifungal properties. The phytochemical profiling of these two seagrasses was also done by GC-MS. Methanolic extract of Cymodocea serrulata showed the presence of 23 compounds and Halodule pinifolia showed 25 compounds. Many of these compounds have individual antifungal properties and are found in plant extracts with known antifungal activities. An analysis of previous reports of the biological activities of most of the phytoconstituents indicates a wide range of bioactivities including anticancer, antioxidant, antilarval, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, antihelminthic, antidiarrhoeal, antimalarial, and antidepressant-like activities. They also possess insecticidal, cytotoxic, neurostimulant, and hepatoprotective activities. Thus, the seagrasses in general and the selected seagrasses in specific have so many potential constituents that can be prospected for a variety of human ailments. Since marine angiosperms are exposed to many stresses on a daily, seasonal, and condition basis, the structural diversity and quantity of the potent bioactive compounds vary to a small extent, making it difficult for the pathogens to develop resistance. The findings of this research brought light on the antifungal potential of five different seagrasses, demonstrating their ability to inhibit the growth of Penicillium chrysogenum, Aspergillus niger and Apergillus fumigatus . These findings add to the expanding array of knowledge about the bioactive qualities of seagrasses and highlight their potential as natural antifungal agents. Further exploration into the specific bioactive compounds and their mechanisms of action could lead to the development of novel antifungal medications and other biologically active compounds with environmentally sustainable applications. Use of the anti-fungal potential of seagrasses for treating human fungal diseases will address five Sustainable Development Goals such as SDG 3, (Good Health and Well-Being), 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), 14 (Life Below Water), 15 (Life on Land) and 17 (Partnership for the Goals). Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable Consent for publication Not applicable Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests Funding This research received no external funding Authors’ contribution Hazeena M Ameen (HMA)- Writing the original draft, investigating, methodology, formal analysis, data curation, and conceptualization. Athira A S (AAS) Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Ayona Jayadev (AJ) Conceptualization, review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation. Geena Prasad (GP) Review & editing, Visualization, Resources, Formal analysis. Gayathri N P (GNP) Review & editing, Visualization, Formal analysis. Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the faculty and infrastructure facilities of ALL SAINTS’ COLLEGE, SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES, M G UNIVERSITY, and DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF KERALA, for providing the required facilities. They are also grateful to all of the research icons whose studies were referenced while developing this work for publication. Availability of data and materials All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files]. References Adedoyin BJ, Okeniyi SO, Garba S, Salihu L (2013) Cytotoxicity, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil extracted from Euphorbia heterophylla plant. Topclass J Herb Med 2:84–89 Adeoye-Isijola MO, Olajuyigbe OO, Jonathan SG, Coopoosamy RM (2018) Bioactive compounds in ethanol extract of Lentinus squarrosulus Mont-a Nigerian medicinal macrofungus. 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Pharm Biol 50(4):458–467. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2011.611948 Zhao F, Wang P, Lucardi RD, Su Z, Li S (2020) Natural sources and bioactivities of 2, 4-di-tert-butylphenol and its analogs. Toxins 12(1):35. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12010035 Zhao L, Chen J, Su J, Li L, Hu S, Li B, Chen T (2013) In vitro antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. J Agric Food Chem 61(44):10604–10611. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf403098y Zhishen J, Mengcheng T, Jianming W (1999) The determination of flavonoid contents in mulberry and their scavenging effects on superoxide radicals. Food Chem 64(4):555–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(98)00102-2 Zhu C, Lei M, Andargie M, Zeng J, Li J (2019) Antifungal activity and mechanism of action of tannic acid against Penicillium digitatum . Physiol Mol Plant Pathol 107:46–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmpp.2019.04.009 Tables Table 1 to 3 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Supplementary Files Table13.docx GraphicalAbstract.jpg Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5322551","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":375168166,"identity":"2796d3d2-c105-40c5-9eea-062037f55171","order_by":0,"name":"Hazeena M Ameen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"All Saints' College","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hazeena","middleName":"M","lastName":"Ameen","suffix":""},{"id":375168167,"identity":"08c4e261-7a47-4f4f-97fd-62ce3f1fb348","order_by":1,"name":"A S Athira","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"All Saints' 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":370191,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEcosystem services of seagrasses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/c8a66e32bdd456495ee74577.png"},{"id":69843076,"identity":"322bb06c-5460-4aa7-8711-9f58039470de","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-25 18:27:33","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1035825,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeagrass Meadow: Mixed bed of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e and \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThalassia sps. \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003etaken on January 2024 at Rameshwaram Island during low tide time.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/2efe37fc699aad2c9e6f252a.png"},{"id":69843072,"identity":"2e3dfea8-4063-451e-a5dd-2727c801de6c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-25 18:27:32","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":412915,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy area\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/21e37d0ff60b8e6a311e08e4.png"},{"id":69843084,"identity":"d407760d-ba3c-4128-9266-daf5089407e8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-25 18:27:33","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 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tannins\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/a89ced4f247a5272f998d442.png"},{"id":69843074,"identity":"313913fe-a5e9-43b6-89c5-694d3f273485","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-25 18:27:33","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":103212,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGC-MS Analysis: Chromatogram of methanolic extracts of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCymodocea serrulate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/dd5584af92ebda9cfde86e62.png"},{"id":69843320,"identity":"aa0d36a4-7fe7-4b9e-95b3-24586fabf455","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-25 18:35:33","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":127692,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGC-MS Analysis: Chromatogram of methanolic extract of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/a61554675f09d9c6fe9e0927.png"},{"id":69843080,"identity":"31667ccd-59a5-4a70-9497-29c9504e5e36","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-25 18:27:33","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":409702,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGlobal Distribution of Seagrasses (Cullen-Unsworth et al. 2018)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage22.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/97cfca16c48327394934ea2e.png"},{"id":69843083,"identity":"86470513-6b5c-49d8-b788-a01dae592c23","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-25 18:27:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":146188,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMap showing the distribution of Seagrass meadows in India\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage23.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/50d0e93ea97f8a95e39366c9.jpeg"},{"id":71105791,"identity":"4fa93950-e5d9-4a00-a392-2a848b3cb0dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-11 07:51:18","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":6136986,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/ac7596fc-496b-4229-bf52-6a89c4297655.pdf"},{"id":69843313,"identity":"3481ca02-0e62-426a-b712-be4189683479","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-25 18:35:32","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":32498,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table13.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/650d9a8af1aad2470ecabc64.docx"},{"id":69843632,"identity":"19deaacd-8e64-40f2-9030-4ecbe933f381","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-25 18:43:33","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1257561,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"GraphicalAbstract.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5322551/v1/24e559eff7d514eab08f046c.jpg"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Comparative Analysis of Antifungal Properties and Metabolic Profiles in Seagrass Species from Rameshwaram Island, India","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eResistance of fungal pathogens against antifungal agents is an emerging threat worldwide. Most fungal pathogens are opportunistic and are dormant in healthy organisms. In immunocompromised individuals, they show their pathogenicity. When antimicrobial resistance is discussed globally, anti-fungal resistance is often under-recognized, thus making it an emerging crisis. Fungal pathogens infecting humans are evolving resistance to almost all licensed antifungal drugs (Fisher et al. 2022). The antifungal agents in current use exert complications such as host toxicity, unfavorable pharmacokinetics, a limited spectrum of activity, and the development of resistance (Lee et al. 2023). Changing lifestyles and food habits have made the modern human population largely immunodeficient. This causes fungal diseases to invade and cause substantial mortality. Limited available antifungal agents induce primary and secondary drug resistance in yeasts and molds (Perfect \u0026amp; Ghannoum, 2020), risking treatment procedures. Hence, there is an urgent need to discover new natural anti-fungal bioactive compounds that can be employed for treatment procedures after characterization and clinical studies. Bioactive compounds derived from nature and organisms have played a significant role in discovering new pharmacological products. Natural bioactive compounds are diverse chemical small molecules that play crucial roles in cellular processes (Heard et al. 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeagrasses, a group of submerged marine angiosperms, have emerged as fascinating research topics due to their numerous ecological significance and broad potential applications. Seagrass meadows are ecologically valuable due to their services, such as functioning as coastal primary producers, shoreline protectors, and unique habitats for other organisms. Seagrasses support ecosystems by providing provisioning, cultural, regulatory, and ecosystem services. They consist of providing nourishment by serving as nursery areas for 20% of the world's most important fisheries (Unsworth et al. 2019), coastal protection through sediment stabilization, wave reduction, and carbonate sediment provision (Boudouresque et al. 2016; Yadav \u0026amp; Prasad 2023), and water quality enhancements through the capture of human pathogens and high levels of nutrients (Lamb et al. 2017) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The phytoremediation property of seagrass is explained for heavy metal uptake (Lee et al. 2019; Prasad et al. 2022). The carbon sequestration ability of seagrasses as a blue carbon ecosystem is also well documented (Ricart et al. 2020; Stankovic et al. 2021). Despite all these positive ecological services, these fragile and threatened ecosystems are decreasing rapidly in many parts of the world due to pollution, increasing turbidity, sedimentation, eutrophication, and habitat loss (Veettil et al. 2022). While seagrasses have long been recognized for their critical role in marine ecosystems, new research has shown a previously unknown aspect of their biological potential to inhibit pathogenic fungal growth. This discovery caught academic interest and paved the way for developing novel biotechnological solutions with far-reaching implications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeagrasses are the only marine flowering plants (Division Angiospermae) with about 72 species that fall into four families: \u003cem\u003ePosidoniaceae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eZosteraceae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHydrocharitaceae\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eCymodoceaceae\u003c/em\u003e, all of which are in the order Alismatales (class of monocotyledons) and grow in fully saline environments (Duffy et al. 2019). Based on earlier assessments, seagrasses are found in 191 countries and six global bioregions that extend the tropical and temperate seas. The vast Tropical Indo-Pacific region has the highest seagrass biodiversity globally, with up to 14 species coexisting on reef flats. In India, the total seagrass coverage spans 516.59 km\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Palk Bay has the most extensive area (329.70 km\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e), preceding Chilika Lake (85.47 km\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e) and the Gulf of Mannar (69.11 km\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e). Scattered seagrass patches have also been observed in the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat (16.99 km\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e), Kadmat and Kalpeni of Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea (0.72 km\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e), and Andaman and Nicobar in the Bay of Bengal (14.6 km\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e) (Geevarghese et al. 2018). Seagrasses, belonging to families such as Zosteraceae and Hydrocharitaceae, thrive in shallow coastal regions around the world, forming extensive underwater meadows that provide crucial habitats for many marine species. Seagrasses grow vertically and horizontally to absorb sunlight and nutrients from the water and sediment, with blades reaching upwards and roots down and sideways (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. \u003cb\u003eSeagrass meadow\u003c/b\u003e). Because they rely on light for photosynthesis, they are typically found at shallow depths with significant sunlight levels. Seagrass beds or meadows are capable of being monospecific or mixed. One or a couple of species usually prevail in temperate areas, whereas tropical beds are typically diverse.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond their ecological importance, some of which were mentioned above, seagrasses have garnered attention for their intriguing chemical composition, which includes a rich reservoir of secondary metabolites. Researchers show that the secondary metabolites give seagrass meadows the sturdiness to become resilient in their stressfully changing conditions. This is because secondary metabolites protect seagrasses against biotic and abiotic stress (Akula \u0026amp; Ravishankar, 2011; Khare et al. 2020). In another study, it was observed that the growth-related metabolites (primary metabolites) were abundant during spring, and stress-related metabolites (secondary metabolites) were abundant during summer (Jung et al. 2022). These products act as deterrents and barriers against biotic invasion and resist stress (Jan et al. 2021). In addition to providing self-defense, the secondary metabolites form some valuable natural products with bioactivities. These compounds have evolved as a defense mechanism against various environmental stressors, including fungal pathogens. In Asian oceanic areas, scrutiny of bioactivity studies has revealed the potential of seagrass against cancer, AIDS, inflammatory conditions, arthritis, malaria, and a wide range of viral, bacterial, and fungal infections. The antimicrobial activity of seagrasses is a huge prospect in the current situation and needs more attention (Amirah et al. 2021; Nur et al. 2021). According to the literature, seagrasses also possess other potential activities like antioxidant, anticancerous, antilarval, and antidiabetic potential (Ghandourah et al. 2021; Kalaivani \u0026amp; Amudha, 2021; Setyoningrum et al. 2020; Sharma et al. 2021; Messina et al. 2021; Bharathi et al. 2019; Purnomo et al. 2019). Researchers have examined the potential of extracts derived from different seagrass species to inhibit the growth and proliferation of pathogenic fungi. These investigations have yielded promising results and revealed the unique chemical profiles of seagrasses, shedding light on the specific bioactive compounds responsible for their antifungal activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFungal diseases are initiated by eukaryotic microorganisms and are more challenging to identify and cure than bacterial infections. Being eukaryotic, these pathogens have similarities with host cells. Fungus as a pathogen is neglected to be considered as other pathogens. However, there are emergent fungal diseases, such as fungal keratitis and \u003cem\u003eExseohilum rostratum\u003c/em\u003e, which result in a rare cause of meningitis (Rodrigues \u0026amp; Nosanchuk, 2021). More than 1.5\u0026nbsp;million people are killed each year by fungal diseases, which affect nearly a billion individuals worldwide (Bongomin et al. 2017). Since 2013, the Leading International Fungal Education (LIFE) portal has projected the global burden of deadly fungal diseases at over 5.7\u0026nbsp;billion people (more than 80% of the global population) (Bongomin et al. 2017). WHO released the first-ever list of health-threatening fungi (World Health Organization, 2022). Dr. Hanan Balkhy says that fungal infections have emerged from the shadow created by bacterial diseases and anti-microbial resistance (ET Health World 2023). It is now known that fungal infections are becoming more resistant to treatments. With some anti-fungal agents under clinical studies, currently, there are only four classes of antifungal medicines. The increasing trend in fungal infection has raised the need for new antifungal medications, as many currently available drugs have several side effects, are inefficient against novel or recurring fungal strains, and cause rapid progression of resistance. Antifungal compounds are in great demand due to the development of resistance and toxicity to hosts. This requires the search for new molecules with antifungal activity (Armengol et al. 2021). New antifungals are expected to combine critical factors such as long-term viability, outstanding efficacy, low toxicity, and low manufacturing costs. Previous investigations found that seagrasses produce secondary metabolites that act as a defense against marine pathogens (Gono et al. 2022). In recent years, the scientific community has systematically explored the antifungal properties inherent to seagrasses. In a recent study, the antifungal activity of sulfated polysaccharide of \u003cem\u003eCymodocea nodosa\u003c/em\u003e was evaluated, and the zone of highest inhibition was observed against \u003cem\u003eCandida tropicalis\u003c/em\u003e (18 mm), \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e (15 mm), and \u003cem\u003eFusarium oxysporum\u003c/em\u003e (14.3 mm) (Kolsi et al. 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the phytochemical profile and antifungal potential of methanolic extracts of five different seagrasses (\u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSyringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e) against selected pathogenic fungal strains using scientific evidence and empirical data. The article also shows the result of phytochemical profiling using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) of the methanolic extract of the seagrass varieties studied. The study aims to offer insights into the potential applications of compounds derived from seagrasses in pharmaceuticals and other industries. This study also aims to contribute to our understanding of seagrasses as a valuable source of natural antifungal agents by synthesizing empirical findings and a comprehensive review of existing scientific literature. Moreover, it highlights the ecological and economic implications of utilizing these remarkable marine plants in the quest for sustainable ways of tackling fungal pathogens, ultimately paving the way for creative developments across various scientific disciplines and industrial sectors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGeneral experimental procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was done using a QP2020 model instrument (Shimadzu) equipped with an AOI 20i autosampler.Column SH Rxi MS (30m x 0.25mm x 0.25\u0026micro;m) was used. Instruments used for the phytochemical analysis include Spectrophotometer: UV \u0026ndash;VIS Spectrophotometer, Thermo scientific, Orion Aquamate 8000, pH meter: 361 9322, Systronics, Water bath Rotek Plus: 1990 RotekPlus Cat No: PSW-07, Hot air oven: Rotek 2333 B \u0026amp; C Industries Cat No: RHOM-120. Inoculum details: Inoculums were procured from The Microbial Type Culture Collection and Gene Bank (MTCC) Chandigarh, Government Medical College Thiruvananthapuram, and T D Medical College, Alappuzha.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eStudy area\u003c/b\u003e: Fresh samples of seagrasses were collected from nearby areas of Sangumal Beach (9\u0026deg;17'30.59\"N lat; 79\u0026deg;19'26.12\"E long), situated on Rameshwaram Island, Tamil Nadu, India, (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) in January 2022. The study area falls within the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve marking a pioneering effort in India and South East Asia, stretching from Pamban Island (Rameshwaram) to Tuticorin in the Bay of Bengal (latitudes 08\u0026deg;47\u0026prime;N \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;09\u0026deg;15\u0026prime;N and longitudes 78\u0026deg;12\u0026prime;E 79\u0026deg;14\u0026prime;E). This area was chosen for sampling due to the varying and unique characteristics of the ocean current pattern with seasonal variations, topography, and anthropogenic activities. Sangumal Beach is situated in Palk Bay on Rameswaram Island (9\u0026deg;17' N latitudes; 79\u0026deg;19' E longitudes) and attracts tourists throughout the year owing to the famous pilgrimage place, the Ramanathaswamy temple. A sewage outlet neighboring the current study area discharges sewage from Rameshwaram Island. Especially the seagrass beds in the sampling area exhibit distinct characteristics: They become visible during the lowest low tide in the southwest monsoon period, extending up to a distance of 1\u0026ndash;2 km from the coast, whereas during the northeast monsoon period, they remain submerged even at low tide due to the opposing current from the Bay of Bengal flowing towards the coast (Sulochanan et al. 2010). All these factors are relevant to the sampling for the study because they influence the seagrass plants in various ways, including adaptability, growth, and the presence of bioactive compounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSeagrass collection and preparation\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ensure the preservation of their inherent qualities, the seagrasses were expeditiously transferred to the laboratory in zip lock bags, maintaining a temperature of 4℃ throughout transportation. Upon reaching the laboratory, the seagrass samples were cleansed rigorously with tap water to remove debris and epiphytic organisms. Surface sterilization was done using 10% ethanol for three minutes, followed by one minute in 3% sodium hypochlorite, and again in 10% ethanol for three minutes. Then, the samples were thoroughly washed twice in autoclaved distilled water (Supraphon et al. 2013). Taxonomic authentication was done with the help of Dr. Prakash K.S. of Annamalai University. Subsequently, the cleaned specimens were air-dried at ambient room temperature for one week until a consistent weight was achieved. Following desiccation, the dried seagrasses were ground into a fine powder using a high-speed mixer grinder. The powdered seagrass material was then securely stored in separate airtight containers reserved for subsequent analytical procedures. The overall aim, objective, and work plan of this study are represented schematically in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ePlant Extraction\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant extraction serves as the crucial initial phase in the investigation of plant species, as it plays a predominant role in extracting bioactive constituents from plant materials, thereby facilitating their subsequent isolation and characterization. The dried and powdered seagrass samples were subjected to extraction using methanol over eight days (Emmclan et al. 2022). The methanol extract was selected due to the observations made by earlier researchers that the maximum yield (Ishnava et al. 2012) and best activity was obtained in this extract (Kannan et al. 2010; Yuvaraj et al. 2012). Following the extraction period, the supernatant was carefully separated by filtration to refine the extracts further. The resultant extracts were then concentrated using a rotary evaporator under vacuum conditions, maintaining a temperature of 40\u0026deg;C. The concentrated extracts were subsequently subjected to complete desiccation within an oven at the same temperature (40\u0026deg;C) and were securely stored at 4\u0026deg;C, ensuring their stability for subsequent analytical investigations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ePhytochemical analysis\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe phytochemical compositions of methanolic extracts derived from five distinct seagrass species (\u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis, and Syringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e) were systematically examined using established analytical techniques. Quantification of carbohydrates (Yemm \u0026amp; Willis, 1954), protein (Lowry et al. 1951), lipids (Folch et al. 1957), ash (Marsham et al. 2007), fiber (Horwitz, 1975), phenols (Sadasivam \u0026amp; Manickam, 1992), flavonoids (Zhishen et al. 1999), tannins (Burns, 1971), carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen (Augier et al. 1982) was carried out through standard methodologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAntifungal activity by agar well diffusion method\u003c/b\u003e: The Agar well diffusion method is widely used to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of the test sample. Inoculums were procured from The Microbial Type Culture Collection and Gene Bank (MTCC) Chandigarh, Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram, and T D Medical College, Alappuzha. Four strains collected from MTCC include \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e MTCC. No. 227, \u003cem\u003eRhizopus stolonifer\u003c/em\u003e MTCC No 958, \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e MTCC. No. 872 and \u003cem\u003ePencillium chrysogenum\u003c/em\u003e MTCC No. 5108. Other three strains include \u003cem\u003eAspergillus terrus, Aspergillus fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eRhizopus oryzae.\u003c/em\u003e The procured samples were sub-cultured in nutrient agar slants and nutrient broth. Mueller-Hinton agar and Potato Dextrose Agar MH096 HiMedia were poured on glass petri plates of the same size and allowed to solidify in a ratio of 1:1. A standardized inoculum of the test organism was uniformly spread on the surface of the plates using sterile cotton swabs. Four wells with a diameter of 8mm (20 mm apart from one another) were punched aseptically with a sterile cork borer in each plate. The test samples were added into the wells designated T1 (500\u0026micro;g concentrated extract) and T2 (1000\u0026micro;g concentrated extract) from 10mg/ml stock. Clotrimazole (40\u0026micro;l from 300 mcg/ml stock) and the solvent used for sample dilution were added as positive and negative controls, respectively. Clotrimazole is a broad-spectrum antimycotic drug primarily utilized in curing various fungal diseases, making it an excellent positive control for antifungal activity. The plates were incubated for 48 hours at 27\u0026ordm;C\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1\u0026ordm;C, under aerobic conditions. After incubation, the plates were observed, and the zone of fungal growth inhibition around the wells was measured in mm (Magaldi, 2004).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eMetabolite profiling of positive samples using GC-MS\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) was conducted using a QP2020 model instrument (Shimadzu) equipped with an AOI 20i autosampler for doing metabolite profiling of the samples. The analysis employed an SH Rxi MS column with dimensions of 30 meters long, 0.25 millimeters in internal diameter, and a stationary phase thickness of 0.25\u0026micro;m. High-purity helium gas (99.999% purity) was the carrier gas maintained at a constant 1.2 mL/min flow rate. The injection volume was set at 0.5 \u0026micro;L in a split mode at a split ratio of 10. The injection temperature was held constant at 300\u0026deg;C. In comparison, the column temperature was programmed from an initial isothermal phase at 70\u0026deg;C for 1 minute, followed by a gradual increase at 100\u0026deg;C/min rate up to a final isothermal phase at 280\u0026deg;C, which was sustained for 10 minutes. The ion source temperature was maintained at 220\u0026deg;C, and the interface temperature was held at 240\u0026deg;C. The mass spectra were acquired using an ionization energy of 70 electronvolts (eV) in the Electron Impact (EI) mode. The entire GC-MS analysis procedure encompassed a total runtime of 30 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eIdentification of Components\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe annotation and identification of phytocompounds was achieved by comparing the mass spectra of methanol extract with the extensive library resources provided by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST-17). This process involved cross-referencing the acquired mass spectrum with the comprehensive 62,000 pattern database in the NIST library. Through this comparison, the phytocomponents present in the methanolic extract were discerned, enabling the determination of their respective structures, retention time, molecular formulas, and chemical nomenclature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003ePhytochemical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn the current investigation, the phytochemical screening of the methanolic extract of five distinct seagrass species (\u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis, and Syringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e) was systematically conducted. The quantification of key components, including carbohydrates, protein, lipids, ash, fiber, phenols, flavonoids, and tannins, was done meticulously using standard methodologies, and the results are comprehensively presented (In supplementary files Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe carbohydrate content of the seagrasses studied varied from 2.38 to 7.85%, with \u003cem\u003eCymodocea\u003c/em\u003e species having the most prevalent carbohydrate contents. This is consistent with the findings of Pradheeba et al. (2011) and Rengasamy et al. (2013), who found \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/em\u003e to have the highest carbohydrate content (8.7 mg g1). The protein content varied from 5.19 to 13.40%, with \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/em\u003e having the highest protein content. Immaculate et al. (2018) estimated protein content to be 19.1% in the \u003cem\u003eCymodocea\u003c/em\u003e genus. According to Athiperumalsami et al. (2008), the high protein content of seagrasses suggests an exciting possibility for utilizing natural marine resources in either raw or processed form to address an ongoing issue of nutritional deficiency in nations with limited infrastructure. The concentration of lipids went from 2.71% in \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/em\u003e to 9.36% in \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e, which was nearly identical to studies done by Rengasamy et al. (2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe percentage of fiber content varied from 17.5 to 24.92% in the current study, with \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/em\u003e having the highest. Similarly, Yamamuro and Chirapart (2005) and Rengasamy et al. (2013) observed a high fiber content in \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/em\u003e (26.7%), which is consistent with prior research (Dall et al. 1992; Torbatinejad et al. 2007). Fiber is a vital constituent in a healthy diet that is critical for human health because it gives a variety of functional advantages, such as stool bulking, and physiological advantages, such as cholesterol reduction, glycemic control, and weight management through fermenting of different fibers by the gut microbiome. Furthermore, numerous dietetic fiber constituents have antioxidant and immunological activity. In this context, seagrasses demonstrated potential antioxidant (Mettwally et al. 2021; Thinh et al. 2023; Kavitha et al. 2022; Sitania et al. 2023) and anti-diabetic properties (Dilipan et al. 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe proportion of ash observed in this study was closely comparable in all species studied, ranging from \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/em\u003e (17.94%) to \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e (23.76%). According to the current study findings, \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e exhibits higher concentrations of the essential elements being investigated, namely carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with 34.06%, 5.08%, and 2.52%, respectively. \u003cem\u003eSyringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e has the lowest carbon (23.05%) and hydrogen (3.7%) content, while \u003cem\u003eHalophila ovalis\u003c/em\u003e has the lowest nitrogen (1.65%). The current observations are also paralleled by a previous investigation on Thai seagrasses (Yamamuro \u0026amp; Chirapart, 2005). Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e gives a visualization of the results through the Sankey chart, showing the phytochemical analysis of the methanolic extract of seagrasses under study.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial compounds, including phenol, flavonoids, and tannin, were also quantified in this study. When compared to other seagrass species, \u003cem\u003eH. pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e had a significant amount of tannin (9.531mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) and flavonoids (0.69mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e), while \u003cem\u003eHalophila ovalis\u003c/em\u003e contained the most phenol (0.94 mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) content. \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/em\u003e has the least amount of phenol (0.39 mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) and flavonoid (0.29 mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) content, while \u003cem\u003eSyringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e has the least amount of tannin (1.445mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e). Phenolics, the most abundant class of natural substances in plants, exhibit an array of biological properties, especially antifungal activity (Simonetti et al. 2020). Tangon et al. (2021) analyzed the secondary metabolites of \u003cem\u003eH pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e to find its potential as a pharmaceutical source and found that this seagrass contained several active secondary metabolites. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e shows the visualization of results as a Sankey chart of quantification of antifungal compounds in methanolic extract of five different seagrasses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorrelation analysis: Correlation analysis was performed among the phytochemical data of the seagrasses. Figure\u0026nbsp;7 shows a positive correlation between carbohydrates and all other components, except lipids, ash, and phenols, with a maximum positive correlation with tannin (0.607mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) and a minimum with nitrogen (0.146%). The protein content negatively correlated to all components except fiber (0.638) and tannin (0.083). In the case of fiber, a positive correlation existed with carbohydrate (0.449) and protein (0.638). Protein and fiber had a high negative correlation, which only showed positive correlations with fiber (0.638%) and tannin (0.083mg g-1) for protein and carbohydrate (0.449%) and protein (0.638) for fiber, respectively. Antifungal compounds, such as phenol and flavonoids, were negatively correlated with carbohydrates (phenol and carbohydrate: -0.389 and flavonoid and carbohydrate: -0.233), protein (phenol and protein: -0.676 and flavonoid and protein: -0.586), and fiber (phenol and fiber: -0.852 and flavonoid and fiber: -0.972). The essential element carbon was positively correlated with parameters except protein (-0.221), fiber (-0.229 and phenol (-0.059). The maximum positive correlation (0.953) was with hydrogen and the minimum positive correlation (0.407) was with lipids Except for protein (-0.407) and fiber (-0.390) hydrogen content was positively correlated with other parameters. In the case of nitrogen, a negative correlation was observed with protein (-0.215) and with fiber (-0.519). Similar to hydrogen, it showed a positive correlation with the rest of the parameters analyzed. Both hydrogen and nitrogen showed a positive correlation with all other parameters except protein (-0.407 for hydrogen and \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.215mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for nitrogen) and fiber (-0.390 mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for hydrogen and \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.519 mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for nitrogen). Some of the correlation table values were close to zero, indicating that there may be no relationship between these variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAntifungal activity\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe antifungal activity of the selected seagrass species, (\u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis and Syringodium isoetifolium)\u003c/em\u003e against selected pathogenic fungal strains was determined by the agar well diffusion method. Antifungal activity was shown as a clear or bland zone around the well of application of extracts and the width of the zone showed the intensity of the activity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experimental findings revealed a significant and varied inhibitory effect of five distinct seagrass species, \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e (A), \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/em\u003e (B), \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e (C), \u003cem\u003eHalophila ovalis\u003c/em\u003e (D), and \u003cem\u003eSyringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e (E), against the growth of the pathogenic fungal strains. Specifically, for \u003cem\u003ePenicillium chrysogenum\u003c/em\u003e, the fungal growth within areas treated with different concentrations (500\u0026micro;g and 1000\u0026micro;g) of extract of \u003cem\u003eSyringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e (6.5mm \u0026amp; 9.6mm), \u003cem\u003eHalophila ovalis\u003c/em\u003e (6.2mm \u0026amp; 10.3mm), \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e (14.9mm \u0026amp; 19.9 mm) and \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e (15mm \u0026amp; 19.5mm) exhibited notable inhibition. The methanolic extracts of \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/em\u003e demonstrated feeble inhibitory effects (6mm) around areas treated with 1000\u0026micro;g concentration. In the case of \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAspergillus fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e, the results indicate inhibitory activity by all seagrass extracts specifically at 1000\u0026micro;g concentration. The least inhibitory activity of methanolic extract of seagrasses was shown in the case of \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e (4.6mm), \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata\u003c/em\u003e (4.3mm), \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e (6.5mm), \u003cem\u003ewhere methanolic extract of Halophila ovalis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSyringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e shows no inhibitory effect. Specifically, only \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e extracts exhibited activity at both concentrations in almost all strains. The antifungal activity of five different seagrasses and standard Clotrimazole against seven pathogenic fungal strains are shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom the currently available literature, many researches shows that various seagrasses have antifungal properties. A recent study carried out to assess the in vitro efficacy of seagrass (\u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSyringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e) extract against the mycelial growth of \u003cem\u003eMacrophomina phaseolina\u003c/em\u003e, indicated that the extract inhibited mycelial growth at 24, 48, and 72 hours after incubation (Somasundaram et al. 2023). In another investigation conducted on \u003cem\u003eThalassia hemprichii\u003c/em\u003e, a seagrass species collected from Egypt\u0026apos;s coastal region, three compounds isolated from the crude extract (isoscutellarein 7-O-\u0026beta;-xylopyranoside-2\u0026Prime;-O-sulfate, isoscutellarein 7-O\u0026mdash;xylopyranoside, and isoscutellarein) were tested against \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e. The results of this investigation suggest that the crude extract from \u003cem\u003eThalassia hemprichii\u003c/em\u003e has higher activity against \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e (Hawas, 2014). Commercially available pharmaceuticals often contain phytochemicals extracted from marine organisms with potential bioactivities. A study conducted by Punginelli et al. (2021) showed the antifungal activity of seagrasses along with other potent activities. From the current investigation, it can be concluded that the methanol extract of the selected seagrasses has potential antifungal activity against pathogenic fungal strains. Hamisi et al. (2023) analyzed the antimicrobial properties of seagrasses in Tanzania, including \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eThalassia hemprichii.\u003c/em\u003e They observed significant activity and also observed that extracts of these seagrasses are not otherwise toxic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results provide a comprehensive overview of the antifungal activity of the five seagrass species against different pathogenic fungal strains (In supplementary files Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, the antifungal potential of five distinct seagrass species was investigated, namely \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis, Syringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e, against different prominent fungal strains. The graph explicitly shows that similar antifungal activity with the standard used was shown by \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata, Halodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSyringodium isoetifolium.\u003c/em\u003e The methanolic extracts of these two seagrasses were selected for bioactive metabolite profiling by GC-MS. The discovery of natural sources with potent antifungal properties is paramount in the hunt for novel and sustainable approaches to combat fungal infections.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experimental results unveiled the notable inhibitory effects of these seagrasses on fungal growth, shedding light on their potential as sources of natural antifungal agents. The outcomes of this investigation demonstrate a substantial inhibitory impact of seagrass extracts against \u003cem\u003ePenicillium chrysogenum\u003c/em\u003e and feeble activity against \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e. Notably, extracts derived from \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata, Halodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSyringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e, when applied at 500\u0026micro;g and 1000\u0026micro;g, exhibited remarkable inhibition of fungal growth. This observation aligns with previous studies highlighting the antifungal properties of seagrasses, emphasizing their potential as valuable reservoirs of bioactive compounds with inhibitory effects on fungal pathogens (Emmanuel et al. 2016; Ross et al. 2008). \u003cem\u003eCymodocea rotundata, Halophila ovalis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSyringodium isoetifolium\u003c/em\u003e extracts demonstrated inhibitory effects on fungal growth but more significantly at a higher concentration of 1000\u0026micro;g of all pathogens under study. This variation in inhibitory activity among seagrass species may be attributed to differences in their chemical composition, including the presence and concentration of bioactive compounds. Such variations have been reported in previous studies, underlining the influence of seagrass species-specific metabolite profiles on their antifungal properties (Ross et al. 2008; Fel\u0026scaron;\u0026ouml;ciov\u0026aacute; et al. 2020). Current findings reveal a comparatively weaker inhibitory activity of methanolic extracts of seagrasses against \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e. Methanolic extracts of all seagrasses exhibited antifungal activity against \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePencillium chrysogenum\u003c/em\u003e but exclusively at a concentration of 1000\u0026micro;g. This discrepancy in activity between the two tested fungal species may be attributed to variations in their susceptibility to the bioactive compounds in seagrass extracts. Such differences in fungal sensitivity to natural antifungal agents have been documented in previous studies and may be influenced by fungal species-specific factors (Bobbarala et al. 2009; Ikegbunam et al. 2016). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that tannins are the principal components responsible for the anti-fungal activity (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTannins are a class of polyphenolic compounds that are located in the vacuoles or surface wax of plants. These secondary metabolites have astringent properties, which make them inedible and hence help plants to get protection from herbivores. There are reports of anti-fungal activity of tannins by different mechanisms of action (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Zhu et al. (2019) reported that tannins inhibit spore germination and mycelial growth of fungi. They also induce disruption of the cell wall and plasma membrane by blocking peptidoglycan formation (Dong et al. 2018), which results in the leakage of intra-cellular components. Latt\u0026eacute; and Kolodziej, (2000) showed that antifungal activity will depend on the structure of the tannin compounds. The phenolic hydroxyl group has been attributed to inhibiting enzyme activity (Scalbert, 1991). Tannins chelate with iron (Chung et al. 1998), inhibit the efflux pump (Tintino et al. 2016) and fatty acids (Wu et al. 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlants produce secondary molecules, and the kind and amount of these depend on a variety of factors, including species, genotype, physiology, phase of development, and the surrounding environment. The ability of plants to produce metabolites is thought to be an adaptive response to stressful conditions in a demanding and dynamic growth environment (Narayani \u0026amp; Srivastava, 2017). The levels of different secondary plant materials affect the metabolic processes that lead to the accumulation of associated natural substances and are highly dependent on the growing conditions. The synthesis of secondary metabolites is also affected by oxalate and metal ions, especially heavy metals (Marschner, 1996). As a result, the metabolites found in seagrasses depend on growth stages, seasons, and other environmental factors. Based on the variations in the presence of metabolites, the intensity of each bioactivity is varied in different seasons and growth stages.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eMetabolite profiling of extracts using GC-MS analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe samples showing prominent positive antifungal activities were subjected to metabolite profiling using GC MS. Twenty three compounds were found in the methanolic extract of seagrass \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e and 25 compounds were found in the methanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia.\u003c/em\u003e The chromatogram of methanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia are\u003c/em\u003e presented in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe active phytocompounds with their compound name, retention time, molecular formula, and molecular weight in the methanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e are presented in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe current study also attempted to identify the compounds present in the sample showing positive antifungal activity (methanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata and Halodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e) using GC-MS. The 23 compounds found in the methanolic extract of seagrass \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e included Cyclohexane, octyl-, Cetene, 2,4-Di-tert-butyl phenol, Methyl glycocholate, 3TMS derivative. The 25 compounds found in the methanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia.\u003c/em\u003e including compounds such as cyclododecanol, pentadecanal, n-hexadecanoic acid, neophytadiene, eicosane as major constituent. According to the existing literature, many of these compounds have potential bioactivities like anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccording to a recent study, neophytadiene has anxiolytic-like activity and anticonvulsant effects in short-term experiments without sedative-locomotor effects. The findings of the experiments and the molecular docking analysis suggest that the GABAergic system may be involved in the anxiolytic and anticonvulsant activity of neophytadiene (Gonzalez-Rivera et al. 2023). A research investigation of acetone leaf extracts of South African medicinal plants with strong antifungal properties against \u003cem\u003eFusarium verticillioides\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAspergillus ochraceous\u003c/em\u003e found identical outcomes for the presence of neophytadiene (Dikhoba et al. 2019). In a recent investigation, it was determined that n-hexadecanoic acid derived from the foliage of \u003cem\u003eIpomoea eriocarpa\u003c/em\u003e exhibits antioxidant properties and displays moderate antibacterial efficacy against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eB. subtilis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumoniae (\u003c/em\u003eGanesan et al. 2022). Eicosane, an alkane with chemical formula C\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e42\u003c/sub\u003e, has been identified in a recent study as possessing antioxidant properties, thereby paving the way for exploring its potential in pharmaceutical industries (Balachandran et al. 2023). According to recent scientific findings dotriacontane, a paraffin hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C\u003csub\u003e32\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e66\u003c/sub\u003e, demonstrates promising anticancer activity (Nair et al. 2023). Apart from the compounds listed in the table, most of the constituents separated from the extract of \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulate\u003c/em\u003e are reported to have various other bioactivities. Some of these compounds were found to be constituents of extracts with bioactivities along with several other components. 4-Trifluoro acetoxy tetradecane separated from the ethyl acetate fraction of the flower \u003cem\u003eCassia fistula\u003c/em\u003e showed antifungal, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties (Ibrahim et al. 2017). Another study shows the phytochemistry of the traditional medicinal herb \u003cem\u003eRuellia tuberosa\u003c/em\u003e with antioxidant activity and found the presence of methyl derivative of cyclodecanone along with other compounds (Farhan, 2023). 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol is reported to have toxicity against most of the organisms tested (Zhao et al. 2020). This compound is reported from a variety of sources such as microorganisms, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, monocots, and even animals. Essential oil isolated from \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia heterophylla\u003c/em\u003e was found to contain 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol and the extract showed antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities, (Adedoyin et al. 2013). 13-Heptadecyn-1-ol was found to be one of the chemical constituents of \u003cem\u003eCyperus alternifolius L.\u003c/em\u003e, which is used as an herbal preparation for various activities, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anthelminthic, nematicide, etc., (Al-Gara et al 2019). Another researcher did a metabolic profiling of some edible mushrooms. Of the various compounds they identified through GC-MS, one was hexadecenoic acid and the mushrooms were reported to have many bioactivities such as antiviral, antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant, neurostimulant, and several other activities (Oni et al. 2020). 1,25-Dihyroxyvitamin D3, a TMS derivative found in the methanol extract of \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e has a crucial role in human health. Vitamin D3 is also synthesized in human skin, but its deficiency is a global problem that requires supplementation (Deb et al. 2020). Spirost-8-en-11-one, 3-hydroxy- derivatives were also obtained from the seagrass extract that was earlier identified from \u003cem\u003eBauhinia tementosa\u003c/em\u003e (Balabhaskar \u0026amp; Vijayalakshmi, 2021) and \u003cem\u003eMomordica charantia\u003c/em\u003e (Wowor et al. 2022). \u003cem\u003eBauhinia tementosa\u003c/em\u003e is used to treat inflammation of the liver, abscesses, tumors, and hyperlipidemia in traditional medicines of Asia and Africa. \u003cem\u003eMomordica charantia\u003c/em\u003e is reported to have anti-diabetic properties. 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester is reported to have antioxidant and anticancer activity (Ukwubile et al. 2019). Shage and Amusan, (2020) reported antidiarrhoeal activity of 11-Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester isolated from \u003cem\u003eAcacia nilotica L.\u003c/em\u003e Also, antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal activity was identified in Ethyl iso-allocholate (Al-Gara et al. 2019). Akshaya et al. (2021) have reported nematicidal activity in an ethyl acetate extract of mushrooms against \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e. Of the 23 phytochemical compounds identified from the extract of \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia heterophylla L.\u003c/em\u003e had the compound Octasiloxane, 1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7,9,9,11,11,13,13,15,15-hexadecane methyl, and the plant are reported to have antidiabetic, and hepatoprotective activities. Finose and Gopalakrishnana, (2014) identified Octadecane, 1,1\u0026apos;-[1,3-propanediylbis(oxy)]bis- from the extract of \u003cem\u003eZingiber nimmonii\u003c/em\u003e rhizome, the oil of which is reported to have significant antifungal activity against human pathogenic fungi.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConcerning the compounds identified from \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e that are not enlisted in Table 4, other bioactivities are reported. Krishnamurti and Sari, (2023) reported the antimalarial activity of the extract of \u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e which contained Cyclododecanol as a component. The anxiolytic-like activity, antidepressant-like activity, and sedative properties of methanol extracts were already reported and Neophytadiene was identified from the extract, and the confirmation of these properties to be due to this compound was done (Gonzalez-Rivera et al. 2023). Anticancer activity of 2-Hexadecene 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl was identified from the leaf extract of \u003cem\u003eAvicennia alba\u003c/em\u003e (Eswaraiah et al. 2020). The essential oil extracted from \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia heterophylla\u003c/em\u003e, which showed cytotoxic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities had cis, cis-7,10, -Hexadecadienal and other compounds. This compound was also a component \u003cem\u003eAdenia cissampeloides\u003c/em\u003e extract which showed a positive effect in managing hypertension and other diseases (Gayathri et al. 2024). The compound 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, (Z, Z,Z) has anti-inflammatory activity (Guerrero et al. 2017). Nisa et al. (2022) reported anticancer properties of Hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester. Kumar et al. (2021) reported anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic, and cancer-prevention properties in 12,15- Octadeca trienoic acid, ethyl ester (Z, Z, Z). Tyagi et al. (2021) reported the antibacterial and antioxidant properties of phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-, phosphite (3:1). Antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity of Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was reported (El-Sayed, 2012). The compound 2,4-Di-tert-butyl-phenol is attributed to have antilarval properties (Nguyen, 2014). The essential oil isolated from \u003cem\u003eXanthium strumarium\u003c/em\u003e, which contains E, E, Z-1,3,12-Nonadecatriene-5,14-diol was found to have antifungal properties (Parveen et al. 2017). Valente et al. (2018) reported the antioxidant capacity of Cholesta-5, 22-dien-3-ol, (3. beta)-. (5\u0026aacute;) pregnane-3,20\u0026aacute;-diol, 14\u0026agrave;,18\u0026agrave;- [4-methyl-3- oxo-(1-oxa-4-azabutane-1,4-diyl)]-, diacetate was one of the compounds presents in the \u003cem\u003eConocarpus erectus\u003c/em\u003e leaf oil which is reported to have cytotoxic and anticancerous activity (Safwat et al. 2018). An edible macro fungus \u003cem\u003eLentinus squarrosulus\u003c/em\u003e with the presence of Neophytadiene as one among its constituent phytochemicals showed antimicrobial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, hypocholesterolemic, and anticancer activity (Adeoye-Isijola et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom the results of this research, it can be concluded that the majority of the components identified in methanolic extracts of \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHalodule pninifolia\u003c/em\u003e have been recognized as antioxidants, antimicrobials, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and which is comparable with the results of recent research works on seagrasses (Das et al. 2023; Narayanan et al. 2023; Al-Ansari et al. 2023; Santoso et al. 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt is observed that a change in the environmental conditions changes the quantity of secondary materials and their content and composition (Jan et al. 2021). This is a beneficial aspect as far as anti-microbial contents are concerned. Since the quality of the bioactive content changes bit by bit every time according to the environmental conditions they are exposed to, the chance of development of resistance is minimal, unlike the engineered synthetic anti-microbial compounds. Xi et al. (2021) observed that since most pathogens have high genetic plasticity, it is necessary to use natural antimicrobial agents against pathogens. It was observed that the bioactive potential of metabolites produced by seagrasses varies according to the plant part, age, season, location, and solvent used for extraction (Wisespongpand et al. 2022). This also contributes to the diminished chance of resistance development in fungal pathogens.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEcology of seagrass meadows on Rameshwaram Island\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe global distribution of seagrasses is poorly studied and found to be about 1,60,000 sq. Km (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e) (Panayotidis et al. 2022). As per the field surveys and satellite data analyzed by the National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, 516.59 sq. km of seagrass meadow is in India (Times of India, 2024). The extent of seagrasses in India is shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRameswaram Beach of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost state of India, is one of the top 20 tourist destinations in the nation. This beach has a long bridge called the Pamban (meaning snake) Bridge, India\u0026rsquo;s oldest sea bridge, and the Rameswarm temple (shrine) offering 22 \u0026lsquo;thirthas\u0026rsquo; (holy water bodies) (Indian Statistical Institute 2005). Devotees take baths in these thirthas to seek redemption. After bathing, they leave their clothes and belongings as a symbol of leaving their previous sinful life.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe seagrass meadows on Rameshwaram Island are part of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve. A significant spread was recorded in seagrass meadows in the Pamban area of Rameshwaram 2004. From 2004 to 2007, the researchers recorded a loss in the extent of the meadows (Senthilkumar \u0026amp; Kannan, 2008). Umamaheswari et al. (2009) recorded a decrease (85.5 sq km) in the spread of seagrass meadows in Rameshwaram, highlighting the need for monitoring and conservation. They mapped 12 seagrass species in this area using satellite remote sensing. The survival and health of seagrasses are contributed by the three-stage symbiotic association between seagrasses, lucinid bivalves, and the sulfide-oxidizing bacteria residing in their gills (Van Der Heide et al. 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRameshwaram Beach has a topography formed through the interaction of aeolian and marine processes (Prabakaran \u0026amp; Anbarasu, 2010). Thus, the topography contributes to the ecology and supports rich and diverse flora and fauna. India has a total of 16 seagrass species. Rameshwaram Islands has 12 identified species of seagrasses distributed either lushly or sparsely (Thangaradjou \u0026amp; Bhatt, 2018). Seagrasses are reported to have a natural biocidal property. Lamb et al. (2017) observed that seagrass ecosystems reduce exposure to bacterial pathogens and minimize pathogen risk to organisms, including humans. The ecosystem services provided by seagrasses vary significantly according to genus and species. Larger species are veterans in their ecological roles (Mtwana et al. 2016). Apart from this, these seagrass meadows and other meadows in Southeast Asia can contribute to the sequestration of 7.03% of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions, thus making them significant contributors to climate mitigation (Stankovic et al. 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecently, these ecosystems have been threatened by pollution, including microplastics and heavy metals (Jeyasanta et al. 2020). Human activities also contribute to the reduction of seagrass meadow extent. Massive management plans are suggested to conserve this unique ecosystem (Senthilkumar \u0026amp;Kannan, 2008).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFungi in the Marine Environment and Antifungal property of Seagrasses\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFungi are one of the main categories of organisms in marine environments, as in any other environment. They have many ecological roles, roles in biochemical cycles, symbiotic relationships (Amend et al. 2019; Deveau et al. 2018, Marchese et al. 2021), growth of other organisms enhancing nutrient uptake (Mosier et al. 2016), converting complex organic matter to simpler ones, food web dynamics, etc. However, there are many settings in which fungi create problems in marine ecosystems. Climate change-mediated temperature changes in oceans result in the virulent proliferation of virulent fungal strains, converting them to opportunistic pathogens that pose havoc to other organisms (P\u0026eacute;rez-Llano et al. 2023). About 225 fungal species have been identified to affect fish, crustaceans, turtles, etc. (Sarmiento-Ramirez et al. 2014). The proliferation of pathogenetic fungi is further accelerated by the release of plastic debris into oceans, which provide an excellent habitat for the growth of pathogenic fungi. Studies have also shown that the fungi\u0026apos;s community structure in debris differs greatly from the fungal diversity in the surrounding seawater (Philippe et al., 2023). The study also observed the pathogenicity of two marine fungi, \u003cem\u003eFusarium falciforme\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eF. keratoplasticum\u003c/em\u003e kills almost 90% of sea turtle embryos. Nature provides remedies for fungal attacks. Pech-Puch (2023) reported the antifungal potential of sponges from the Yucatan peninsula and was effective against \u003cem\u003eCandida\u003c/em\u003e sp. Seagrasses have many fungal microbiomes associated with them, with distinct fungal diversity in roots, rhizomes, and leaves (Panno et al. 2013). They also observe that these fungal microbiomes perform significant roles in the degradation of recalcitrant compounds, detoxification, etc. Poli et al. (2020) show that by existing in mutualistic association, they aid in protecting the host. Harnessing fungal microbiomes in them does not restrict pathogenic fungal attacks in seagrasses. Hence, other marine organisms must have some methods to resist fungal attack. Many species of seagrasses have chemical mechanisms and signaling pathways for fungal defense (Ross et al. 2008). The environmental conditions to which seagrasses are exposed affect their anti-microbial activities (Messina et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eCurrent research focused on finding the antifungal properties of five selected seagrass species collected from Rameswaram, India. As per previous reports, methanol was found to extract antifungal compounds and hence methanol extract was used for the study. Seven pathogenic fungal strains were used for checking susceptibility to the seagrass extract. Among the five seagrasses studied, \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e exhibited higher antifungal properties. The phytochemical profiling of these two seagrasses was also done by GC-MS. Methanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eCymodocea serrulata\u003c/em\u003e showed the presence of 23 compounds and \u003cem\u003eHalodule pinifolia\u003c/em\u003e showed 25 compounds. Many of these compounds have individual antifungal properties and are found in plant extracts with known antifungal activities. An analysis of previous reports of the biological activities of most of the phytoconstituents indicates a wide range of bioactivities including anticancer, antioxidant, antilarval, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, antihelminthic, antidiarrhoeal, antimalarial, and antidepressant-like activities. They also possess insecticidal, cytotoxic, neurostimulant, and hepatoprotective activities. Thus, the seagrasses in general and the selected seagrasses in specific have so many potential constituents that can be prospected for a variety of human ailments. Since marine angiosperms are exposed to many stresses on a daily, seasonal, and condition basis, the structural diversity and quantity of the potent bioactive compounds vary to a small extent, making it difficult for the pathogens to develop resistance. The findings of this research brought light on the antifungal potential of five different seagrasses, demonstrating their ability to inhibit the growth of \u003cem\u003ePenicillium chrysogenum, Aspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eApergillus fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e. These findings add to the expanding array of knowledge about the bioactive qualities of seagrasses and highlight their potential as natural antifungal agents. Further exploration into the specific bioactive compounds and their mechanisms of action could lead to the development of novel antifungal medications and other biologically active compounds with environmentally sustainable applications. Use of the anti-fungal potential of seagrasses for treating human fungal diseases will address five Sustainable Development Goals such as SDG 3, (Good Health and Well-Being), 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), 14 (Life Below Water), 15 (Life on Land) and 17 (Partnership for the Goals).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contribution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHazeena M Ameen (HMA)- Writing the original draft, investigating, methodology, formal analysis, data curation, and conceptualization. Athira A S (AAS) Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Ayona Jayadev (AJ) Conceptualization, review \u0026amp; editing, Validation, Supervision, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation. Geena Prasad (GP) Review \u0026amp; editing, Visualization, Resources, Formal analysis. Gayathri N P (GNP) Review \u0026amp; editing, Visualization, Formal analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors are grateful to the faculty and infrastructure facilities of ALL SAINTS\u0026rsquo; COLLEGE, SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES, M G UNIVERSITY, and DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF KERALA, for providing the required facilities. They are also grateful to all of the research icons whose studies were referenced while developing this work for publication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdedoyin BJ, Okeniyi SO, Garba S, Salihu L (2013) Cytotoxicity, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil extracted from \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia heterophylla\u003c/em\u003e plant. Topclass J Herb Med 2:84\u0026ndash;89\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdeoye-Isijola MO, Olajuyigbe OO, Jonathan SG, Coopoosamy RM (2018) Bioactive compounds in ethanol extract of \u003cem\u003eLentinus squarrosulus\u003c/em\u003e Mont-a Nigerian medicinal macrofungus. 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Physiol Mol Plant Pathol 107:46\u0026ndash;50. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmpp.2019.04.009\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.pmpp.2019.04.009\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 to 3 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Seagrass, Antifungal activity, Penicillium chrysogenum, Aspergillus niger, Agar well diffusion, GC MS Analysis","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5322551/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5322551/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Seagrasses have gathered increasing attention due to their multifaceted ecological roles. Apart from their ecological significance, seagrasses have potent antifungal properties, indicating potential for diverse applications. The antifungal efficacy of methanolic extracts derived from five seagrass species (Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis, and Syringodium isoetifolium) was assessed against selected pathogenic fungal strains using the agar well diffusion method. The methanolic extract from different seagrasses exhibited notable antifungal activity against Penicillium chrysogenum (Cymodocea serrulata- 19.5mm Halodule pinifolia- 19.9mm Halophila ovalis- 10.3mm Syringodium isoetifolium- 9.6mm). Least inhibition was noted to Candida albicans (Cymodocea serrulate - 4.6 mm, Cymodocea rotundata - 4.3mm and Halodule pinifolia - 6.5 mm). The findings show that methanolic extracts from seagrasses Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule pinifolia, and Enhalus acoroides at concentrations of 500µg and 1000µg exhibited remarkable inhibition of almost all pathogens under study. The samples exhibiting significant antifungal activity were subjected to metabolite profiling using GC-MS. A total of 23 compounds were identified in the methanolic extract of seagrass Cymodocea serrulata, while 25 compounds were detected in the methanolic extract of Halodule pinifolia. This study lays the groundwork for developing bioactive natural products with applications in phytosanitary practices, offering the additional advantages of environmental safety and economic viability. The ecology and the significance of seagrass ecosystems of Rameshwaram Islands is also shown in the manuscript.","manuscriptTitle":"Comparative Analysis of Antifungal Properties and Metabolic Profiles in Seagrass Species from Rameshwaram Island, India","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-25 18:27:27","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5322551/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0957c05d-9d3b-4a2e-accd-8f01efd215ae","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 25th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-12-11T07:43:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-25 18:27:27","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5322551","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5322551","identity":"rs-5322551","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}