The Trade of Wild Ornamental Plants in Traditional Markets of Mexico: Ethnobotanical Insights Into a Complex Socioecological System

The Trade of Wild Ornamental Plants in Traditional Markets of Mexico: Ethnobotanical Insights Into a Complex Socioecological System | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Trade of Wild Ornamental Plants in Traditional Markets of Mexico: Ethnobotanical Insights Into a Complex Socioecological System Jesus Alejandro Ríos-Solis, Luicita Lagunez-Rivera, Rodolfo Solano This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6823630/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background In the traditional markets of Mexico, a wide variety of products are offered, many of which come from rural areas, including wild plants for ornamental, food, medicinal, and religious purposes. Since these markets represent the biological and cultural diversity of a specific region, the sale of wild plants is embedded in a socioecological system that integrates economic, social, and ecological aspects. However, research on this topic lacks insight into how these components are addressed and integrated to advance the theory of these systems. Here, we identified research trends in the trade of wild plants in traditional Mexican markets and assessed whether these studies have contributed to the theory of socioecological systems in understanding this phenomenon. Methods A literature review on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets in Mexico was conducted via major academic databases. Results Thirty-two articles focused on the trade in wild plants for medicinal, food, and ornamental uses. Most studies were carried out in Oaxaca, Puebla, and Mexico City. The most commonly used collection method has been semistructured interviews, which are often supplemented with direct observation. Conclusions While most studies focus on gathering ecological and biological information, there is a gap in the literature concerning this issue from a socioecological system perspective, which would allow for a more comprehensive understanding of its economic, social, and ecological dimensions. Additionally, certain theories used in ethnobotany are highly valuable for understanding the trade in wild plants from multiple perspectives. ethnobotany theories nontimber forest products socioecological systems traditional management wildlife traffic Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 BACKGROUND From pre-Hispanic times, in Mexico, traditional markets have served as the focal points of social and economic life, both at the microregional and regional levels, where people gather to buy, sell or exchange the goods necessary for their daily lives [ 1 , 2 ]. These spaces are cultural constructs that reflect the biocultural diversity of the environment in which they are established [ 3 , 4 ]. They hold economic and cultural significance within communities and serve as sources of ethnobiological and anthropological knowledge [ 5 ]. In Mexico, traditional markets can be categorized into two types. One is tianguis (derived from the Nahua term tianquiz , meaning market), which is an open-air market set up periodically, usually once a week, in various communities across the country [ 4 , 6 ]. The second type consists of a permanent public market, which serves as a fixed location for the sale, purchase, or exchange of goods or services [ 7 ]. The diverse range of products sold in these traditional markets reflects the agricultural and production practices of peasants, which are shaped by the natural resources available in the surrounding agroecosystems and forests [ 2 ], where the majority of goods originate [ 8 ]. The traditional Mexican markets offer a wide variety of products obtained from forest and agroforestry systems and cultivated crops, including plants, fruits, seeds, bark charcoal, firewood, leaf litter, soil, insects, and fungi, among others. Among these, wild plants stand out, particularly for their ornamental value [ 9 ]. Unlike many other products, their availability remains constant throughout the year. The highest sales volumes typically involve plants extracted directly from their habitats and sold in traditional markets or through informal networks with minimal regulation. As a result, this activity can be classified as illicit trafficking of wild flora [ 10 ]. Notable wild plants traded for ornamental purposes include orchids, cacti, bromeliads, cycads, and elephant feet [ 11 – 14 ]. All of these groups are considered nontimber forest products (NTFPs), whose trade provides subsistence income for rural communities engaged in this practice [ 15 ], as well as employment opportunities for collectors, processors, traders, and sellers [ 16 ]. This local trade is expanding, with wholesale traders increasingly supplying local market networks [ 17 ]. The markets where wild ornamental plants are traded serve as valuable sources of information for studying the interactions and relationships between plants and society [ 18 ]. Therefore, this activity should be viewed as part of a socioecological system (SES), emphasizing the intrinsic connection between a natural and a human component [ 19 ]. The concept of an SES and its application to the governance and conservation of natural systems through an inter- or transdisciplinary approach has been explored by various authors [ 20 – 22 ]. These systems are recognized as complex, consisting of interconnected subsystems that encompass multiple human–environmental variables [ 23 – 25 ]. Within an SES, the impact of the ecosystem on meeting human needs through services is analyzed alongside the way in which the social dynamics of demand can influence and shape ecological integrity [ 26 , 27 ]. The impact of wild plant extraction has been studied in different parts of the world. In China and India, ginseng ( Panax ginseng C.A. Mey) and turmeric ( Curcuma longa L.) have increased in demand, placing immense pressure on wild populations. Unsustainable harvesting and deforestation have led to population declines for both species [ 28 ]. In South Africa, between 70% and 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine, with many medicinal plants collected from the wild and sold in markets. However, increasing demand has resulted in overexploitation and near extinction of certain species, such as Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf.) B.L. Burtt [ 29 ]. Similarly, in Europe, the trade of wild plants has a long tradition, particularly in countries such as Albania and Bulgaria, where thyme ( Thymus vulgaris L.), chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla L.), and valerian ( Valeriana officinalis L.) are harvested in rural areas and sold in markets. However, increasing demand across Europe has led to overexploitation in some regions, posing challenges for species conservation and trade sustainability [ 30 ]. Given these concerns, developing a robust theoretical framework for SESs is essential for understanding the interconnections between their human and natural components. Such an approach could prove instrumental in mitigating the threats posed by anthropogenic factors affecting biodiversity. Mexico is a megadiverse country known for its rich biological richness [ 31 ], with vascular flora encompassing 25,077 species [ 32 ]. A portion of this flora is used for ornamental or decorative purposes [ 33 ]. Among these, 3,434 species of Mexican wild plants (13%) have ornamental potential [ 34 ]. Many of these species are available in traditional markets across Mexico, where they often hold ornamental, religious, or ceremonial significance, particularly in indigenous regions. In this context, it is crucial to recognize the breadth of current SES theory and understand how it can be used to formulate testable hypotheses. To achieve this goal, it is essential to identify hypotheses that explore the interactions between people and plants, contributing to the theoretical foundations for the selection and use of wild plants within an SES [ 35 ]. Therefore, the objective of this review was to document studies focused on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets across the country. The aim was to understand the approaches employed in these studies, assess the current state of research, and identify existing knowledge gaps. Specifically, the purpose was to review the hypotheses proposed or evaluated in these studies, which have contributed to the development of a theory regarding the trade of ornamental wild plants as part of an SES. This effort can help identify the information and variables needed to guide and strengthen future research, addressing the issue within a socioecological framework. METHODS Between December 2023 and February 2024, a search for publications in scientific journals was conducted in academic search engines, including Elsevier ( https://www.elsevier.com/es-mx ), Google Schoolar ( https://scholar.google.es/schhp?hl=es ), Web of Science ( https://www.webofscience.com ), Scopus ( https://www.scopus.com/home.uri ), Springer ( https://link.springer.com/ ), and SciElo ( https://scielo.org/es/ ). For this search, the keywords "wild plants", "markets", and "Mexico", both English and Spanish, were employed, and Boolean operators were used to specifically target studies on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets of Mexico while irrelevant results were excluded. Publications in both Spanish and English were considered, although theses for obtaining an academic degree were excluded. To be selected, publications had to include the search words in their titles and/or keywords. Each of the documents identified in the search was reviewed, and studies that did not focus primarily on the presence of wild plants were excluded. In the reviewed documents, the origin of the traded plants in these markets was identified and categorized as originating from forests, agroforestry systems, or crops. To assess how the reviewed studies address the trade of wild plants with an SES framework, the variables reported and analyzed in each of the selected papers were identified and classified into three categories: a) social (e.g., age, schooling, ethnicity), b) ecological (e.g., number of species, type of vegetation, seasonality, part used) and c) economic (e.g., market value, profits). These variables, organized by category, are presented in Table 1 . Additionally, a word cloud was generated via the wordcloud platform ( https://www.wordclouds.com ) on the basis of the words included in the titles and keywords of each selected study, excluding the aforementioned search terms. This visual tool allows for a descriptive analysis of the text, highlighting key ideas, with word frequency indicating their importance in each published work [ 36 ]. Finally, a selective and representative review of the main hypotheses in ethnobotany was conducted, with a particular focus on SESs, following the criteria set by Gaoue et al. [ 35 ]. The studies selected for this review were categorized on the basis of the following guiding research questions: 1) How do people select plants for commercial use? 2) What are the implications of plant selection by people? 3) How do people mitigate the potential negative effects of plant use? For each hypothesis, the main prediction was identified, and the selected studies were discussed in terms of how the hypothesis could be tested. The main hypotheses identified in the 32 studies reviewed, which are classified and evaluated here, are presented in Table 2 . RESULTS The literature search identified a total of 263 articles containing the terms used in the search in their titles and keywords. Among these, 232 did not meet the established criteria, which required a primary focus on wild species. As a result, only 32 articles published between 1966 and 2023 met the criteria (Table 3 ). These 32 studies examined the trade of wild plants across 60 markets in 11 Mexican states, with Puebla, the state of Mexico, and Oaxaca being the most frequently studied (Fig. 1 ). In contrast, fewer studies have been conducted in states such as Veracruz, Nuevo León, and Michoacán (Fig. 1 , 2 ). Notably, no studies meeting the selection criteria were found for the remaining 20 Mexican states. Queretaro had the highest number of markets studied, with 14, followed by Puebla, with 11, and Oaxaca, with 11. The 32 selected studies were published in 16 scientific journals, 20 of which (64%) were domestic, whereas the remaining studies were foreign. Among them, Polibotanica, a domestically produced journal, and Economic Botany, an international journal, had the highest number of articles, with nine and six, respectively. Additionally, five journals specialize in botany, whereas five focus on humanities, particularly anthropology and ethnoecology (Fig. 3 ). The primary uses documented for the commercialized plants in the 32 research studies were ornamental, food, medicinal, handicraft, and religious-ceremonial, with ornamental being the most frequent use, followed by food and medicinal. Eleven data collection techniques were identified across the 32 studies, with semistructured interviews being the most common (15/32), followed by interviews/purchases (3/32), open interviews (2/32), general interviews (2/32), and structured interviews (2/32). Some studies have employed a combination of methods to gather information. Table 1 Classification of variables identified in the review on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets in Mexico. Type of variable Social Ecological Economic Attributed use - UA Number of uses attributed - NUA Form of preparation - FP Place of residence - LR Degree of management - GM Form of collection - FC Time of collection - TRC Method of collection - MC Type of vendor - TV Number of uses - NU Age - ED Sex - SX Schooling - ES Speaker of a language - HL Family participation - FP Person collecting - PC Type of disease being cured - TEC Indigenous group - GI Acquisition of knowledge - AC Type of supplier - TP Type of market - TM Type of seller - TV Type of buyer - TC Busiest time of day - HMA Social events - ES Administration channel - VA Part used - PU Occupancy - OC Number of species - NE Part used - PU Degree of management - GM Origin - O Conservation status - EC Biological status - EB Habitat - H Level of endemism - NED Location of extraction - LE Abundance - AB Time of collection - ECL Plant attributes - AP Biological form - FB Spatial distribution - DE Index of part used - IPU Life cycle - CV Abundance fluctuation/year - FAA Spatial availability - DIE Seasonal availability - DIES Availability per month - DM Availability - DIP Flower diameter - DF Number of species/habitat - NEH Flower type - TF Substrate - SC Plant provenance - PDP Demand - D Plant Price - PP Purchase volume - VC Number of markets - NM Number of stalls - NP Number of transactions - NT Type of transactions - TT Form of sale - FV Estimated profit - GE Additional activity - AA Average price per species - PPE Distance between market and seller's origin - DMPV Type of seller - TV Number of sellers - NV Type of buyer - TC Measure of sale - MV Number of individuals offered - NIO Marketing frequency - FC Month of sale - MVT Revenue per sale - IV Sales volume - VV Resale - RV Time spent selling - TDV Estimated profit per sale/species - GEVE Frequency of purchase - FC Table 2 Theories and hypotheses related to ethnobotany identified in the 32 studies reviewed in this work. The classification of the theories and hypotheses follows Gaoue et al. [ 34 ]. Theory/Hypothesis Main authors Versatility, availability and diversification Hypothesis : It explains how human communities select and use plants based on three main factors: Versatility: The variety of uses a plant can have (food, medicinal, ritual, etc.) influences its cultural importance. More versatile plants are often more valued as they fulfill multiple needs. Availability: Plants that are more accessible in the local environment are usually preferred since their collection requires less effort and fewer resources. Diversification: The diversified use of plants can serve as a cultural strategy to mitigate risks, such as resource scarcity, enhancing community resilience. Bennett and Prance [ 37 ], Voeks [ 38 ], Albuquerque [ 39 ]. Optimal foraging theory : It explains how human communities select and use plant resources. This theory suggests that, like other organisms, people make decisions about resource use by maximizing benefits (such as energy or nutrients) relative to the associated costs (such as time, effort, or procurement risks). Hames and Vickers [ 40 ], Hawkes and O'Connell [ 41 ], Alvard, [ 42 ], Coley et al. [ 43 ], Soldati and Albuquerque [ 44 ] Age, gender, and knowledge dynamics hypotheses : The level of a person’s knowledge about the plants they use is related to s ociocultural and demographic factors. Albuquerque et al. [ 45 ], Hanazaki et al. [ 46 ], McCarter and Gavin [ 47 ]. Theory of cultural keystone species : Certain species of plants are fundamental to sociocultural systems; the loss of these species would have negative impacts. Paine [ 48 ]. Plant use value hypothesis : It aims to explain why certain plants are more valued or used than others within a community. This theory combines ecological, cultural, and practical factors to analyze how plants' intrinsic traits and human needs shape its cultural significance. Phillips and Gentry [ 49 ], Byg and Balslev [ 50 ], Albuquerque and Lucena [ 51 ]. Economic theory of consumption : It examine plant selection and consumption patterns from an economic perspective, exploring factors such as utility, environmental and social constraints, and intertemporal decision making. Phillips and Gentry [ 49 ], Albuquerque and Alves [ 52 ]. Table 3 Summary of the 32 selected studies, in chronological order, on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets in Mexico. This summary includes information on the publishing journal, use categories of the traded species, and the variables and hypotheses identified in each study. The abbreviations for the social, ecological, and economic variables are listed in Table 1 . ER-ES = Number of reported species/Number of wild species. * Journal currently named Botanical Sciences. T/H: Theory or hypotheses identified in the study (I: Versatility, availability, and diversification; II: Optimal foraging; III: Age, sex, and knowledge dynamics; IV: Cultural keystone species; V: Plant use value. Reference Title Journal Use Category ER/ES Type of variable T/H Social Ecological Economic Whitaker and Cutler [ 53 ] Food plants in a Mexican market Economic Botany Food 83/24 --- NE --- Nicholson and Arzeni [ 54 ] The market medicinal plants of Monterrey, Nuevo León, México Economic Botany Medicinal 70/36 UA, FP NE --- Ugent [ 55 ] Medicine, myths and magic the folk healers of a Mexican market Economic Botany Medicinal 71/44 UA NE, PU --- I Martínez-Moreno et al. [ 56 ] Plantas medicinales de cuatro mercados del estado de Puebla, México Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México* Medicinal 62/35 UA NE, PU, GM, EB --- I Cabrera-Luna et al. [ 57 ] Plantas vasculares comercializadas como ornamentales decembrinas en 12 municipios de Querétaro, México Polibotánica Ornamental 67/61 UA O, EC, NE D Flores-Palacios and Valencia-Diaz [ 13 ] Local illegal trade reveals unknown diversity and involves a high species richness of wild vascular epiphytes Biological Conservation Ornamental 207/207 CR, GM NE, EF, H, NED PP, NIO II, IV Mondragón [ 58 ] La comercialización navideña de bromelias epifitas en la ciudad de Oaxaca Revista Etnobiologia Ornamental 21/21 PC, TRC LE, AB FC III Manzanero-Medina et al. [ 59 ] Etnobotánica de siete raíces medicinales en el mercado de Sonora de la Ciudad de México Polibotánica Medicinal 7/7 MC, UA, TV LE, GM D Munguía-Lino et al. [ 9 ] Plantas silvestres ornamentales comercializadas en los mercados de la flor de Tenancingo y Jamaica, México Polibotánica Ornamental 131/131 TV, UA LE, ECL, PU, AP PP II, V Linares and Bye [ 60 ] La dinámica de un mercado periférico de plantas medicinales de México: el tianguis de Ozumba, estado de México, como centro acopiador para el mercado de Sonora (mercado central) Históricas Digital Medicinal 63/63 HMA, ES, TC, FP, GM NE, LE VC, PP, NV III, IV, V Arellanes and Casas et al. [ 61 ] Los mercados tradicionales del Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán: antecedentes y situación actual. Nueva antropología Food Ornamental Medicinal -/- TV, HL, TM --- MV V Tena-Meza et al. [ 62 ] Los mercados de Guadalajara, México. Ejemplo del consumo de plantas silvestres Revista de Humanidades Food 5/5 --- --- --- [ 63 ] Arellanes et al. Influence of traditional markets on plant management in the Tehuacán Valley Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Food 112/59 TM, GM, NUA EB, GM, DE, IPU, CV NM, NP, PP, VV, TT III Grenón-Cascales et al. [ 64 ] Follajes comercializados en dos mercados de flores del Altiplano Central Mexicano Polibotánica Ornamental 87/20 GM, UA ECL, PU, FB FV, MV I Molina-Luna et al. [ 65 ] Plantas silvestres y arvenses intercambiadas en mercados tradicionales de los valles centrales de Oaxaca Revista Mexicana de Agroecosistemas Food 103/92 UA, LR, GM DM, LE, EC TT III, IV Cruz-García et al. [ 66 ] The wild orchid trade in a Mexican local market: Diversity and economics Economic Botany Ornamental 36/36 ED, SX, ES, LR, HL, TRC, PF, GM LE, NE FC, IV, FC, FV, PP II, III Molina-Luna et al. [ 67 ] El papel de la comercializacion orquideas y bromelias de mercados de los valles centrales de Oaxaca, en la subsistencia campesina. Observatorio de Economía Latinoamericana Ornamental 31/31 ED, OC, SX, LR, HL, UA NE, LE, PU, GM, DIE TT IV Martínez-Moreno et al. [ 68 ] Plantas medicinales de los mercados de Izúcar de Matamoros y Acatlán de Osorio, Puebla Polibotánica Medicinal 144/110 UA, VA, TEC LE PP I, III Mondragón et al. [ 69 ] Prioritizing the Conservation of Epiphytic Bromeliads Using Ethnobotanical Information from a Traditional Mexican Market Economic Botany Ornamental 12/12 --- NE, FAA PP, VV Emeterio-Lara et al. [ 12 ] Usos y comercialización de orquídeas silvestres en la región sur del Estado de México. Polibotánica Ornamental 6/6 PC, UA LE, ECL, NE MVT, RV, PP, TDV V Farfán-Heredia et al. [ 70 ] Ethnoecology of the interchange of wild and weedy plants and mushrooms in Purépecha markets of Mexico: economic motives of biotic resources management Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Food Ornamental Medicinal 37/37 LR, GI, FP, GM DIE, DIES TT III, V Jiménez-López et al. [ 71 ] Species Richness May Determine the Income from Illicit Wild Orchid Trading in Traditional Markets in Mexico Economic Botany Ornamental 28/28 LR, ED, SX NE, DF, LE VV, PP, GEVE I, II Juárez-Pérez and Cabrera-Luna [ 72 ] Plantas para tratar problemas respiratorios comercializadas en tres mercados populares de la ciudad de Santiago de Queretaro Polibotánica Medicinal 38/20 TTEC, UN, FP PU, NE --- Jiménez-López et al. [ 8 ] Orquídeas silvestres comercializadas en un mercado tradicional de Chiapas, México Botanical Sciences Ornamental 60/60 ED, SX LE, PU, DF AA, PPE II, III Villanueva-Solis et al. [ 73 ] Plantas medicinales que se comercializan en el mercado 8 de Julio y uno tradicional, ambos localizados en el centro de Actopan, Hidalgo, México. Polibotánica Medicinal 56/20 UA, GI, AC LE, PU PP Manzanero-Medina et al. [ 74 ] Ethnobotany of food plants (quelites) sold in two traditional markets of Oaxaca, Mexico South African Journal of Botany Food 22/3 PU, FP, TP, FM LE, DIP, H, NEH DMPV V Farrera Sarmiento et al. [ 75 ] Etnobotánica del Tianguis de las Flores y el mercado público municipal Primero de Mayo de Berriozábal, Chiapas, México Lacandonia Ornamental Medicinal Food 342/172 UA NE, EC --- Cruz Arenas et al. [ 4 ] Mercados, hierbas y comerciantes: el intercambio de herbáceas en el tianguis de Ixtlán de Juárez, Oaxaca Revista Etnobiologia Food 16/3 LR, GM, ES, ED, SX NE, H, DIP TV IV, V Reyes-Matamoros et al. [ 5 ] Importancia relativa de las especies medicinales ofertadas En el mercado de Tepeaca, Puebla, México Polibotánica Medicinal 65/42 UA, FP, VA NE, LE PP IV Viescas-Gonzáles et al. [ 76 ] Los quelites en la ciudad de Toluca, México: su recolección, comercialización y consumo Estudios sociales Food 12/12 FP NE, LE VV, PP, FC II [ 77 ] Juárez Muñoz et al. Orquídeas silvestres comercializadas en dos mercados de Puebla, México Boletín de Ciencias Agropecuarias del ICAP Ornamental 27/22 -- NE, ECL, EC PP, VV Velázquez-Juárez et al. [ 78 ] Diversidad y conservación de orquídeas en Tenango de la Flores, Puebla, México UVSERVA Ornamental 137/137 NE, H, TF, PDP, SC, EC Table 3 here Three of the 32 selected studies reported data for only one of the variable categories considered in Table 3 . Eight studies included data for two of the three groups of variables, whereas 21 studies presented information on all three groups of variables. These variables included social variables such as the age and gender of the sellers; ecological variables such as the number of species offered, plant part used, plant use, and place of extraction; and economic variables such as commercial value. The titles of the studies selected here contained 154 different words in both English and Spanish. The word cloud (Fig. 4 ) highlighted five words with the highest frequency: medicinal, Oaxaca, commercialized, traditional, and management. These words provide an overview of the general focus of the investigations and suggest areas that warrant further exploration in traditional markets where Mexican wild plants are traded. The review of the content of the studies allowed us to categorize them according to the different theories and hypotheses used in ethnobotany, following Gaoue et al. [ 35 ]. In this context, 18 studies provided data that could be analyzed through five theories and hypotheses, with some studies fitting into more than one category. These include the following: I) versatility, availability and diversification (5/18); II) optimal foraging (6/18); III) age, gender and dynamics of knowledge (8/18); IV) key cultural species (6/18); and V) value of plant use (7/18) (Table 2 ). Of the 14 remaining studies, 13 contained partial information that did not allow them to be placed within the assumptions of the selected theories and hypotheses, and the remaining study was only based on a description of the plant trade, so it did not provide data. DISCUSSION The studies selected for this review focus primarily on documenting the number of species traded in markets, specifying whether they are cultivated, wild, or introduced plants, which makes their approaches largely descriptive [ 53 – 56 , 62 ]. These studies provide valuable insight into the diversity of the Mexican flora traded in traditional markets. Only one study does not report the number of species found in the market under study. As the need to better understand the role of wild plants in Mexico and their ecological and social impacts becomes evident, studies subsequently began integrating social, ecological, and economic variables. The markets from Veracruz, Oaxaca, Puebla, and Chiapas reported the highest number of widely collected species being commercialized. Notably, Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Veracruz also host the greatest floral diversity in the country at the state level, with more than 8,500 species, followed by Jalisco and Guerrero, with species numbers ranging between 6,000 and 8,000, and then Michoacan, San Luis Potosi, Puebla, and Mexico State, each with 5,000 and 6,000 species [ 79 – 82 ]. These states also display significant ethnic diversity, encompassing more than 30 out of the 61 recognized groups in Mexico [ 83 ]. Approximately 10% of these groups live in forested areas and possess extensive knowledge of their natural surroundings, skillfully utilizing available resources [ 84 ]. Most of the 60 markets analyzed in the reviewed studies are located in central and southern Mexico. Four states account for 76% of these markets: Querétaro, with 14 markets across 12 municipalities, although only one study specifically focused on them; and Mexico State, Oaxaca, and Puebla, with six, six and eight studies, respectively, covering nine, 11 and 12 markets, respectively. This distribution likely reflects the central role of these markets in the economy and cultural identity of cities, embodying their history and local traditions [ 85 ]. For instance, Querétaro ranks fifth nationally among states attracting internal migration [ 86 ]. This migration may drive demand for cultural items sold in markets, such as cacti used in Christmas celebrations. In Oaxaca, the region’s rich biocultural diversity facilitates these exchange processes, making it a key area of focus for such research. Moreover, Puebla and Mexico State, as major economic hubs, foster a dynamic environment where plant trade thrives. The taxonomic group of wild plants most prominently featured in the reviewed studies included orchids, followed by bromeliads. Species from these families are highly valued by communities living near the forests where they grow, as they are prominent elements of the local vegetation. These plants are inspired by their ornamental beauty and are sometimes recognized for their medicinal or religious significance; thus, these plants are in heightened demand in traditional markets, particularly during their flowering periods, which often coincide with Catholic festivities [ 8 , 14 , 66 ]. Unfortunately, most orchids and bromeliads sold in these markets are harvested from their natural habitats [ 8 , 13 , 66 – 67 , 71 ]. Only a few cases involved sustainable and regulated management plans from their extraction [ 14 ] (Gómez et al. 2015). While the utility of plants in this trade has been broadly categorized [ 87 ], this review specifically highlights those with medicinal and food uses, given their importance as natural sources of essential products [ 88 ]. Most of the reviewed studies utilized semistructured interviews as the primary tool for gathering information to document the trade of wild plants in traditional markets. This method strikes a balance between flexibility and standardization, allowing researchers to interpret data in alignment with the study’s objectives [ 89 ]. It enables the documentation of wild plant trade while capturing ecological, economic, and social variables. A second commonly used technique is the survey, which is scalable and focuses not on individual respondents but on the broader population they represent, aligning with the research’s objectives [ 90 ]. Like semistructured interviews, surveys enable data collection across all three variable groups, although often with a more limited capacity. Direct observation provides a systematic and verifiable method of visually recording information [ 91 ]. Emeterio-Lara et al. [ 12 ] used direct observation to identify additional commercially traded orchid species not included in their initial analysis, whereas Jiménez-López et al. [ 71 ] employed it for the taxonomic identification of exemplars observed in markets. Studies that combine multiple documentation techniques enhance the depth and breadth of information obtained. Most of the reviewed studies demonstrate a general consensus regarding the key variables examined. These variables encompass social aspects, such as the age and gender of sellers; ecological factors, such as the number of species offered, plant parts traded, plant uses, and extraction sites; and economic considerations, such as the commercial value of the traded exemplars. Comprehensive documentation of these variables is essential for understanding the trade of wild plants in traditional markets as SESs. To fully comprehend these systems, it is critical to elucidate the relationship between the social and ecological context in which this trade operates [ 92 ]. However, while several studies analyze these aspects in isolation, only a limited number of studies have successfully integrated the social and cultural components of SES [ 8 , 12 – 13 , 60 , 63 , 66 , 71 ]. The information they provide allows them to be placed within an SES framework, but this was not their main objective. Nonetheless, these studies offer an overview of the interrelationship between different system components, laying the way for deeper analysis. Further studies could benefit from complementing these findings with network analyses that account for interactions among diverse actors and institutions across different scales and contexts [ 93 – 94 ]. However, SES approaches vary significantly due to the diversity of methodologies, conceptual frameworks, and definitions applied, often leading to omissions, such as inadequate acknowledgment of conceptual sources [ 21 , 95 ]. SES theory proposes a nested structure with humans at the center surrounded by interconnected systems [ 96 ]. These systems provide essential ecological services to society [ 97 ]. Socioecological practices encompass six interrelated types of human actions and social processes: planning, design, construction, restoration, conservation, and management [ 98 ]. In this review, five of these actions were observed in the context of the wild plant trade; restoration was the only one not evidenced in the reviewed studies. This absence likely stems from a lack of field-collected data, as authors often overlook management actions such as repopulation efforts. Several studies reviewed here analyze the trade in wild plants through economic, social and ecological approaches, illustrating it as a system of interconnected components that function together through variables from different categories. Flores-Palacios and Valencia-Diaz [ 13 ] documented local extraction-sale networks, estimated sales volumes and profits, and identified instances of noncompliance with environmental regulations. Linares and Bye [ 60 ] approached the issue from a social and organizational perspective, offering insights into market dynamics, species lists, collection sites, sales volumes, and buyer information. Arellanes et al. [ 63 ] analyzed the permanence of plants in markets by visiting both sales sites and production areas, with areas incorporating ecological, socioeconomic, and management variables. Cruz-García et al. [ 66 ] examined local extraction-sale networks, document species lists, sales volumes, and profits, and identified vulnerable groups involved in this trade. Emeterio-Lara et al. [ 12 ] investigated family networks and gender-specific roles among orchid sellers, linking extraction practices with usage patterns and flower attractiveness. Jiménez-López et al. [ 71 ] also explored family networks and gender-specific roles among orchid sellers, linking extraction practices with usage patterns and flower attractiveness. Jiménez-López et al. [ 8 ] revealed that in a traditional market, the primary orchid extraction site lies within one of the country's most biodiverse protected natural areas and is facilitated by public transportation services between extraction and sale sites. The review also highlights a significant gap in studies that contribute to a better understanding of the trade of wild plants as SESs. Key areas requiring further exploration include a) the purchasing process. b) The social, economic, and cultural characteristics of buyers provide a comprehensive perspective within the SES framework. c) Governance issues related to the regulation of this activity. e) The impact of extraction on species populations. e) The presence of in situ or ex situ management practices. For example, Farfán-Heredia et al. [ 70 ] conducted a study on the trade of wild plants and fungi in the Purepecha region (Michoacan), emphasizing the importance of traditional management practices and the demand for the product to meet the needs of local markets. Furthermore, wildlife consumers play a crucial role in this trade, which operates within the dynamics of supply and demand. However, in the context of e-commerce for wild orchids, it has been observed that sellers often exert monopolistic control over platforms. This allows them to inflate plant prices, leading to speculation [ 99 ]. The trade in wild plants can be analyzed from various perspectives via hypotheses and theories commonly applied in ethnobotany, supported by the variables documented in the reviewed studies. For example, Jiménez-López et al. [ 8 ], Ugent [ 55 ], Martínez-Moreno et al. [ 56 ], Grenón-Cascales et al. [ 64 ], and Martínez-Moreno et al. [ 68 ] include variables such as species number, uses, extraction volume, and plant availability. These variables align with the hypotheses of versatility, availability and diversification [ 37 – 39 ]. Flores-Palacios and Valencia-Díaz [ 13 ], Cruz-García et al. [ 66 ], and Jiménez-López et al. [ 8 , 71 ] present data on the economic value of plants, extraction sites, seller income, and number of exemplars offered in markets. These data are suitable for testing optimal foraging theory [ 40 – 44 ]. The hypotheses of age, gender and knowledge dynamics [ 45 – 47 ] can be tested in studies as those by Mondragón [ 58 ], Linares and Bye [ 60 ], Molina-Luna et al. [ 65 ], Cruz-García et al. [ 66 ], Martínez-Moreno et al. [ 68 ], Farfán-Heredia et al. [ 70 ], and Jiménez-López et al. [ 71 ]. These works provide information on seller gender and age, knowledge transmission, and the role of activities, making them compatible with this hypothesis. The theory of key cultural species [ 48 ] focuses on variables such as plant use, cultural importance, conservation status, and taboos of plants. Related studies with these variables include Cruz-Arenas et al. [ 4 ], Reyes-Matamoros et al. [ 5 ], Flores-Palacios and Valencia-Diaz [ 13 ], Linares and Bye [ 60 ], and Molina Luna et al. [ 65 ]. The hypothesis of plant use value [ 49 – 51 ] only requires data on use, cultural importance, and availability, making it broadly applicable to ethnobotanical studies. Finally, the economic theory of consumption [ 49 , 52 ], which has been relatively underexplored in ethnobotany, requires economic variables and consumption preferences. Studies such as Emeterio-Lara et al. [ 12 ] include relevant data to test this theory. By leveraging these hypotheses and theories, a deeper understanding of the wild ornamental plant trade can be developed, integrating economic, social, ecological, and cultural dimensions. In essence, unraveling and comprehending this issue requires inter- and multidisciplinary approaches. CONCLUSIONS In Mexico, research on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets has focused primarily on indigenous communities that maintain strong ties with their surrounding ecosystems. This trade operates within a complex socioecological system shaped by the interaction of social, cultural, ecological, and economic factors. However, there is a significant gap in studies that integrate these components holistically. Most existing research has taken a disciplinary approach, limiting a comprehensive understanding of the socioecological dynamics involved. A multidisciplinary perspective is essential to capture the complexity of this trade, incorporating key elements such as market value, social participation, net profits, and cultural significance. While many studies are published in national journals, there is a growing need to analyze wild plant trade within the SES framework and to disseminate findings in high-impact journals, ensuring greater visibility and influence. SES research has gained significant attention in recent years, and Mexico, with its rich biodiversity and cultural heritage, provides an ideal setting for advancing this field. By applying theoretical and hypothesis-driven approaches, ethnobotanical studies can offer deeper insights into the mechanisms governing the trade of wild flora, identify emerging trends, and unify knowledge. The application of these theories enhances our understanding of trade dynamics and supports the development of strategies that promote both the well-being of local communities and the conservation of regional biodiversity. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable Consent for publication: Not applicable Availability of data and materials: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this manuscript. Competing interests: The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest. Funding: This research was partially funded by Instituto Politecnico Nacional through grants SIP-20231610, SIP-20240944, and SIP 20241893. Authors' contributions : Conceptualization, JARS and RS; methodology, JARS and RS; software, JARS; validation, RS; formal analysis, JARS; investigation, JARS and RS; resources, RS and LLR; data curation, JARS and RS; writing—original draft preparation, JARS and RS; writing—review and editing, RS and LLR; visualization, JARS; supervision, RS; project administration, LLR and RS; funding acquisition, LLR and RS. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Acknowledgments: To the Ministry of Sciences, Humanities, Technology and Innovation (SECIHTI) of Mexico for the scholarship for doctoral studies granted to JARS. The partial financing for field work from Secretaria de Investigacion y Posgrado, Instituto Politecnico Nacional (Projects SIP-20231610, SIP-20240944, and SIP 20241893). To the IDEA WILD Foundation for the support received in the acquisition of photographic and computing equipment for information processing. Authors' information: JARS is biologist from the Tecnologico Nacional of Mexico, campus Cuenca del Papalopan, and holds a master’s in sciences degree in tropical ecology from Universidad Veracruzana, currently pursuing a Ph. D at Instituto Politecnico Nacional; his research interests include ethnobotany, ethnozoology, and ecosystem management; and he has served as a partial-time professor at a public university and as a public servant. LLR is a Chemistry and holds a Ph.D. in Agroresource Sciences from the Institut National Polytechnique of Toulouse, France; currently she is a faculty member of the graduate program at CIIDIR Oaxaca, Instituto Politecnico Nacional, where she engages in teaching and research activities; her research interests include the following: development of green chemistry-based extraction methods and identification of bioactive compounds from plant-based natural products, with an emphasis on evaluating their biological effects. RS is a biologist and holds a Ph.D. in Ecology from the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico; currently, he is a full-time professor at the Instituto Politecnico Nacional, where he engages in teaching and research activities; his research interests include systematics, ethnobotany, and conservation of Mexican orchids, as well as the trade of orchids in traditional markets. References Hirth KG. Los mercados prehispánicos. La economía y el comercio. Arqueología Mexicana 2013; 21:30-35. Villela FS. Mercados indígenas en México. Arqueología Mexicana 2013;122:17-79. Argueta A. El Estudio Etnobioecologico de los tianguis y mercados En Mexico. Revista Etnobiología 2016;14:38-46. Cruz-Arenas R, Cruz-Hernández AM, Palma-Cruz F. Mercados, hierbas y comerciantes: El intercambio de herbáceas en el tianguis de Ixtlán de Juárez, Oaxaca. Revista Etnobiología 2021; 19:79-96. Reyes-Matamoros J, Martínez-Moreno D, Basurto-Peña F, Fuentes-López JG. 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La observacion, un método para el estudio de la realidad. Xihmai 2012;7: 45-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.37646/xihmai.v7i13.202 Urquiza-Gómez A, Cadenas H. Sistemas socioecológicos: Elementos teóricos y conceptuales para la discusión en torno a vulnerabilidad hídrica. L’Ordinaire des Amériques 2015;218. https://doi.org/10.4000/orda.1774 García-Jácome LG, García-Frapolli E, Bonilla-Moheno M, Rangel-Rivera CE, Benítez M, Ramos-Fernández G. Multiple resource use strategies and resilience of a socio-ecosystem in a natural protected area in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 2020;4:522657. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.522657 Lotero-Velásquez E, Martínez-Ballesté A, Casas A, Vega Peña EV. Ecosymbiotic complementarity, an old theory applicable in today’s ethnobiological studies. Economic Botany 2024;78:169-181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-024-09599-w Merz L. Virtual special issue: Social-ecological systems research in tropical ecosystems. Biotropica 2023;55:563-567. https://doi.org/10.1111/btp.13222 Kilanowski JF. Breadth of the socio-ecological model. Journal of Agromedicine 2017;22:295-297. https://doi.org/10.1080/1059924X.2017.1358971 Petrosillo I, Aretano R, Zurlini G. Socioecological Systems. In Encyclopedia of Ecology . Volume 4. 2 nd edition. Edited by Fath B. Cambridge: Elsevier. 2019:419-425. Xiang WN. Ecopracticology: The study of socioecological practice. Socio-Ecological Practice Research 2019;1:7-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-019-00006-6 Espejo-Cruz AC, Espejo-Martinez A, Chavez-Angeles MG, Lagunez-Rivera L, Solano R. Deficiencies in compliance with environmental regulation for orchid trade via social networks in Mexico. Botanical Sciences 2023;101:400-416. https://doi.org/10.17129/botsci.3159 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6823630","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":467341275,"identity":"01eebf69-e6e0-422e-a2d4-9a15cca6e191","order_by":0,"name":"Jesus Alejandro Ríos-Solis","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto Politecnico Nacional","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jesus","middleName":"Alejandro","lastName":"Ríos-Solis","suffix":""},{"id":467341276,"identity":"d931eb01-cfa2-44f7-b149-e1f0a591e69a","order_by":1,"name":"Luicita Lagunez-Rivera","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto Politecnico Nacional","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Luicita","middleName":"","lastName":"Lagunez-Rivera","suffix":""},{"id":467341277,"identity":"c276942f-e789-4c5a-9f37-26e629389867","order_by":2,"name":"Rodolfo Solano","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAuklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACxgMgkp+ZFD1gLZLNJGsxOECscv7+wwcO/NxhY7f5OO+xB4w5hwlrkbiRlnCw90xa8rbDfOkGjNvSiLDmBo/BAd62w8lmh3nMJBi32RDWIX/+jMHBv0Atxs1gLRKEtRgcyDE4DLTFzoCZWFsMgX45LNuWliBxmC9NIpEYv8idP3zw4ds2G3v+/rPHJD5uIyLEYCCxgYGHgSGBeA0MDPYMIC2jYBSMglEwCrABAENSOfC5wBbFAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto Politecnico Nacional","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rodolfo","middleName":"","lastName":"Solano","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-04 21:53:17","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6823630/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6823630/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":84199828,"identity":"f7452f5d-e4f3-4805-bcca-c00b165b9173","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 08:21:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1691593,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeographic distribution of traditional markets in Mexico, where the trade of wild plants has been studied, according to the review conducted in this work.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6823630/v1/4eedb0354dbdce90ce39cb7b.jpg"},{"id":84201237,"identity":"b17e963d-33ed-4086-9378-c39556635661","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 08:29:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":764066,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph showing the geographic distribution of traditional markets where the trade of wild plants has been studied in Mexico. The size of each square is proportional to the number of markets per Mexican state.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6823630/v1/6f1fddbddca2ae353404e30d.jpg"},{"id":84199831,"identity":"6d191796-c32c-4ad0-982d-fff566b55693","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 08:21:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1106732,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph showing the distribution of studies on the trade of wild plants in Mexican traditional markets by scientific journals. The size of each square is proportional to the number of studies in journal.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6823630/v1/da824fb2056d32ee2f344882.jpg"},{"id":84199834,"identity":"eb549268-c8d2-47d2-b0f5-e0a554965875","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 08:21:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2382919,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWord cloud created from the titles and keywords of the 32 selected studies on the wild plant trade in traditional markets in Mexico.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6823630/v1/d7590c595cfd84f013f91bc7.jpg"},{"id":86088113,"identity":"3899bb7a-5cb5-4d1c-89b9-3ee7ca37a04d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-06 05:39:25","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":7028396,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6823630/v1/f4dd35f8-2ec9-4308-a385-9095df73c607.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eThe Trade of Wild Ornamental Plants in Traditional Markets of Mexico: Ethnobotanical Insights Into a Complex Socioecological System\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"BACKGROUND","content":"\u003cp\u003eFrom pre-Hispanic times, in Mexico, traditional markets have served as the focal points of social and economic life, both at the microregional and regional levels, where people gather to buy, sell or exchange the goods necessary for their daily lives [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. These spaces are cultural constructs that reflect the biocultural diversity of the environment in which they are established [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. They hold economic and cultural significance within communities and serve as sources of ethnobiological and anthropological knowledge [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. In Mexico, traditional markets can be categorized into two types. One is tianguis (derived from the Nahua term \u003cem\u003etianquiz\u003c/em\u003e, meaning market), which is an open-air market set up periodically, usually once a week, in various communities across the country [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. The second type consists of a permanent public market, which serves as a fixed location for the sale, purchase, or exchange of goods or services [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The diverse range of products sold in these traditional markets reflects the agricultural and production practices of peasants, which are shaped by the natural resources available in the surrounding agroecosystems and forests [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], where the majority of goods originate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe traditional Mexican markets offer a wide variety of products obtained from forest and agroforestry systems and cultivated crops, including plants, fruits, seeds, bark charcoal, firewood, leaf litter, soil, insects, and fungi, among others. Among these, wild plants stand out, particularly for their ornamental value [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Unlike many other products, their availability remains constant throughout the year. The highest sales volumes typically involve plants extracted directly from their habitats and sold in traditional markets or through informal networks with minimal regulation. As a result, this activity can be classified as illicit trafficking of wild flora [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Notable wild plants traded for ornamental purposes include orchids, cacti, bromeliads, cycads, and elephant feet [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12 CR13\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. All of these groups are considered nontimber forest products (NTFPs), whose trade provides subsistence income for rural communities engaged in this practice [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], as well as employment opportunities for collectors, processors, traders, and sellers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. This local trade is expanding, with wholesale traders increasingly supplying local market networks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe markets where wild ornamental plants are traded serve as valuable sources of information for studying the interactions and relationships between plants and society [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, this activity should be viewed as part of a socioecological system (SES), emphasizing the intrinsic connection between a natural and a human component [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The concept of an SES and its application to the governance and conservation of natural systems through an inter- or transdisciplinary approach has been explored by various authors [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. These systems are recognized as complex, consisting of interconnected subsystems that encompass multiple human\u0026ndash;environmental variables [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Within an SES, the impact of the ecosystem on meeting human needs through services is analyzed alongside the way in which the social dynamics of demand can influence and shape ecological integrity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. The impact of wild plant extraction has been studied in different parts of the world. In China and India, ginseng (\u003cem\u003ePanax ginseng\u003c/em\u003e C.A. Mey) and turmeric (\u003cem\u003eCurcuma longa\u003c/em\u003e L.) have increased in demand, placing immense pressure on wild populations. Unsustainable harvesting and deforestation have led to population declines for both species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. In South Africa, between 70% and 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine, with many medicinal plants collected from the wild and sold in markets. However, increasing demand has resulted in overexploitation and near extinction of certain species, such as \u003cem\u003eSiphonochilus aethiopicus\u003c/em\u003e (Schweinf.) B.L. Burtt [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, in Europe, the trade of wild plants has a long tradition, particularly in countries such as Albania and Bulgaria, where thyme (\u003cem\u003eThymus vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e L.), chamomile (\u003cem\u003eMatricaria chamomilla\u003c/em\u003e L.), and valerian (\u003cem\u003eValeriana officinalis\u003c/em\u003e L.) are harvested in rural areas and sold in markets. However, increasing demand across Europe has led to overexploitation in some regions, posing challenges for species conservation and trade sustainability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Given these concerns, developing a robust theoretical framework for SESs is essential for understanding the interconnections between their human and natural components. Such an approach could prove instrumental in mitigating the threats posed by anthropogenic factors affecting biodiversity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMexico is a megadiverse country known for its rich biological richness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], with vascular flora encompassing 25,077 species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. A portion of this flora is used for ornamental or decorative purposes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Among these, 3,434 species of Mexican wild plants (13%) have ornamental potential [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Many of these species are available in traditional markets across Mexico, where they often hold ornamental, religious, or ceremonial significance, particularly in indigenous regions. In this context, it is crucial to recognize the breadth of current SES theory and understand how it can be used to formulate testable hypotheses. To achieve this goal, it is essential to identify hypotheses that explore the interactions between people and plants, contributing to the theoretical foundations for the selection and use of wild plants within an SES [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the objective of this review was to document studies focused on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets across the country. The aim was to understand the approaches employed in these studies, assess the current state of research, and identify existing knowledge gaps. Specifically, the purpose was to review the hypotheses proposed or evaluated in these studies, which have contributed to the development of a theory regarding the trade of ornamental wild plants as part of an SES. This effort can help identify the information and variables needed to guide and strengthen future research, addressing the issue within a socioecological framework.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003eBetween December 2023 and February 2024, a search for publications in scientific journals was conducted in academic search engines, including Elsevier (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.elsevier.com/es-mx\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.elsevier.com/es-mx\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), Google Schoolar (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://scholar.google.es/schhp?hl=es\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://scholar.google.es/schhp?hl=es\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), Web of Science (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.webofscience.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.webofscience.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), Scopus (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.scopus.com/home.uri\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.scopus.com/home.uri\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), Springer (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://link.springer.com/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://link.springer.com/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), and SciElo (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://scielo.org/es/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://scielo.org/es/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). For this search, the keywords \"wild plants\", \"markets\", and \"Mexico\", both English and Spanish, were employed, and Boolean operators were used to specifically target studies on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets of Mexico while irrelevant results were excluded. Publications in both Spanish and English were considered, although theses for obtaining an academic degree were excluded. To be selected, publications had to include the search words in their titles and/or keywords.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach of the documents identified in the search was reviewed, and studies that did not focus primarily on the presence of wild plants were excluded. In the reviewed documents, the origin of the traded plants in these markets was identified and categorized as originating from forests, agroforestry systems, or crops. To assess how the reviewed studies address the trade of wild plants with an SES framework, the variables reported and analyzed in each of the selected papers were identified and classified into three categories: a) social (e.g., age, schooling, ethnicity), b) ecological (e.g., number of species, type of vegetation, seasonality, part used) and c) economic (e.g., market value, profits). These variables, organized by category, are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, a word cloud was generated via the wordcloud platform (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.wordclouds.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.wordclouds.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) on the basis of the words included in the titles and keywords of each selected study, excluding the aforementioned search terms. This visual tool allows for a descriptive analysis of the text, highlighting key ideas, with word frequency indicating their importance in each published work [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, a selective and representative review of the main hypotheses in ethnobotany was conducted, with a particular focus on SESs, following the criteria set by Gaoue et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. The studies selected for this review were categorized on the basis of the following guiding research questions: 1) How do people select plants for commercial use? 2) What are the implications of plant selection by people? 3) How do people mitigate the potential negative effects of plant use? For each hypothesis, the main prediction was identified, and the selected studies were discussed in terms of how the hypothesis could be tested. The main hypotheses identified in the 32 studies reviewed, which are classified and evaluated here, are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe literature search identified a total of 263 articles containing the terms used in the search in their titles and keywords. Among these, 232 did not meet the established criteria, which required a primary focus on wild species. As a result, only 32 articles published between 1966 and 2023 met the criteria (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). These 32 studies examined the trade of wild plants across 60 markets in 11 Mexican states, with Puebla, the state of Mexico, and Oaxaca being the most frequently studied (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, fewer studies have been conducted in states such as Veracruz, Nuevo Le\u0026oacute;n, and Michoac\u0026aacute;n (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, no studies meeting the selection criteria were found for the remaining 20 Mexican states. Queretaro had the highest number of markets studied, with 14, followed by Puebla, with 11, and Oaxaca, with 11.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 32 selected studies were published in 16 scientific journals, 20 of which (64%) were domestic, whereas the remaining studies were foreign. Among them, Polibotanica, a domestically produced journal, and Economic Botany, an international journal, had the highest number of articles, with nine and six, respectively. Additionally, five journals specialize in botany, whereas five focus on humanities, particularly anthropology and ethnoecology (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary uses documented for the commercialized plants in the 32 research studies were ornamental, food, medicinal, handicraft, and religious-ceremonial, with ornamental being the most frequent use, followed by food and medicinal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEleven data collection techniques were identified across the 32 studies, with semistructured interviews being the most common (15/32), followed by interviews/purchases (3/32), open interviews (2/32), general interviews (2/32), and structured interviews (2/32). Some studies have employed a combination of methods to gather information.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClassification of variables identified in the review on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets in Mexico.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of variable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEcological\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttributed use - UA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of uses attributed - NUA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eForm of preparation - FP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlace of residence - LR\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegree of management - GM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eForm of collection - FC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime of collection - TRC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethod of collection - MC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of vendor - TV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of uses - NU\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge - ED\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex - SX\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchooling - ES\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpeaker of a language - HL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily participation - FP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerson collecting - PC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of disease being cured - TEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndigenous group - GI\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcquisition of knowledge - AC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of supplier - TP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of market - TM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of seller - TV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of buyer - TC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiest time of day - HMA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial events - ES\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdministration channel - VA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePart used - PU\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccupancy - OC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of species - NE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePart used - PU\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegree of management - GM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrigin - O\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConservation status - EC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological status - EB\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabitat - H\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevel of endemism - NED\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation of extraction - LE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbundance - AB\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime of collection - ECL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant attributes - AP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological form - FB\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpatial distribution - DE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex of part used - IPU\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife cycle - CV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbundance fluctuation/year - FAA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpatial availability - DIE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeasonal availability - DIES\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAvailability per month - DM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAvailability - DIP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlower diameter - DF\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of species/habitat - NEH\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlower type - TF\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubstrate - SC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant provenance - PDP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemand - D\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant Price - PP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePurchase volume - VC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of markets - NM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of stalls - NP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of transactions - NT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of transactions - TT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eForm of sale - FV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimated profit - GE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditional activity - AA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage price per species - PPE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistance between market and seller's origin - DMPV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of seller - TV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of sellers - NV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of buyer - TC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasure of sale - MV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of individuals offered - NIO\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarketing frequency - FC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonth of sale - MVT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRevenue per sale - IV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSales volume - VV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResale - RV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime spent selling - TDV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimated profit per sale/species - GEVE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency of purchase - FC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheories and hypotheses related to ethnobotany identified in the 32 studies reviewed in this work. The classification of the theories and hypotheses follows Gaoue et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheory/Hypothesis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMain authors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVersatility, availability and diversification Hypothesis\u003c/b\u003e: It explains how human communities select and use plants based on three main factors:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVersatility: The variety of uses a plant can have (food, medicinal, ritual, etc.) influences its cultural importance. More versatile plants are often more valued as they fulfill multiple needs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAvailability: Plants that are more accessible in the local environment are usually preferred since their collection requires less effort and fewer resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiversification: The diversified use of plants can serve as a cultural strategy to mitigate risks, such as resource scarcity, enhancing community resilience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBennett and Prance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e], Voeks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e], Albuquerque [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOptimal foraging theory\u003c/b\u003e: It explains how human communities select and use plant resources. This theory suggests that, like other organisms, people make decisions about resource use by maximizing benefits (such as energy or nutrients) relative to the associated costs (such as time, effort, or procurement risks).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHames and Vickers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e], Hawkes and O'Connell [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], Alvard, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], Coley et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], Soldati and Albuquerque [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge, gender, and knowledge dynamics hypotheses\u003c/b\u003e: The level of a person\u0026rsquo;s knowledge about the plants they use is related to \u003cb\u003es\u003c/b\u003eociocultural and demographic factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlbuquerque et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], Hanazaki et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], McCarter and Gavin [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTheory of cultural keystone species\u003c/b\u003e: Certain species of plants are fundamental to sociocultural systems; the loss of these species would have negative impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePaine [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlant use value hypothesis\u003c/b\u003e: It aims to explain why certain plants are more valued or used than others within a community. This theory combines ecological, cultural, and practical factors to analyze how plants' intrinsic traits and human needs shape its cultural significance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhillips and Gentry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e], Byg and Balslev [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e], Albuquerque and Lucena [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEconomic theory of consumption\u003c/b\u003e: It examine plant selection and consumption patterns from an economic perspective, exploring factors such as utility, environmental and social constraints, and intertemporal decision making.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhillips and Gentry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e], Albuquerque and Alves [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of the 32 selected studies, in chronological order, on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets in Mexico. This summary includes information on the publishing journal, use categories of the traded species, and the variables and hypotheses identified in each study. The abbreviations for the social, ecological, and economic variables are listed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. ER-ES\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Number of reported species/Number of wild species. * Journal currently named Botanical Sciences. T/H: Theory or hypotheses identified in the study (I: Versatility, availability, and diversification; II: Optimal foraging; III: Age, sex, and knowledge dynamics; IV: Cultural keystone species; V: Plant use value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTitle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJournal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse Category\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eER/ES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of variable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT/H\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEcological\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhitaker and Cutler [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood plants in a Mexican market\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic Botany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83/24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNicholson and Arzeni [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe market medicinal plants of Monterrey, Nuevo Le\u0026oacute;n, M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic Botany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70/36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUA, FP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUgent [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicine, myths and magic the folk healers of a Mexican market\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic Botany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71/44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, PU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMart\u0026iacute;nez-Moreno et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantas medicinales de cuatro mercados del estado de Puebla, M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBolet\u0026iacute;n de la Sociedad Bot\u0026aacute;nica de M\u0026eacute;xico*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62/35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, PU, GM, EB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCabrera-Luna et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantas vasculares comercializadas como ornamentales decembrinas en 12 municipios de Quer\u0026eacute;taro, M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolibot\u0026aacute;nica\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67/61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO, EC, NE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlores-Palacios and Valencia-Diaz [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocal illegal trade reveals unknown diversity and involves a high species richness of wild vascular epiphytes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological Conservation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e207/207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCR, GM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, EF, H, NED\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePP, NIO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eII, IV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMondrag\u0026oacute;n [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLa comercializaci\u0026oacute;n navide\u0026ntilde;a de bromelias epifitas en la ciudad de Oaxaca\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRevista Etnobiologia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21/21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC, TRC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLE, AB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIII\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManzanero-Medina et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEtnobot\u0026aacute;nica de siete ra\u0026iacute;ces medicinales en el mercado de Sonora de la Ciudad de M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolibot\u0026aacute;nica\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7/7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMC, UA, TV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLE, GM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMungu\u0026iacute;a-Lino et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantas silvestres ornamentales comercializadas en los mercados de la flor de Tenancingo y Jamaica, M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolibot\u0026aacute;nica\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e131/131\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTV, UA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLE, ECL, PU, AP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eII, V\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLinares and Bye [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLa din\u0026aacute;mica de un mercado perif\u0026eacute;rico de plantas medicinales de M\u0026eacute;xico: el tianguis de Ozumba, estado de M\u0026eacute;xico, como centro acopiador para el mercado de Sonora (mercado central)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHist\u0026oacute;ricas Digital\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63/63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHMA, ES, TC, FP, GM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, LE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVC, PP, NV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIII, IV, V\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArellanes and Casas et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLos mercados tradicionales del Valle de Tehuac\u0026aacute;n-Cuicatl\u0026aacute;n: antecedentes y situaci\u0026oacute;n actual.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNueva antropolog\u0026iacute;a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental Medicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-/-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTV, HL, TM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTena-Meza et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLos mercados de Guadalajara, M\u0026eacute;xico. Ejemplo del consumo de plantas silvestres\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRevista de Humanidades\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5/5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e] Arellanes et al.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfluence of traditional markets on plant management in the Tehuac\u0026aacute;n Valley\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112/59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTM, GM, NUA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEB, GM, DE, IPU, CV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNM, NP, PP, VV, TT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIII\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGren\u0026oacute;n-Cascales et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollajes comercializados en dos mercados de flores del Altiplano Central Mexicano\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolibot\u0026aacute;nica\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87/20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGM, UA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eECL, PU, FB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFV, MV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolina-Luna et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantas silvestres y arvenses intercambiadas en mercados tradicionales de los valles centrales de Oaxaca\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRevista Mexicana de Agroecosistemas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103/92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUA, LR, GM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDM, LE, EC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIII, IV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCruz-Garc\u0026iacute;a et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe wild orchid trade in a Mexican local market: Diversity and economics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic Botany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36/36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eED, SX, ES, LR, HL, TRC, PF, GM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLE, NE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFC, IV, FC, FV, PP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eII, III\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolina-Luna et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEl papel de la comercializacion orquideas y bromelias de mercados de los valles centrales de Oaxaca, en la subsistencia campesina.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservatorio de Econom\u0026iacute;a Latinoamericana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31/31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eED, OC, SX, LR, HL, UA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, LE, PU, GM, DIE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMart\u0026iacute;nez-Moreno et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantas medicinales de los mercados de Iz\u0026uacute;car de Matamoros y Acatl\u0026aacute;n de Osorio, Puebla\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolibot\u0026aacute;nica\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144/110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUA, VA, TEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI, III\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMondrag\u0026oacute;n et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrioritizing the Conservation of Epiphytic Bromeliads Using Ethnobotanical Information from a Traditional Mexican Market\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic Botany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12/12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, FAA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePP, VV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmeterio-Lara et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsos y comercializaci\u0026oacute;n de orqu\u0026iacute;deas silvestres en la regi\u0026oacute;n sur del Estado de M\u0026eacute;xico.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolibot\u0026aacute;nica\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC, UA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLE, ECL, NE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVT, RV, PP, TDV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarf\u0026aacute;n-Heredia et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnoecology of the interchange of wild and weedy plants and mushrooms in Pur\u0026eacute;pecha markets of Mexico: economic motives of biotic resources management\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37/37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLR, GI, FP, GM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDIE, DIES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIII, V\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJim\u0026eacute;nez-L\u0026oacute;pez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies Richness May Determine the Income from Illicit Wild Orchid Trading in Traditional Markets in Mexico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic Botany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28/28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLR, ED, SX\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, DF, LE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVV, PP, GEVE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI, II\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJu\u0026aacute;rez-P\u0026eacute;rez and Cabrera-Luna [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantas para tratar problemas respiratorios comercializadas en tres mercados populares de la ciudad de Santiago de Queretaro\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolibot\u0026aacute;nica\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38/20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTTEC, UN, FP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePU, NE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJim\u0026eacute;nez-L\u0026oacute;pez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrqu\u0026iacute;deas silvestres comercializadas en un mercado tradicional de Chiapas, M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBotanical Sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60/60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eED, SX\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLE, PU, DF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAA, PPE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eII, III\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVillanueva-Solis et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantas medicinales que se comercializan en el mercado 8 de Julio y uno tradicional, ambos localizados en el centro de Actopan, Hidalgo, M\u0026eacute;xico.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolibot\u0026aacute;nica\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56/20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUA, GI, AC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLE, PU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManzanero-Medina et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnobotany of food plants (quelites) sold in two traditional markets of Oaxaca, Mexico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouth African Journal of Botany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePU, FP, TP, FM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLE, DIP, H, NEH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDMPV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarrera Sarmiento et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEtnobot\u0026aacute;nica del Tianguis de las Flores y el mercado p\u0026uacute;blico municipal Primero de Mayo de Berrioz\u0026aacute;bal, Chiapas, M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLacandonia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental Medicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e342/172\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, EC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCruz Arenas et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMercados, hierbas y comerciantes: el intercambio de herb\u0026aacute;ceas en el tianguis de Ixtl\u0026aacute;n de Ju\u0026aacute;rez, Oaxaca\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRevista Etnobiologia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLR, GM, ES, ED, SX\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, H, DIP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIV, V\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReyes-Matamoros et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportancia relativa de las especies medicinales ofertadas En el mercado de Tepeaca, Puebla, M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolibot\u0026aacute;nica\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65/42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUA, FP, VA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, LE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eViescas-Gonz\u0026aacute;les et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLos quelites en la ciudad de Toluca, M\u0026eacute;xico: su recolecci\u0026oacute;n, comercializaci\u0026oacute;n y consumo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstudios sociales\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12/12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, LE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVV, PP, FC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eII\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e] Ju\u0026aacute;rez Mu\u0026ntilde;oz et\u0026nbsp;al.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrqu\u0026iacute;deas silvestres comercializadas en dos mercados de Puebla, M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBolet\u0026iacute;n de Ciencias Agropecuarias del ICAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27/22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, ECL, EC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePP, VV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVel\u0026aacute;zquez-Ju\u0026aacute;rez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiversidad y conservaci\u0026oacute;n de orqu\u0026iacute;deas en Tenango de la Flores, Puebla, M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUVSERVA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrnamental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e137/137\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, H, TF, PDP, SC, EC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003ehere\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree of the 32 selected studies reported data for only one of the variable categories considered in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Eight studies included data for two of the three groups of variables, whereas 21 studies presented information on all three groups of variables. These variables included social variables such as the age and gender of the sellers; ecological variables such as the number of species offered, plant part used, plant use, and place of extraction; and economic variables such as commercial value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe titles of the studies selected here contained 154 different words in both English and Spanish. The word cloud (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted five words with the highest frequency: medicinal, Oaxaca, commercialized, traditional, and management. These words provide an overview of the general focus of the investigations and suggest areas that warrant further exploration in traditional markets where Mexican wild plants are traded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe review of the content of the studies allowed us to categorize them according to the different theories and hypotheses used in ethnobotany, following Gaoue et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. In this context, 18 studies provided data that could be analyzed through five theories and hypotheses, with some studies fitting into more than one category. These include the following: I) versatility, availability and diversification (5/18); II) optimal foraging (6/18); III) age, gender and dynamics of knowledge (8/18); IV) key cultural species (6/18); and V) value of plant use (7/18) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Of the 14 remaining studies, 13 contained partial information that did not allow them to be placed within the assumptions of the selected theories and hypotheses, and the remaining study was only based on a description of the plant trade, so it did not provide data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe studies selected for this review focus primarily on documenting the number of species traded in markets, specifying whether they are cultivated, wild, or introduced plants, which makes their approaches largely descriptive [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR54 CR55\" citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. These studies provide valuable insight into the diversity of the Mexican flora traded in traditional markets. Only one study does not report the number of species found in the market under study. As the need to better understand the role of wild plants in Mexico and their ecological and social impacts becomes evident, studies subsequently began integrating social, ecological, and economic variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe markets from Veracruz, Oaxaca, Puebla, and Chiapas reported the highest number of widely collected species being commercialized. Notably, Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Veracruz also host the greatest floral diversity in the country at the state level, with more than 8,500 species, followed by Jalisco and Guerrero, with species numbers ranging between 6,000 and 8,000, and then Michoacan, San Luis Potosi, Puebla, and Mexico State, each with 5,000 and 6,000 species [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR80 CR81\" citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e]. These states also display significant ethnic diversity, encompassing more than 30 out of the 61 recognized groups in Mexico [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e]. Approximately 10% of these groups live in forested areas and possess extensive knowledge of their natural surroundings, skillfully utilizing available resources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e84\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost of the 60 markets analyzed in the reviewed studies are located in central and southern Mexico. Four states account for 76% of these markets: Quer\u0026eacute;taro, with 14 markets across 12 municipalities, although only one study specifically focused on them; and Mexico State, Oaxaca, and Puebla, with six, six and eight studies, respectively, covering nine, 11 and 12 markets, respectively. This distribution likely reflects the central role of these markets in the economy and cultural identity of cities, embodying their history and local traditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e85\u003c/span\u003e]. For instance, Quer\u0026eacute;taro ranks fifth nationally among states attracting internal migration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e]. This migration may drive demand for cultural items sold in markets, such as cacti used in Christmas celebrations. In Oaxaca, the region\u0026rsquo;s rich biocultural diversity facilitates these exchange processes, making it a key area of focus for such research. Moreover, Puebla and Mexico State, as major economic hubs, foster a dynamic environment where plant trade thrives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe taxonomic group of wild plants most prominently featured in the reviewed studies included orchids, followed by bromeliads. Species from these families are highly valued by communities living near the forests where they grow, as they are prominent elements of the local vegetation. These plants are inspired by their ornamental beauty and are sometimes recognized for their medicinal or religious significance; thus, these plants are in heightened demand in traditional markets, particularly during their flowering periods, which often coincide with Catholic festivities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e]. Unfortunately, most orchids and bromeliads sold in these markets are harvested from their natural habitats [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e]. Only a few cases involved sustainable and regulated management plans from their extraction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] (G\u0026oacute;mez et al. 2015). While the utility of plants in this trade has been broadly categorized [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e], this review specifically highlights those with medicinal and food uses, given their importance as natural sources of essential products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e88\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost of the reviewed studies utilized semistructured interviews as the primary tool for gathering information to document the trade of wild plants in traditional markets. This method strikes a balance between flexibility and standardization, allowing researchers to interpret data in alignment with the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e89\u003c/span\u003e]. It enables the documentation of wild plant trade while capturing ecological, economic, and social variables. A second commonly used technique is the survey, which is scalable and focuses not on individual respondents but on the broader population they represent, aligning with the research\u0026rsquo;s objectives [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e90\u003c/span\u003e]. Like semistructured interviews, surveys enable data collection across all three variable groups, although often with a more limited capacity. Direct observation provides a systematic and verifiable method of visually recording information [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e91\u003c/span\u003e]. Emeterio-Lara et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] used direct observation to identify additional commercially traded orchid species not included in their initial analysis, whereas Jim\u0026eacute;nez-L\u0026oacute;pez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e] employed it for the taxonomic identification of exemplars observed in markets. Studies that combine multiple documentation techniques enhance the depth and breadth of information obtained.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost of the reviewed studies demonstrate a general consensus regarding the key variables examined. These variables encompass social aspects, such as the age and gender of sellers; ecological factors, such as the number of species offered, plant parts traded, plant uses, and extraction sites; and economic considerations, such as the commercial value of the traded exemplars. Comprehensive documentation of these variables is essential for understanding the trade of wild plants in traditional markets as SESs. To fully comprehend these systems, it is critical to elucidate the relationship between the social and ecological context in which this trade operates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e92\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, while several studies analyze these aspects in isolation, only a limited number of studies have successfully integrated the social and cultural components of SES [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e]. The information they provide allows them to be placed within an SES framework, but this was not their main objective. Nonetheless, these studies offer an overview of the interrelationship between different system components, laying the way for deeper analysis. Further studies could benefit from complementing these findings with network analyses that account for interactions among diverse actors and institutions across different scales and contexts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e93\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e94\u003c/span\u003e]. However, SES approaches vary significantly due to the diversity of methodologies, conceptual frameworks, and definitions applied, often leading to omissions, such as inadequate acknowledgment of conceptual sources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e95\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSES theory proposes a nested structure with humans at the center surrounded by interconnected systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e96\u003c/span\u003e]. These systems provide essential ecological services to society [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e97\u003c/span\u003e]. Socioecological practices encompass six interrelated types of human actions and social processes: planning, design, construction, restoration, conservation, and management [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e98\u003c/span\u003e]. In this review, five of these actions were observed in the context of the wild plant trade; restoration was the only one not evidenced in the reviewed studies. This absence likely stems from a lack of field-collected data, as authors often overlook management actions such as repopulation efforts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral studies reviewed here analyze the trade in wild plants through economic, social and ecological approaches, illustrating it as a system of interconnected components that function together through variables from different categories. Flores-Palacios and Valencia-Diaz [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] documented local extraction-sale networks, estimated sales volumes and profits, and identified instances of noncompliance with environmental regulations. Linares and Bye [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e] approached the issue from a social and organizational perspective, offering insights into market dynamics, species lists, collection sites, sales volumes, and buyer information. Arellanes et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e] analyzed the permanence of plants in markets by visiting both sales sites and production areas, with areas incorporating ecological, socioeconomic, and management variables. Cruz-Garc\u0026iacute;a et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e] examined local extraction-sale networks, document species lists, sales volumes, and profits, and identified vulnerable groups involved in this trade. Emeterio-Lara et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] investigated family networks and gender-specific roles among orchid sellers, linking extraction practices with usage patterns and flower attractiveness. Jim\u0026eacute;nez-L\u0026oacute;pez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e] also explored family networks and gender-specific roles among orchid sellers, linking extraction practices with usage patterns and flower attractiveness. Jim\u0026eacute;nez-L\u0026oacute;pez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e] revealed that in a traditional market, the primary orchid extraction site lies within one of the country's most biodiverse protected natural areas and is facilitated by public transportation services between extraction and sale sites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe review also highlights a significant gap in studies that contribute to a better understanding of the trade of wild plants as SESs. Key areas requiring further exploration include a) the purchasing process. b) The social, economic, and cultural characteristics of buyers provide a comprehensive perspective within the SES framework. c) Governance issues related to the regulation of this activity. e) The impact of extraction on species populations. e) The presence of \u003cem\u003ein situ\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eex situ\u003c/em\u003e management practices. For example, Farf\u0026aacute;n-Heredia et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e] conducted a study on the trade of wild plants and fungi in the Purepecha region (Michoacan), emphasizing the importance of traditional management practices and the demand for the product to meet the needs of local markets. Furthermore, wildlife consumers play a crucial role in this trade, which operates within the dynamics of supply and demand. However, in the context of e-commerce for wild orchids, it has been observed that sellers often exert monopolistic control over platforms. This allows them to inflate plant prices, leading to speculation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e99\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe trade in wild plants can be analyzed from various perspectives via hypotheses and theories commonly applied in ethnobotany, supported by the variables documented in the reviewed studies. For example, Jim\u0026eacute;nez-L\u0026oacute;pez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], Ugent [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e], Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Moreno et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e], Gren\u0026oacute;n-Cascales et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e], and Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Moreno et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e] include variables such as species number, uses, extraction volume, and plant availability. These variables align with the hypotheses of versatility, availability and diversification [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR38\" citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Flores-Palacios and Valencia-D\u0026iacute;az [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], Cruz-Garc\u0026iacute;a et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e], and Jim\u0026eacute;nez-L\u0026oacute;pez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e] present data on the economic value of plants, extraction sites, seller income, and number of exemplars offered in markets. These data are suitable for testing optimal foraging theory [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR41 CR42 CR43\" citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. The hypotheses of age, gender and knowledge dynamics [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR46\" citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e] can be tested in studies as those by Mondrag\u0026oacute;n [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e], Linares and Bye [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e], Molina-Luna et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e], Cruz-Garc\u0026iacute;a et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e], Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Moreno et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e], Farf\u0026aacute;n-Heredia et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e], and Jim\u0026eacute;nez-L\u0026oacute;pez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e]. These works provide information on seller gender and age, knowledge transmission, and the role of activities, making them compatible with this hypothesis. The theory of key cultural species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e] focuses on variables such as plant use, cultural importance, conservation status, and taboos of plants. Related studies with these variables include Cruz-Arenas et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], Reyes-Matamoros et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], Flores-Palacios and Valencia-Diaz [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], Linares and Bye [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e], and Molina Luna et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e]. The hypothesis of plant use value [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR50\" citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e] only requires data on use, cultural importance, and availability, making it broadly applicable to ethnobotanical studies. Finally, the economic theory of consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e], which has been relatively underexplored in ethnobotany, requires economic variables and consumption preferences. Studies such as Emeterio-Lara et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] include relevant data to test this theory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy leveraging these hypotheses and theories, a deeper understanding of the wild ornamental plant trade can be developed, integrating economic, social, ecological, and cultural dimensions. In essence, unraveling and comprehending this issue requires inter- and multidisciplinary approaches.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn Mexico, research on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets has focused primarily on indigenous communities that maintain strong ties with their surrounding ecosystems. This trade operates within a complex socioecological system shaped by the interaction of social, cultural, ecological, and economic factors. However, there is a significant gap in studies that integrate these components holistically. Most existing research has taken a disciplinary approach, limiting a comprehensive understanding of the socioecological dynamics involved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA multidisciplinary perspective is essential to capture the complexity of this trade, incorporating key elements such as market value, social participation, net profits, and cultural significance. While many studies are published in national journals, there is a growing need to analyze wild plant trade within the SES framework and to disseminate findings in high-impact journals, ensuring greater visibility and influence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSES research has gained significant attention in recent years, and Mexico, with its rich biodiversity and cultural heritage, provides an ideal setting for advancing this field. By applying theoretical and hypothesis-driven approaches, ethnobotanical studies can offer deeper insights into the mechanisms governing the trade of wild flora, identify emerging trends, and unify knowledge. The application of these theories enhances our understanding of trade dynamics and supports the development of strategies that promote both the well-being of local communities and the conservation of regional biodiversity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials:\u003c/strong\u003e All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e This research was partially funded by Instituto Politecnico Nacional through grants SIP-20231610, SIP-20240944, and SIP 20241893.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualization, JARS and RS; methodology, JARS and RS; software, JARS; validation, RS; formal analysis, JARS; investigation, JARS and RS; resources, RS and LLR; data curation, JARS and RS; writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, JARS and RS; writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, RS and LLR; visualization, JARS; supervision, RS; project administration, LLR and RS; funding acquisition, LLR and RS. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments:\u003c/strong\u003e To the Ministry of Sciences, Humanities, Technology and Innovation (SECIHTI) of Mexico for the scholarship for doctoral studies granted to JARS. The partial financing for field work from Secretaria de Investigacion y Posgrado, Instituto Politecnico Nacional (Projects SIP-20231610, SIP-20240944, and SIP 20241893). To the IDEA WILD Foundation for the support received in the acquisition of photographic and computing equipment for information processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; information:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eJARS is biologist from the Tecnologico Nacional of Mexico, campus Cuenca del Papalopan, and holds a master\u0026rsquo;s in sciences degree in tropical ecology from Universidad Veracruzana, currently pursuing a Ph. D at Instituto Politecnico Nacional; his research interests include ethnobotany, ethnozoology, and ecosystem management; and he has served as a partial-time professor at a public university and as a public servant. LLR is a Chemistry and holds a Ph.D. in Agroresource Sciences from the Institut National Polytechnique of Toulouse, France; currently she is a faculty member of the graduate program at CIIDIR Oaxaca, Instituto Politecnico Nacional, where she engages in teaching and research activities; her research interests include the following: development of green chemistry-based extraction methods and identification of bioactive compounds from plant-based natural products, with an emphasis on evaluating their biological effects. RS is a biologist and holds a Ph.D. in Ecology from the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico; currently, he is a full-time professor at the Instituto Politecnico Nacional, where he engages in teaching and research activities; his research interests include systematics, ethnobotany, and conservation of Mexican orchids, as well as the trade of orchids in traditional markets.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHirth KG. Los mercados prehisp\u0026aacute;nicos. La econom\u0026iacute;a y el comercio. \u003cem\u003eArqueolog\u0026iacute;a Mexicana\u003c/em\u003e 2013; 21:30-35.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVillela FS. Mercados ind\u0026iacute;genas en M\u0026eacute;xico. \u003cem\u003eArqueolog\u0026iacute;a Mexicana\u003c/em\u003e 2013;122:17-79.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArgueta A. 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Deficiencies in compliance with environmental regulation for orchid trade via social networks in Mexico. \u003cem\u003eBotanical Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 2023;101:400-416. https://doi.org/10.17129/botsci.3159 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"ethnobotany theories, nontimber forest products, socioecological systems, traditional management, wildlife traffic","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6823630/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6823630/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the traditional markets of Mexico, a wide variety of products are offered, many of which come from rural areas, including wild plants for ornamental, food, medicinal, and religious purposes. Since these markets represent the biological and cultural diversity of a specific region, the sale of wild plants is embedded in a socioecological system that integrates economic, social, and ecological aspects. However, research on this topic lacks insight into how these components are addressed and integrated to advance the theory of these systems. Here, we identified research trends in the trade of wild plants in traditional Mexican markets and assessed whether these studies have contributed to the theory of socioecological systems in understanding this phenomenon.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA literature review on the trade of wild plants in traditional markets in Mexico was conducted via major academic databases.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThirty-two articles focused on the trade in wild plants for medicinal, food, and ornamental uses. Most studies were carried out in Oaxaca, Puebla, and Mexico City. The most commonly used collection method has been semistructured interviews, which are often supplemented with direct observation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile most studies focus on gathering ecological and biological information, there is a gap in the literature concerning this issue from a socioecological system perspective, which would allow for a more comprehensive understanding of its economic, social, and ecological dimensions. Additionally, certain theories used in ethnobotany are highly valuable for understanding the trade in wild plants from multiple perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Trade of Wild Ornamental Plants in Traditional Markets of Mexico: Ethnobotanical Insights Into a Complex Socioecological System","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-09 08:21:15","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6823630/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9cbaadd0-3243-47b4-a039-e31643d46365","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 9th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-06T05:23:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-09 08:21:15","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6823630","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6823630","identity":"rs-6823630","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}