Gender-Inclusive Governance in Rural Water Management: Women's Participation in Borehole Operations and Maintenance in Ghana

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Using a qualitative research approach, it explores the rules and regulations governing borehole operations and maintenance and the extent of women's involvement in formulating these regulations. Five communities (Ga, Dorimon, Zanko, Vieri, and Naaha) were selected based on accessibility, borehole presence, and active Water and Sanitation Management Teams (WSMTs). The study involved 37 community-level participants selected through purposive sampling. Data collection relied on primary sources, including focus group discussions (FGDs) in each community. Thematic analysis, conducted manually using an inductive approach, guided the data interpretation. Findings reveal that communities have formally prohibited children from operating boreholes due to misuse leading to breakdowns. To prevent damage, boreholes are locked when early signs of malfunction appear. Additionally, strict hygiene measures are enforced, prohibiting urination or defecation near boreholes. Both men and women participate in WSMT meetings, where ideas on borehole governance are shared without restrictions. Women, as primary borehole users, play a crucial role in decision-making and the formulation of operational rules. The study highlights the importance of a gender-inclusive approach in borehole governance for sustainable water management. Women's active participation strengthens local water management strategies beyond symbolic involvement. The study recommends that policymakers prioritize women's inclusion in decision-making to enhance community-based governance structures and ensure the long-term sustainability of rural boreholes. Operations Maintenance Participation Governance Borehole Wa Ghana Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction The availability of safe drinking water has noticeably improved on a global scale. Reportedly, improving the availability of water and efficient governance of borehole might boost the economy and dramatically reduce poverty [ 1 ]. According to reports, 2.2 billion people globally lacked access to safe drinking water in 2017, while over 5.3 billion people used sources of drinking water under safe management [ 1 ]. In 2020, coverage rates for safely managed drinking water systems in rural areas (60%) and urban areas (86%) remained lower, respectively [ 2 ]. Moreover, eight out of ten individuals who still lack access to essential drinking water services reside in rural areas [ 2 ]. In this regard, a lack of access to potable water for drinking is thought to be the cause of approximately 829,000 diarrhoea-related deaths annually [ 1 ]. Therefore, by 2030, nations aim to decrease disparities in access to clean drinking water and maintain high standards of water services concerning quality, accessibility, and dependability. This is in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which include the goal of universal and equitable access to safe and reasonably priced drinking water [ 3 ]. Assuring universal access to clean, affordable, and safe drinking water by 2030 is a formidable task for both wealthy and developing nations like Ghana. Ghana is concentrating on drilling boreholes, the most well-known community-based management tool in Sub-Saharan Africa, to meet Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6. Ghana's rural communities have 74.4% coverage of improved water supply sources [ 4 ]. Although the availability of water has expanded, borehole reliability is still a problem because of their malfunction. According to scholars, the high percentage of partially and completely non-functional boreholes can be partially ascribed to the unequal representation of gender in the decision-making regarding the operation and maintenance boreholes [ 5 – 7 ]. Babuna, Yang [ 8 ] indicate that it is commonly accepted that poor water governance is the cause of the ongoing scarcity of water supplies especially in rural areas. Definitions of governance vary, but the study take this as a starting point, water governance has been described as the system of administrative, social, political, and economic practices used at all societal levels to produce, manage, and give access to water resources and services [ 9 , 10 ]. Nabiafjadi, Sharifzadeh [ 11 ] argue that water governance aims at an effective and efficient management system that brings about the expansion of all water services in an environmentally friendly way. Water governance takes into account the equitable and efficient distribution of water resources and services, collaborations, and shared decision-making procedures, including dialogue and negotiated solutions are instruments for directing water governance [ 12 ]. In terms of literature and practice, borehole governance, is not a new idea. The good governance of borehole has been essential to sustainable development [ 13 ], including the decrease of poverty, especially in developing nations, throughout the past few decades. Over time, it has changed following the values of participation, fairness, decentralization, and accountability. According to Cord, Javernick-Will [ 14 ], who examined the disputes in the water governance sector, transnational, inter, and intra-sectoral rivalry, as well as reliance on a single source or supply network, have all been highlighted as causes of water inequality and insecurity. Attaining the SDGs requires combining water-related issues with more egalitarian governance, women's participation, and decentralization, among other things [ 15 ]. Gender is important and should be taken into consideration while designing sustainable borehole, especially when it comes to women who are marginalized in society [ 16 ]. Yet, meanwhile men and women have different duties when it comes to utilizing and administering water systems [ 17 ], it has been suggested worldwide that suitable gender relations be established to overcome the crisis in water governance and ensure sustainable management of borehole. Women's participation in decision-making regarding the operations and maintenance (O&M) improves projects efficiently [ 18 ] and guarantees that both sexes assert their rights, engage in fair negotiations over water distribution, and collaborate to manage their water resources responsibly and fairly while also enhancing their standard of living. Therefore, it is crucial for more democratic, inclusive, and transformative development as well as equity, efficiency, and effectiveness for men and women to be involved in the governance of borehole Women's participation in the governance of boreholes has been recognized as essential to effective management [ 19 ]. Loucks and Van Beek [ 20 ] assert that if strategies for the planning as well as management of borehole are to be successful and sustainable, both men and women must participate equally in these processes. As a result, the water users who were directly impacted feel more responsible and like they control the water source. Sam and Todd [ 21 ] further clarify that men and women can gain knowledge, expertise, and awareness of various water projects such boreholes through participation. Consequently, they become more confident and interested in the borehole. Changes connected to borehole are therefore simpler to accept as knowledge and awareness grow. As a result, both men’s and women’s support for water projects grows. A participatory strategy makes it easier to comprehend the needs of water users [ 22 ], identify local issues, and enlist the help of both men and women in resolving issues and enhancing situations to their needs. Achieving inclusive water governance requires having equal representation of men and women in local water procedures, meetings, and organizations [ 23 ]. Examples of this include developing water technology, joining local water groups such as Water and Sanitation Management Teams (WSMTs), and physically attending water meetings. Unfortunately, a large body of research from the developing world such as [ 24 – 27 ] indicates that stereotypes that favor the representation of men tend to limit the representation of women in water institutions, thereby limiting women voice in the decision-making process regarding the governance of boreholes. Other contributing factors include patriarchal cultures that prohibit and exclude women from water meetings. In general, [ 28 ] argues that gender is largely ignored while discussing women participation in the governance of borehole especially in rural areas. Women's access to and control over water are also shaped by other aspects of societal inequality that are frequently disregarded. Initiatives or programs that incorporate the viewpoints and efforts of both sexes typically result in better outcomes. Given that women make up half of the world's population, it has been suggested that a gender perspective is essential for efficient management of borehole especially boreholes. In actuality, gender roles for men and women differ and change throughout time, and men and women have varied decision-making authority when it comes to operations and maintenance [ 17 ]. However, at a global level, women's participation in water governance has been acknowledged [ 29 , 30 ]. For instance, the International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade (1981–90), the International Conference on Water and the Environment in Dublin in 1992, and the United Nations Water Conference in Mar del Plata in 1977 all recognize the crucial functions of the female gender in the provision, protection, and management of water systems. The UN Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation both place emphasis on women's participation in water governance [ 29 , 30 ]. Based on this, the Ghana National Water Policy [ 31 ] ensure that all stakeholders, including local communities, particularly women, and the private sector are involved in decision-making on water governance and related matters. This is because the involvement of stakeholders, especially women in water governance will help deal with the issues since they interact more with the infrastructure and any damage to it affects them more than their male counterparts. The Ghana National Water Policy hastens the inclusion of women in all domains and levels of water governance activities. Additionally, the National Community Water and Sanitation Policy states that women must be recognized as decision-makers and managers of water and waste, in addition to being beneficiaries and water users. However, it suggests that women have important roles to play in community water governance, roles that need to be fully acknowledged. To safeguard and guarantee that everyone has access to enough drinking water, it also recommends that decision-making on the governance of rural borehole such as the community boreholes involve both sexes. Ghana has a demand-responsive strategy to community-based governance of rural borehole, with locally elected WSMTs tasked with the maintenance of the borehole. The WSMTs are responsible for planning and overseeing the operation and maintenance of borehole. Yet, Angmor [ 27 ] discovered that there are more male than women members of the WSMTs. This limits women’s voice in decision-making regarding the governance of rural borehole. Adams, Sambu [ 24 ] indicate that in Malawi, community-based water governance, contrary to common notions, does not result in equal participation and empowerment of women. Also, as hinted before, unlike men, women often do not participate in decision-making regarding the governance of borehole especially in rural areas [ 32 ]. However, the focus of earlier research on women's participation in the governance of rural boreholes has been on the barriers that prevent women from participating as well as the factors that influence their participation. Studies haven't, however, examined the issues of women's participation in the formulation of rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes. This study therefore investigates the participation of women in decision-making regarding the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes. The study investigates women's participation in water governance in rural Ghana using the Wa West District as a case. In doing so, study address two interrelated research questions: (a) What are the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes in rural areas? (b) Do women participate in the formulation of rules and regulations for the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes? The Wa West District was chosen for this study due to its high level of poverty, extensive borehole, and presence of active WSMTs. The paper is divided into six sections. Following the introduction, the study presents the literature review segment that centers on the theoretical underpinnings. This is followed by a literature review, while the methodology section constitutes the third section. The fourth segment presents the results and discussion, whereas the conclusions drawn and policy implications end the paper. 2. Theoretical viewpoint Participatory governance theory and feminist political ecology serve as the theoretical perspectives through which the concerns of this study are analysed. Participatory governance promotes democratic engagement, especially through deliberative processes and demonstrates that more regionally responsive approaches have replaced the global, aspatial, top-down approaches that dominated early development initiatives [ 33 ]. Additionally, the idea and methods of public engagement through deliberative procedures are provided by participatory governance, which is based on the notion of participatory democracy more broadly [ 34 ]. Moreover, Fischer [ 35 ] argue that the participatory theory emphasis that empowering citizens to make decisions, especially those pertaining to governance, laws, and regulations. It is consistent with deliberative democracy, which promotes candid conversations and active participation in policymaking. According to Bhuiyan [ 36 ], the participatory approach emphasizes that governance support concerted efforts to exercise power and allocate resources fairly. Waheduzzaman [ 37 ] state that the approach guarantees equitable distribution of basic services like water, power, and sanitation, hence promoting transparency, inclusivity, and consensus-driven decision-making processes. Waheduzzaman [ 37 ] adds that transparency in governance enhances the legitimacy of participatory procedures and fosters citizen trust. On their part, Waheduzzaman and As-Saber [ 38 ] argue that participatory governance seeks to lessen inequality by include underrepresented groups such women in decision-making procedures. According to Wampler and McNulty [ 39 ], participatory governance encompasses not only the citizen's role as a voter or watchdog but also methods of direct deliberative engagement with the current concerns. However, the participatory governance aims to increase this engagement by analyzing the tenets and methods of the conventional perspective that typically impedes the implementation of a true participatory democracy [ 40 ]. Many scholars have criticized the theory of participatory governance [ 41 – 43 ]. For example, Cooke and Kothari [ 42 ] and Mitlin [ 41 ] indicate that participation is not necessarily equitable because decision-making is usually dominated by local elites, politicians, and community leaders, limiting the views of marginalized groups. Also, Cooke and Kothari [ 42 ] further stat that participation is viewed as a new tyranny instead of true empowerment resulting from the adoption of participatory rhetoric by many state actors and development agencies while retaining control. Finally, the capacity of participatory approaches to genuinely improve government and development is limited since they frequently concentrate on engagement but ignore more fundamental structural inequities [ 43 ] Despite the several weaknesses of the participatory theory, it still holds relevance within the context of this study. Since, the theory emphasises that diverse stakeholders, particularly underrepresented groups, should be included in decision-making processes. This study uses participatory governance theory to ascertain whether women's participation is genuine or merely symbolic and whether meaningful contributions are permitted by local governance systems. Also, applying the theory in this study highlights the direct or indirect engagement of men and women as stakeholders in the formulation of laws and regulations on the community's borehole operations and maintenance. Furthermore, participatory governance ensures women's active engagement in policy formation, and decision-making, empowering them to operate and maintain community boreholes. Women may contribute to sustainable and equitable water governance by active involvement in committees, training, and discussions. In this regard, theory guarantees that women's opinions are heard in governance, especially in the formulation of the rules and regulations governing the community boreholes, which is a significant part of empowering women. Additionally, the study is grounded in the feminist political ecology theory, which explores the complex interrelationships among gender, power, and the environment [ 44 ]. The theory is crucial to understanding and assessing the governance of rural borehole. In rural communities, the operations and maintenance of water source such as borehole is often a critical issue, therefore it illuminates the gendered dynamics, power dynamics, and environmental implications in this context [ 45 ]. According to Stock and Birkenholtz [ 46 ] the feminist political ecology also looks at how rural borehole is distributed and the laws and policies that control its upkeep and operation. It also considers the labor dividend that impacts women's daily schedules, time management, and overall well-being, as they are often responsible for gathering water. Truelove [ 47 ] asserts that feminist political ecology also examines the power relations that limit women's access to and control over borehole -related decisions and resources. The gendered labor involved in maintaining and managing rural borehole is also highlighted in the FPE. The labour-intensive and physically taxing jobs related to water are usually completed by women. This might lead to "time poverty," which would restrict women's access to civic engagement, employment, and educational possibilities Truelove [ 47 ]. Additionally, the feminist political ecology looks at how rural borehole initiatives affect the environment. It examines the potential negative effects that infrastructure development-induced deforestation, habitat degradation, and water quality changes may have on women and other marginalized groups whose livelihoods depend on these resources [ 44 ]. The theory also emphasizes how important it is to include women and minority groups in rural borehole governance. It brings to light the institutional and societal power imbalances that often prevent women from holding positions of decision-making authority and perpetuate unequal resource distribution [ 48 ]. According to Goodrich, Udas [ 49 ], feminist political ecology acknowledges that gender is only one facet of identification and that women's perceptions of rural borehole governance are influenced by overlapping characteristics such as race, class, caste, ethnicity, and age. This intersectional perspective encourages more targeted responses by drawing attention to deeper levels of injustice. The feminist political ecology also acknowledges the agency of rural women and their capacity to challenge unjust governmental structures. However, to improve rural communities' access to and management of boreholes, it describes examples of resistance acts, women's emancipation movements, and grassroots activity [ 50 ]. The feminist political ecology recommends that gender equity, participation, and environmental sustainability be at the forefront of rural borehole governance in terms of actual policy and practice (Bayeh, 2016). Supporting gender-sensitive, community-led methods to water management, ensuring women's participation in decision-making processes, and acknowledging the diverse needs and vulnerabilities of rural communities may all be important to achieve this. The ultimate objective of feminist political ecology is to assist in the creation of a more durable and equitable rural borehole governance system that considers the particular challenges faced by women and other marginalized groups in rural regions. Traditional Water Governance in Ghana: Local Institutions and Practices Governance water in Ghana has experienced several stages of institutional and regulatory reform within the community to local to the international level which brought a collaborative between men and women in the water sector. In this regard, scholars like Dorm-Adzobu and Ampomah [ 51 ] and White [ 52 ] claim that in the community, traditional value systems that represented the traditions, beliefs, and practices of various ethnic groups were usually in charge of governing water bodies. Every traditional region had a unique collection of customs derived from religious belief systems and traditional knowledge. Botchway and Sarkodie Agyemang [ 53 ] state that the conservation of water resources was based on human veneration for rivers, streams, and lakes, which were considered the homes of gods and goddesses in many traditional locations. According to Lautze, Barry [ 54 ], chiefs and priests are responsible with the governance water resources to stop human overexploitation, misuse, or degradation because they were the guardians of land and customary laws. Also, chiefs and priests, ensure that the gods and ancestors were honoured, and used their power over the water resources to establish conditions that were both environmentally friendly and sustainable for communities. [ 55 ] in their study state that everyone had an equal right to utilize water, which was considered a community resource. Furthermore, Opoku-Ankomah, Dembélé [ 56 ] observed that riparian communities also felt a feeling of communal ownership, in addition to the local community. In this instance, communities used water while considering the equal rights and access of communities downstream. To add to this, Lautze, Barry [ 54 ] elucidate that most traditional regions implemented a number of laws and regulations, including designating a weekly sacred day, therefore, prohibiting entry into rivers or the sea, defining protected areas, employing group labour to preserve rivers, and desilting rivers to preserve water bodies. The works of Mensah [ 57 ] and Odame-Ababio [ 58 ] reports that the punishment for violating these regulations included either paying fines, killing sheep, or calling out curses that included infertility, illness, or even death. 3. Methodology Profile of the Study Area The research was carried out in five communities in Ghana’s Wa West District: Ga, Dorimon, Zanko, Vieri, and Naaha. Wa West District has 96,957 residents and a 1.6 percent yearly growth rate. It is a completely rural district [ 59 ]. Furthermore, it is the Upper West Region's poorest district, with a 92.4 percent poverty rate [ 59 ]. The district is located approximately between latitudes 2° 20 and 2° 50' W and longitudes 9° 40' and 10° 10' N in the western part of the Upper West Region. The district shares boundaries to the south, north, east, and west with Sawla-Tuna-Kalba District, Nadowli-Kaleo District, Wa Municipal, and Burkina Faso, respectively [ 59 ]. The district has a single rainy season that runs from May to October, and the weather is usually dry. It is mostly found in savanna and grasslands with a few baobab trees making up the majority of the vegetation [ 60 ]. The district receives between 750 and 1050 mm of rainfall annually, which is projected to be insufficient to support the demands of the population. As a result, water points must be provided to suit the demands of the population. Additionally, the district is endowed with smaller dams, rivers, and streams that provide many of the settlements in the area with their main water supply. For example, the Black Volta River, which forms the western boundary of Ghana and Burkina Faso, supplies dependable water to the surrounding villages. Since these water sources are all surface streams, they are all vulnerable to pollution and seasonal drying out. In response to the district's water crisis, the District Assembly recently used CWSA to drill 55 boreholes throughout the district to supply portable drinking water. Additionally, CWSA repaired all damaged boreholes. Professional Network Associates (ProNet North) also provided funding for the installation of 140 manually dug wells throughout the district's towns. The district currently has 273 operational hand pumps installed in approximately 378 boreholes. Although the district lacks pipe-borne water facilities, it has the largest number of WSMTs-SC in the Upper West Region [ 60 ]. Research Approach and Design The study investigated the participation of women in decision-making regarding the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes by utilizing the qualitative research approach. The qualitative research approach entails collecting and analyzing people's experiences of interacting with or observing a phenomenon of interest, including their quality, manifestation, and how they are perceived [ 61 ]. It focuses on the in-depth responses of the research participants and observation to express reality [ 62 ], making it a flexible approach to understudy a phenomenon in its natural setting to gain deeper insights. The adopt this approach because it is interested in understanding the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes and whether women are involved in the formulation. This approach is rooted in the aspiration to glean a profound understanding of women's participation in water governance in rural areas. Specifically, the phenomenology qualitative approach which seeks to understand an issue of interest from the perspective of those who experience it is deployed in the study. In this study, the study elicited the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes in rural areas to describe and interpret women's participation in water governance in rural areas. The study used a single-case study research design. A case study research design constitutes an empirical investigation that delves into a current incident within its authentic real-life context. The single case study design aids the researcher in exploring and examining current real-life phenomena through in-depth contextual analysis of a small number of circumstances or events and their connections [ 63 ]. The design was chosen for this study because it enables the researchers to choose a small geographic region or a small group of people to study. The single case study design was ultimately chosen for this study because all two study objectives generally required the collection of qualitative data. This design was used to learn more specifically, contextually, and in-depth about the participation of women in decision-making regarding the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes. Sample Size and Sampling Technique Five communities (Ga, Dorimon, Zanko, Vieri, and Naaha) were selected for the study because they are easily accessible, have borehole, and have operational WSMTs. The study selected only community-level participants which included 37 participants. The community-level participants were WSMTs and they were chosen because it was thought that they were well-qualified to provide the required specific information on the participation of women in decision-making regarding the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes. However, in selecting the research participants, the purposive sampling technique was used. Purposive sampling entails identifying and selecting individuals or groups of individuals who are especially knowledgeable about or experienced with a phenomenon of interest [ 64 ]. Table 3.1 Composition of the study population Community Focus Group Discussion Male Female Total Ga 3 5 8 Dorimon 4 3 7 Zanko 4 4 8 Vieri 4 3 7 Naaha 3 4 7 Total 18 19 37 Source: Authors Compilation (2025) Data collection and analysis The data were gathered from 3rd January to 17th February 2025 which was obtained from only primary sources. In doing so, one focus group discussion was held in each of the five communities. Hence, in all, five key interviews were conducted using the interview guides as the instruments for data collection. Interviews were conducted in Waale/dagaare at the community level. Questions in the FGD guide bordered on the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes and women's participation in the formulation of rules and regulations for the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes. Finally, the study also used observation to collect qualitative data from a field to allow the researcher to take pictures of borehole s in the study communities. Ethical approval was sought from the Research and Ethics Board of the SD Dombo University of Business and Integrated Development Studies before the commencement of data collection. In addition, verbal informed consent was sought from the community-level research participants after the objectives and purpose of the study were explained to them. Permission was granted after the team engaged them on the objectives and purpose of the study. In all of these instances, the research participants were assured of anonymity and that the information provided would be used for the stated purpose. All interviews and FGD sessions were audiotaped with the permission of the participants and altered and transcribed verbatim for analysis. The data were analysed using the thematic analysis which was done manually, following the inductive approach. An inductive approach means that the themes or codes identified are strongly linked to the data themselves [ 65 ]. 4. Results and Discussions This section of the article is dedicated to presenting the results and discussion of the study. The sections are subdivided into the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes in rural areas and women's participation in the formulation of rules and regulations for the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes. Rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes in rural areas. The findings of the study reveal that all the study communities depend on boreholes as their major source of drinking water, yet there are limited boreholes in the study communities. In this regard, it resulted in pressure and overuse of the boreholes, leading to their frequent breakdowns. However, children are often sent to fetch water from the boreholes for household purposes. Some of them are so young that they cannot pump out the water from the boreholes in a standing position. As a result, they have to jump and hang onto the handle of the borehole to pump out the water. Once they jump to pump the borehole, it makes noise because of the pressure on it beyond what is normal, and these children are happy with the noise the borehole makes whenever they pump. In that regard, children always use the borehole as a playing point whenever they are sent to fetch water from it. These actions, however, cause damage to some of the parts of the boreholes. Given this, communities ban children from operating the boreholes to maintain them. Although communities indicated that they have banned children from operating the boreholes, results from observations (Fig. 4.1 ) revealed that children still operate these boreholes, which means that the rules in place to govern these boreholes are not functioning. Children operating boreholes in the study communities. Photos taken by the authors Moreover, the study discovered that boreholes are usually locked when early signs are showing are getting break down. This is done to prevent the complete breakdown of the borehole. However, in some communities, there is heavy pressure on the limited boreholes. In this regard, to regulate the operations and prevent the breakdown of the borehole, the WSMTs always lock the boreholes every evening and come to open them again in the morning. This is done to regulate the operations of the boreholes to reduce the pressure and maintain the functionality of the facilities. It has been discovered that allowing boreholes to be operated for twenty-four hours will lead to the frequent breakdown of the borehole. In the Ga community, the women's group leader said: During dry seasons, the boreholes are always crowded, and due to that people spend several hours without getting water to fetch. Because of this, we always lock the boreholes after Isha prayers (7:00–7:30 p.m.), and open them in the morning (6:00 a.m.) (focus group discussion with WSMTs, January 20, 2024). However, one common rule among all the communities has to do with the fact that all men in the community must contribute each to borehole repairs when necessary. Yet the amount of money varies from community to community and the amount ranges from 1 to 7 GH₵. On the contrary in some communities such as the Naaha and Ga women must also contribute an amount of 2 GH₵ each to support the repairing of the borehole when necessary. This rule in place ensures that there is a ready source of funds for the maintenance and repairs of the borehole. Besides that, urinating or defecating near the borehole is strictly prohibited by all communities, regardless of age. To ensure proper hygiene, all the communities discourage urinating or defecating within the premises of the borehole. The communities have high esteem for values such as cleanliness is next to godliness therefore, they do not allow anyone to mess up the surroundings of where they take water. Water is vulnerable and with a little mistake, the water will be contaminated either by the act of defecation or urinating within the premises of the boreholes. In doing so, women make sure that they do not allow their children to either urinate or defecate within the borehole. Some women in the community prefer to even allow their children at home when visiting the borehole. This is done to ensure that the community have clean and safe drinking water. Additionally, in an FGD in the Zanko community, it was he study revealed that anyone needing to relieve themselves must do so at least 200 meters away from the borehole. This ensures that the surrounding of the borehole is kept clean and safe for the operations of the borehole. In a similar finding, it was discovered in the Vieri community that in as much as they do not allow people to urinate or defecate within the premises of the borehole, they also heavily discourage the dumping of waste or refuse near the borehole. However, offenders are required to pay a monetary fine of 100 GH₵ to the community fund for violating these hygiene rules and regulations governing the borehole. Also, they are required to clean the borehole surrounding alone without the support of anyone and this will be detrimental for others. However, in some communities such as Dorimon, Vieri and Ga, it is discovered that violators who repeatedly violate these regulations are restricted from fetching water for a specific period. The restriction on using borehole water for molding bricks or blocks is a crucial regulation aimed at preserving the functionality and longevity of the borehole in the community. Since boreholes are primarily intended to provide clean drinking water, their excessive use for non-essential purposes such as construction can lead to frequent mechanical failures. Therefore, the community recognizes that maintaining the borehole in good condition is essential for ensuring continued access to potable water. In this regard, prohibiting the use borehole as a source of water for construction purposes, they reduce the strain on the system and minimize the risk of breakdowns that could disrupt water supply. Furthermore, the regulation directing people to fetch water from the dam for brick molding and construction demonstrates a sustainable approach to water resource management. Unlike boreholes, which provide a limited supply of clean water, dams serve as larger reservoirs that can accommodate non-drinking water needs. However, in the Ga and Zanko community, members designate the dam as the preferred water source for construction activities, the community ensures that the borehole remains dedicated to its primary purpose of providing safe drinking water for all residents. The enforcement of these rules is also driven by the scarcity of clean and safe drinking water in the community. In an FGD in the Zanko community, it was revealed that the government’s repeated but unsuccessful attempts to establish additional boreholes due to financial constraints have reinforced the importance of protecting the existing one. Recognizing this, the community members took it upon themselves to contribute toward the borehole’s construction, fostering a strong sense of ownership and responsibility. This communal effort underscores the necessity of implementing strict regulations to prevent misuse and ensure the long-term sustainability of the water source. Also, in an FGD in the Naaha community, it was believed that cooking pots possessed some chemicals which caused the frequent breakdown of boreholes. To maintain the functionality of the boreholes in the community, the WSMTs decided prohibits the use of such to fetch water from the boreholes. To support this argument, participants in a FGD held at the Naaha community said that: There was a day that our chairman returned from training in Tamale and called a meeting. In the meeting, he said that the reason behind the frequent breakdown of the borehole was that we were using cooking pots to fetch water from the boreholes. He said that there are always some chemical reactions between the cooking pots and the boreholes, which can result in the breakdown. He therefore suggested that we should ban the use of cooking pots to fetch water in our community. From there we advised the whole community to refrain from using cooking pots to fetch water (focus group discussion with WSMTs, January 10, 2025). Participation of men and women in the formulation of the rules and regulations. The results reveal that before the implementation of the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes within the community, meetings were regularly organized by the WSMTs, including chiefs and assemblymen. In these meetings, both male and female members of the WSMTs were allowed to participate and share their ideas and opinions on the best ways to govern the community’s boreholes. There were no restrictions on participation, ensuring that everyone had a voice. Through this inclusive approach, women felt empowered and developed a sense of ownership over the boreholes, as they were respected and allowed to contribute to the formulation of rules and regulations. Furthermore, the results also reveal that women are considered the primary operators of rural boreholes because of their everyday visits to the facility. In this regard, they are fully involved in the formulation of the rules and regulations governing the boreholes in the community. To enlighten this further, In an FGD held in the Zanko community, it was revealed that the views and opinions of women are considered when having meetings related to the governance of community boreholes. Women share their minds concerning rules and regulations relating to the governance of the boreholes in the community. Also, in an FGD in the Vieri community, it was discovered that women sometimes become the initiators of ideas, and men usually respect their views in the formulation of the structures that govern the boreholes. Both men and women come together to formulate these governing rules for the operations and maintenance of the rural boreholes. For instance, the issue of banning children from operating the borehole was the idea of the women. Women discovered that children were the cause of the frequent breakdown of the boreholes in the community. This is because children always play with the pump of the boreholes. Even though the women are the ones who usually ask the children to fetch water from the boreholes for the household, they observed that these children were the cause of the breakdown of the boreholes. Therefore, the idea is share with the members of the WSMTs to ban children from operating the boreholes in the community. Furthermore, it was revealed in an FGD in Dorimon that decisions regarding operations, maintenance, and repair are taken by both men and women who constitute the WSMTs. Women are sometimes considered the initiators of most decisions regarding the operations, maintenance, and repairs of boreholes in the community. They are the first people to share ideas with the men concerning issues that need to be discussed. Furthermore, in an FGD held in the Ga community, it was discovered that women usually know what is best if decisions are to be made. Women are largely responsible for managing water systems at the local level. In this regard, they usually communicate with other women who are members of WSMTs in other communities to know how their boreholes are operated and repaired when they break down. Before a decision is made regarding the governance of boreholes, women are the ones who bring the issue on board. For instance, when women identify faults with the operations of the borehole, they first inform the chairman of the WSMTs. The chairman then must inform the other members about issues and call a meeting if necessary. During the meetings regarding the governance of borehole, women are always present and can contribute because they have an idea concerning the matter. Moreover, the inclusion of women in the teams’ work is good and encouraging. A participant in a focus group discussion in Naaha opined that: Everything always starts with women. They are the people who will inform the team chairman about anything they notice about the operations, maintenance, and repairs of the borehole. Therefore, the chairman also informs the other members of the team and schedules a day for us to meet. When we start the meeting, the chairman opens the floor and then tells us the agenda. We normally ask the women to lead the process since the borehole site is their workplace. There is a saying that the driver knows the car better than the owner. This means that since the women operate the boreholes more than we do, they know much more than we do concerning the governance of boreholes (FGD with WSMT in Naaha community, February 2, 2025). The above submission suggests that decision-making regarding operations, maintenance, and repair begins with women. They are considered the master brains behind the decisions regarding rural water governance. A consensus-based process is used to make decisions about the operation, maintenance, and repairs of boreholes. Members of the WSMTs do not vote when they are making decisions. Thus, they deliberate until there is consensus when they have varied opinions on an issue, as stated by participants in an FGD: Whenever we have different views in meetings, we normally look at all opinions and select the best, but we don’t vote. In this community, we have a youth chief, and he helps us make decisions regarding the operations and maintenance of our boreholes. So, whenever we have differences in opinions, we do not vote; we only put our heads together and select the best opinions in consultation with our youth chief. In every stage, we involve or inform the women about it. Sometimes they are the ones that even lead the process (focus group discussion with WSMT in the Vieri community, January 10, 2025). Participants in a different FGD said: What we normally do is that, if there are different opinions on board, the whole committee will look at the most rational one and select it as the best option," but we have never voted during decision-making. For instance, if we want to deliberate on the cost that everyone will be paying for the repairs, someone can say that let’s pay five Ghana cedis each, and a different person can also say that he suggests Gh 10 each. Then, from these suggestions, the women also suggest an amount that they will be contributing each. Therefore, the whole team and the whole committee will look at it and select the one that is rational based on the strengths of the community members since not all of them are working. (Focus Group Discussion with WSMT in the Ga community, January 20, 2025). The revelations above imply that WSMTs make decisions regarding the operations, maintenance, and repairs of their boreholes through a consensus, with priority given to women in the decision-making process. They do not practice voting when it comes to decision-making; they deliberate and agree to rational decisions. With regards to the effectiveness of women's participation in decision-making regarding the governance of rural borehole, discussions with the WSMTs reveal that men are aware that women are supposed to always take part in all the governing processes relating to this borehole. In this regard, women's participation in decision-making regarding the governance of rural borehole, specifically the operations, maintenance, and repairs of boreholes, was very high in the communities in the Ga and Vieri communities. This goes to explain why opportunities are given to women to be central in the decision-making process. Since women are considered the primary operators of boreholes in rural areas, their contributions become vital when it comes to decision-making. It was revealed in a FGD that: Our women's participation is very effective because every week these women always do checks on the borehole to validate its functionality, but as for us, the men, if not the breakdown of the borehole, we don’t go there. So, whenever we have meetings, they participate more actively than we, the men, and their contributions are always important to us because they know much more than we do concerning the management of boreholes. We don’t leave the women behind; they are involved from the initial stage to the final stage (focus group discussion with WSMT in the Vieri community, January 10, 2025). The above analysis illustrates the effectiveness of women's participation in decision-making regarding the operations, maintenance, and repair of borehole in rural areas. However, the subsequent sections focus on the factors that facilitate women's participation in the operations, maintenance, and repair of rural borehole. Also, the last aspect of the chapter contains the challenges associated with women’s participation in the governance of rural borehole. 5. Discussion of Results The study shows that communities have put laws and regulations in place to control how boreholes are used and maintained, but they are not always strictly enforced. Due to their scarcity, boreholes the main water supply are subjected to extreme pressure, which frequently causes malfunctions. Children who assist their mothers in fetching water for the households utilize the borehole improperly, for example, by leaping on the handle to pump water which hastens wear and tear. In order to prevent damage, communities have formally prohibited children from operating the boreholes, nevertheless, observations reveal that these regulations are not being well enforced. This suggests a discrepancy between the application of the rules and their observance, underscoring the necessity of more robust enforcement measures to guarantee the long-term viability of borehole infrastructure in rural regions. In many communities, a proactive attitude to borehole maintenance is demonstrated by the practice of locking boreholes to control usage. Communities hope to prolong the life of their water sources by limiting access during specific hours in order to lessen wear and tear. But there could be drawbacks to this strategy as well, such restricting access to water in an emergency or making it harder for locals who require water after hours. Furthermore, the discrepancy between these results and the study by Braimah and Fielmua [ 66 ] indicates that various communities may manage boreholes differently, maybe as a result of variations in awareness, governance systems, or enforcement capabilities. This variation calls into question the necessity of uniform rules and community involvement in order to create sustainable water management plans that strike a balance between accessibility and preservation. Moreover, Ghana's traditional water governance methods, in which water supplies were managed jointly with shared responsibilities, are reflected in the community's contribution to borehole maintenance. According to Agyenim and Gupta [ 55 ], water was once seen as a shared resource, with each member having equal rights and obligations with regard to its upkeep and use. The disparity in contributions among communities is consistent with the findings of Opoku-Ankomah, Dembélé [ 56 ], who noted that riparian villages frequently created local regulations to control sustainability and water availability. However, the literature also indicated that since men and women have different duties when it comes to utilizing and administering water systems Naiga, Penker [ 17 ], it has been suggested worldwide that suitable gender relations be established to overcome the crisis in water governance and ensure sustainable management of borehole. Therefore, in certain communities, like Naaha and Ga, the inclusion of women in financial contributions represents a change toward more gender-inclusive water governance, which is consistent with the larger joint efforts between men and women in water management that Dorm-Adzobu and Ampomah [ 51 ] have observed. This approach strengthens the sustainability of water sources by guaranteeing the availability of cash for borehole maintenance. Furthermore, the focus on cleanliness and hygiene near boreholes is consistent with traditional governance methods that place a high priority on safeguarding water supplies. Many traditional cultures implemented stringent laws to protect water bodies, such as establishing protected areas and outlawing activities that would cause contamination, as noted by Lautze, Barry [ 54 ]. In a similar vein, Mensah [ 57 ] and Odame-Ababio [ 58 ] observe that infractions of regulations pertaining to water frequently led to fines or other sanctions, thereby strengthening collective accountability for resource management. These communities' financial penalties and labour-intensive punishments for violators are a holdover from earlier times when the goal of sanctions for violating water-related laws was to discourage destructive activity and preserve sustainability. Furthermore, Agyenim and Gupta [ 55 ] stress that water was viewed as a shared resource and that everyone had a responsibility to safeguard it, which supports the communities' rigorous adherence to hygienic standards to guarantee clean and safe drinking water. The ban on using borehole water for brick molding is consistent with conventional water governance methods, where rules were put in place to guarantee sustainability and avoid resource misuse. Lautze, Barry [ 54 ] point out that, similar to contemporary community initiatives to protect boreholes, chiefs and priests previously controlled water resources to avoid abuse and deterioration. Similarly, existing community-led policies to prioritize boreholes for drinking water reflect the collective sense of ownership over water resources [ 56 ]. As demonstrated by the traditional conservation techniques outlined by Botchway and Sarkodie Agyemang [ 53 ], the requirement to employ dams for construction operations is also consistent with historical patterns of allocating particular water sources for specified applications. This method shows the ongoing value of organized water governance in rural areas by striking a balance between development requirements and the long-term sustainability of drinkable water supplies. The results also support gender inclusion and participatory governance theories in water governance, especially those that highlight the function of community-based management systems [ 67 ]. Both men and women participated in the creation of the laws and policies controlling boreholes, exemplifying the values of group effort and incorporating local knowledge, both of which are essential to the long-term viability of community-managed water systems. In addition to promoting inclusivity, women's active engagement in decision-making processes improves them by bringing in a variety of viewpoints. According to [ 32 ], women's participation in decision-making, particularly in resource governance, enhances local institutions and produces better management results. Women's voices are respected in rule-making and meeting participation is unlimited, demonstrating gender-sensitive governance practices that are essential for sustainable and equitable resource management. Furthermore, the recognition of women as primary operators of boreholes aligns with gender and development literature, which highlights the critical role women play in water resource management at the household and community levels [ 68 ]. The fact that women not only identify operational challenges but also initiate solutions, such as banning children from using boreholes, exemplifies their agency in governance structures. This supports the argument that women’s participation goes beyond token representation to active leadership in resource management [ 69 ]. Additionally, their collaboration with women from other communities demonstrates horizontal learning and knowledge-sharing practices, which are essential for adaptive governance [ 70 ]. The findings affirm that women’s active involvement in water governance contributes to sustainable borehole operations, reinforcing the broader discourse on gender-inclusive governance in rural water management. The analysis revealed how gender inclusion, operational procedures, and community-based governance structures relate to sustainable borehole management in rural Ghana as illustrated in Fig. 5.1 . The Water and Sanitation Management Teams are at the centre of the system as the regulatory body in charge of governing borehole operations. The framework highlights the significance of gender inclusion, especially the active participation of women, in the formulation and application of laws and regulations governing boreholes within the community. Women utilize boreholes more than anybody else, so their participation in decision-making guarantees that operational issues are successfully resolved. In order to prevent misuse and damage, the operational practices component focuses on important governance measures including limiting children's access to boreholes, keeping water sources hygienic, and enforcing strategies like locking boreholes into place. These governance systems, which are molded by participatory decision-making, support long-term infrastructure and water availability through sustainable borehole management. Finally, the framework reinforces the significance of inclusive, community-driven water management systems in rural regions, supporting the larger goal of sustainable and effective water governance. Conclusions and Implications for Policy This study emphasizes the importance of community-based management systems in rural borehole governance, with a particular focus on women's participation in decision-making. The study shows that although rules and regulations are in place to direct borehole operations and upkeep, enforcement is still difficult, requiring greater community involvement. Because they actively participate in the creation and application of regulations, women's participation in governance structures improves borehole sustainability. Their involvement ensures that borehole maintenance is in line with community interests and requirements by fostering a sense of social ownership. The study also emphasizes how crucial it is to strike a balance between conservation and access, as demonstrated by measures like limiting borehole use during specific hours and forbidding children from using the borehole. The study also shows that women are crucial to rural water governance, supporting notions of gender inclusion and participatory governance. Not only are women the main users of boreholes, but they also have a significant role in making decisions and establishing regulations to stop abuse and malfunctions. Adaptive governance is strengthened by their cooperation with other community members, especially when it comes to exchanging expertise with women from other communities. This is consistent with a larger body of research on gender-sensitive governance, which contends that inclusive decision-making promotes resource management that is more sustainable. The study also implies that traditional water governance systems are reflected in local governance practices, which strengthens the continuity of shared accountability for maintaining the sustainability of water resources. However, the study affirms that a gender-inclusive strategy that include both men and women in decision-making is necessary for sustainable borehole maintenance in rural Ghana. Effective water management methods are shaped in large part by women's active participation in governing systems, which goes beyond simple symbolism. Policymakers and local authorities can fortify community-based water management systems, guaranteeing fair access and long-term sustainability, by acknowledging women's leadership in borehole governance. In order to empower women as important partners in the governance of water resources, future initiatives should concentrate on strengthening enforcement mechanisms and advocating for gender-responsive governance practices. Drawing from the findings, several policy implications can be identified: Establishing women's active participation in decision-making processes should be a top priority for policymakers in order to develop community-based management structures. Policies should guarantee that women are represented in WSMTs and decision-making bodies since they are the main users and operators of boreholes. Community-driven monitoring systems that promote adherence to borehole laws while striking a balance between sustainability and accessibility must be implemented as part of enhanced enforcement procedures. Programs for capacity-building and financial assistance should be put in place to strengthen women's leadership in water governance and give them the tools they need to properly manage and maintain borehole infrastructure. In order to embrace best practices in borehole governance and guarantee long-term water security, local governments and development organizations should also encourage knowledge sharing among communities. Declarations Disclosure statement: The authors report there are no competing interests to declare. Consent to Publish declaration: Not applicable. Consent to Participate declaration: Not applicable. Data availability statement: Data available on request from the authors. Funding: No funding was received. Clinical Trial Registration: This study is not a clinical trial and does not require registration . 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Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe availability of safe drinking water has noticeably improved on a global scale. Reportedly, improving the availability of water and efficient governance of borehole might boost the economy and dramatically reduce poverty [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. According to reports, 2.2\u0026nbsp;billion people globally lacked access to safe drinking water in 2017, while over 5.3\u0026nbsp;billion people used sources of drinking water under safe management [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. In 2020, coverage rates for safely managed drinking water systems in rural areas (60%) and urban areas (86%) remained lower, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, eight out of ten individuals who still lack access to essential drinking water services reside in rural areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. In this regard, a lack of access to potable water for drinking is thought to be the cause of approximately 829,000 diarrhoea-related deaths annually [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, by 2030, nations aim to decrease disparities in access to clean drinking water and maintain high standards of water services concerning quality, accessibility, and dependability. This is in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which include the goal of universal and equitable access to safe and reasonably priced drinking water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssuring universal access to clean, affordable, and safe drinking water by 2030 is a formidable task for both wealthy and developing nations like Ghana. Ghana is concentrating on drilling boreholes, the most well-known community-based management tool in Sub-Saharan Africa, to meet Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6. Ghana's rural communities have 74.4% coverage of improved water supply sources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the availability of water has expanded, borehole reliability is still a problem because of their malfunction. According to scholars, the high percentage of partially and completely non-functional boreholes can be partially ascribed to the unequal representation of gender in the decision-making regarding the operation and maintenance boreholes [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBabuna, Yang [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e] indicate that it is commonly accepted that poor water governance is the cause of the ongoing scarcity of water supplies especially in rural areas. Definitions of governance vary, but the study take this as a starting point, water governance has been described as the system of administrative, social, political, and economic practices used at all societal levels to produce, manage, and give access to water resources and services [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Nabiafjadi, Sharifzadeh [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] argue that water governance aims at an effective and efficient management system that brings about the expansion of all water services in an environmentally friendly way. Water governance takes into account the equitable and efficient distribution of water resources and services, collaborations, and shared decision-making procedures, including dialogue and negotiated solutions are instruments for directing water governance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. In terms of literature and practice, borehole governance, is not a new idea. The good governance of borehole has been essential to sustainable development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], including the decrease of poverty, especially in developing nations, throughout the past few decades. Over time, it has changed following the values of participation, fairness, decentralization, and accountability. According to Cord, Javernick-Will [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], who examined the disputes in the water governance sector, transnational, inter, and intra-sectoral rivalry, as well as reliance on a single source or supply network, have all been highlighted as causes of water inequality and insecurity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttaining the SDGs requires combining water-related issues with more egalitarian governance, women's participation, and decentralization, among other things [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Gender is important and should be taken into consideration while designing sustainable borehole, especially when it comes to women who are marginalized in society [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Yet, meanwhile men and women have different duties when it comes to utilizing and administering water systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], it has been suggested worldwide that suitable gender relations be established to overcome the crisis in water governance and ensure sustainable management of borehole. Women's participation in decision-making regarding the operations and maintenance (O\u0026amp;M) improves projects efficiently [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] and guarantees that both sexes assert their rights, engage in fair negotiations over water distribution, and collaborate to manage their water resources responsibly and fairly while also enhancing their standard of living. Therefore, it is crucial for more democratic, inclusive, and transformative development as well as equity, efficiency, and effectiveness for men and women to be involved in the governance of borehole\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen's participation in the governance of boreholes has been recognized as essential to effective management [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Loucks and Van Beek [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] assert that if strategies for the planning as well as management of borehole are to be successful and sustainable, both men and women must participate equally in these processes. As a result, the water users who were directly impacted feel more responsible and like they control the water source. Sam and Todd [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] further clarify that men and women can gain knowledge, expertise, and awareness of various water projects such boreholes through participation. Consequently, they become more confident and interested in the borehole. Changes connected to borehole are therefore simpler to accept as knowledge and awareness grow. As a result, both men\u0026rsquo;s and women\u0026rsquo;s support for water projects grows. A participatory strategy makes it easier to comprehend the needs of water users [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], identify local issues, and enlist the help of both men and women in resolving issues and enhancing situations to their needs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAchieving inclusive water governance requires having equal representation of men and women in local water procedures, meetings, and organizations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Examples of this include developing water technology, joining local water groups such as Water and Sanitation Management Teams (WSMTs), and physically attending water meetings. Unfortunately, a large body of research from the developing world such as [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR25 CR26\" citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] indicates that stereotypes that favor the representation of men tend to limit the representation of women in water institutions, thereby limiting women voice in the decision-making process regarding the governance of boreholes. Other contributing factors include patriarchal cultures that prohibit and exclude women from water meetings. In general, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] argues that gender is largely ignored while discussing women participation in the governance of borehole especially in rural areas. Women's access to and control over water are also shaped by other aspects of societal inequality that are frequently disregarded. Initiatives or programs that incorporate the viewpoints and efforts of both sexes typically result in better outcomes. Given that women make up half of the world's population, it has been suggested that a gender perspective is essential for efficient management of borehole especially boreholes. In actuality, gender roles for men and women differ and change throughout time, and men and women have varied decision-making authority when it comes to operations and maintenance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, at a global level, women's participation in water governance has been acknowledged [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. For instance, the International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade (1981\u0026ndash;90), the International Conference on Water and the Environment in Dublin in 1992, and the United Nations Water Conference in Mar del Plata in 1977 all recognize the crucial functions of the female gender in the provision, protection, and management of water systems. The UN Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation both place emphasis on women's participation in water governance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Based on this, the Ghana National Water Policy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] ensure that all stakeholders, including local communities, particularly women, and the private sector are involved in decision-making on water governance and related matters. This is because the involvement of stakeholders, especially women in water governance will help deal with the issues since they interact more with the infrastructure and any damage to it affects them more than their male counterparts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Ghana National Water Policy hastens the inclusion of women in all domains and levels of water governance activities. Additionally, the National Community Water and Sanitation Policy states that women must be recognized as decision-makers and managers of water and waste, in addition to being beneficiaries and water users. However, it suggests that women have important roles to play in community water governance, roles that need to be fully acknowledged. To safeguard and guarantee that everyone has access to enough drinking water, it also recommends that decision-making on the governance of rural borehole such as the community boreholes involve both sexes. Ghana has a demand-responsive strategy to community-based governance of rural borehole, with locally elected WSMTs tasked with the maintenance of the borehole. The WSMTs are responsible for planning and overseeing the operation and maintenance of borehole. Yet, Angmor [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] discovered that there are more male than women members of the WSMTs. This limits women\u0026rsquo;s voice in decision-making regarding the governance of rural borehole. Adams, Sambu [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] indicate that in Malawi, community-based water governance, contrary to common notions, does not result in equal participation and empowerment of women. Also, as hinted before, unlike men, women often do not participate in decision-making regarding the governance of borehole especially in rural areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the focus of earlier research on women's participation in the governance of rural boreholes has been on the barriers that prevent women from participating as well as the factors that influence their participation. Studies haven't, however, examined the issues of women's participation in the formulation of rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes. This study therefore investigates the participation of women in decision-making regarding the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes. The study investigates women's participation in water governance in rural Ghana using the Wa West District as a case. In doing so, study address two interrelated research questions: (a) What are the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes in rural areas? (b) Do women participate in the formulation of rules and regulations for the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes? The Wa West District was chosen for this study due to its high level of poverty, extensive borehole, and presence of active WSMTs. The paper is divided into six sections. Following the introduction, the study presents the literature review segment that centers on the theoretical underpinnings. This is followed by a literature review, while the methodology section constitutes the third section. The fourth segment presents the results and discussion, whereas the conclusions drawn and policy implications end the paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Theoretical viewpoint","content":"\u003cp\u003eParticipatory governance theory and feminist political ecology serve as the theoretical perspectives through which the concerns of this study are analysed. Participatory governance promotes democratic engagement, especially through deliberative processes and demonstrates that more regionally responsive approaches have replaced the global, aspatial, top-down approaches that dominated early development initiatives [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, the idea and methods of public engagement through deliberative procedures are provided by participatory governance, which is based on the notion of participatory democracy more broadly [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, Fischer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] argue that the participatory theory emphasis that empowering citizens to make decisions, especially those pertaining to governance, laws, and regulations. It is consistent with deliberative democracy, which promotes candid conversations and active participation in policymaking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Bhuiyan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e], the participatory approach emphasizes that governance support concerted efforts to exercise power and allocate resources fairly. Waheduzzaman [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] state that the approach guarantees equitable distribution of basic services like water, power, and sanitation, hence promoting transparency, inclusivity, and consensus-driven decision-making processes. Waheduzzaman [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] adds that transparency in governance enhances the legitimacy of participatory procedures and fosters citizen trust. On their part, Waheduzzaman and As-Saber [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] argue that participatory governance seeks to lessen inequality by include underrepresented groups such women in decision-making procedures. According to Wampler and McNulty [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e], participatory governance encompasses not only the citizen's role as a voter or watchdog but also methods of direct deliberative engagement with the current concerns. However, the participatory governance aims to increase this engagement by analyzing the tenets and methods of the conventional perspective that typically impedes the implementation of a true participatory democracy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany scholars have criticized the theory of participatory governance [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR42\" citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, Cooke and Kothari [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e] and Mitlin [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e] indicate that participation is not necessarily equitable because decision-making is usually dominated by local elites, politicians, and community leaders, limiting the views of marginalized groups. Also, Cooke and Kothari [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e] further stat that participation is viewed as a new tyranny instead of true empowerment resulting from the adoption of participatory rhetoric by many state actors and development agencies while retaining control. Finally, the capacity of participatory approaches to genuinely improve government and development is limited since they frequently concentrate on engagement but ignore more fundamental structural inequities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the several weaknesses of the participatory theory, it still holds relevance within the context of this study. Since, the theory emphasises that diverse stakeholders, particularly underrepresented groups, should be included in decision-making processes. This study uses participatory governance theory to ascertain whether women's participation is genuine or merely symbolic and whether meaningful contributions are permitted by local governance systems. Also, applying the theory in this study highlights the direct or indirect engagement of men and women as stakeholders in the formulation of laws and regulations on the community's borehole operations and maintenance. Furthermore, participatory governance ensures women's active engagement in policy formation, and decision-making, empowering them to operate and maintain community boreholes. Women may contribute to sustainable and equitable water governance by active involvement in committees, training, and discussions. In this regard, theory guarantees that women's opinions are heard in governance, especially in the formulation of the rules and regulations governing the community boreholes, which is a significant part of empowering women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the study is grounded in the feminist political ecology theory, which explores the complex interrelationships among gender, power, and the environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. The theory is crucial to understanding and assessing the governance of rural borehole. In rural communities, the operations and maintenance of water source such as borehole is often a critical issue, therefore it illuminates the gendered dynamics, power dynamics, and environmental implications in this context [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Stock and Birkenholtz [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e] the feminist political ecology also looks at how rural borehole is distributed and the laws and policies that control its upkeep and operation. It also considers the labor dividend that impacts women's daily schedules, time management, and overall well-being, as they are often responsible for gathering water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTruelove [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e] asserts that feminist political ecology also examines the power relations that limit women's access to and control over borehole -related decisions and resources. The gendered labor involved in maintaining and managing rural borehole is also highlighted in the FPE. The labour-intensive and physically taxing jobs related to water are usually completed by women. This might lead to \"time poverty,\" which would restrict women's access to civic engagement, employment, and educational possibilities Truelove [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, the feminist political ecology looks at how rural borehole initiatives affect the environment. It examines the potential negative effects that infrastructure development-induced deforestation, habitat degradation, and water quality changes may have on women and other marginalized groups whose livelihoods depend on these resources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe theory also emphasizes how important it is to include women and minority groups in rural borehole governance. It brings to light the institutional and societal power imbalances that often prevent women from holding positions of decision-making authority and perpetuate unequal resource distribution [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Goodrich, Udas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e], feminist political ecology acknowledges that gender is only one facet of identification and that women's perceptions of rural borehole governance are influenced by overlapping characteristics such as race, class, caste, ethnicity, and age. This intersectional perspective encourages more targeted responses by drawing attention to deeper levels of injustice. The feminist political ecology also acknowledges the agency of rural women and their capacity to challenge unjust governmental structures. However, to improve rural communities' access to and management of boreholes, it describes examples of resistance acts, women's emancipation movements, and grassroots activity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe feminist political ecology recommends that gender equity, participation, and environmental sustainability be at the forefront of rural borehole governance in terms of actual policy and practice (Bayeh, 2016). Supporting gender-sensitive, community-led methods to water management, ensuring women's participation in decision-making processes, and acknowledging the diverse needs and vulnerabilities of rural communities may all be important to achieve this. The ultimate objective of feminist political ecology is to assist in the creation of a more durable and equitable rural borehole governance system that considers the particular challenges faced by women and other marginalized groups in rural regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTraditional Water Governance in Ghana: Local Institutions and Practices\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGovernance water in Ghana has experienced several stages of institutional and regulatory reform within the community to local to the international level which brought a collaborative between men and women in the water sector. In this regard, scholars like Dorm-Adzobu and Ampomah [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e] and White [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e] claim that in the community, traditional value systems that represented the traditions, beliefs, and practices of various ethnic groups were usually in charge of governing water bodies. Every traditional region had a unique collection of customs derived from religious belief systems and traditional knowledge. Botchway and Sarkodie Agyemang [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e] state that the conservation of water resources was based on human veneration for rivers, streams, and lakes, which were considered the homes of gods and goddesses in many traditional locations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Lautze, Barry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e], chiefs and priests are responsible with the governance water resources to stop human overexploitation, misuse, or degradation because they were the guardians of land and customary laws. Also, chiefs and priests, ensure that the gods and ancestors were honoured, and used their power over the water resources to establish conditions that were both environmentally friendly and sustainable for communities. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e] in their study state that everyone had an equal right to utilize water, which was considered a community resource. Furthermore, Opoku-Ankomah, Demb\u0026eacute;l\u0026eacute; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e] observed that riparian communities also felt a feeling of communal ownership, in addition to the local community. In this instance, communities used water while considering the equal rights and access of communities downstream.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo add to this, Lautze, Barry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e] elucidate that most traditional regions implemented a number of laws and regulations, including designating a weekly sacred day, therefore, prohibiting entry into rivers or the sea, defining protected areas, employing group labour to preserve rivers, and desilting rivers to preserve water bodies. The works of Mensah [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e] and Odame-Ababio [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e] reports that the punishment for violating these regulations included either paying fines, killing sheep, or calling out curses that included infertility, illness, or even death.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eProfile of the Study Area\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research was carried out in five communities in Ghana\u0026rsquo;s Wa West District: Ga, Dorimon, Zanko, Vieri, and Naaha. Wa West District has 96,957 residents and a 1.6 percent yearly growth rate. It is a completely rural district [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, it is the Upper West Region's poorest district, with a 92.4 percent poverty rate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. The district is located approximately between latitudes 2\u0026deg; 20 and 2\u0026deg; 50' W and longitudes 9\u0026deg; 40' and 10\u0026deg; 10' N in the western part of the Upper West Region. The district shares boundaries to the south, north, east, and west with Sawla-Tuna-Kalba District, Nadowli-Kaleo District, Wa Municipal, and Burkina Faso, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. The district has a single rainy season that runs from May to October, and the weather is usually dry. It is mostly found in savanna and grasslands with a few baobab trees making up the majority of the vegetation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. The district receives between 750 and 1050 mm of rainfall annually, which is projected to be insufficient to support the demands of the population. As a result, water points must be provided to suit the demands of the population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the district is endowed with smaller dams, rivers, and streams that provide many of the settlements in the area with their main water supply. For example, the Black Volta River, which forms the western boundary of Ghana and Burkina Faso, supplies dependable water to the surrounding villages. Since these water sources are all surface streams, they are all vulnerable to pollution and seasonal drying out. In response to the district's water crisis, the District Assembly recently used CWSA to drill 55 boreholes throughout the district to supply portable drinking water. Additionally, CWSA repaired all damaged boreholes. Professional Network Associates (ProNet North) also provided funding for the installation of 140 manually dug wells throughout the district's towns. The district currently has 273 operational hand pumps installed in approximately 378 boreholes. Although the district lacks pipe-borne water facilities, it has the largest number of WSMTs-SC in the Upper West Region [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eResearch Approach and Design\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study investigated the participation of women in decision-making regarding the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes by utilizing the qualitative research approach. The qualitative research approach entails collecting and analyzing people's experiences of interacting with or observing a phenomenon of interest, including their quality, manifestation, and how they are perceived [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. It focuses on the in-depth responses of the research participants and observation to express reality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e], making it a flexible approach to understudy a phenomenon in its natural setting to gain deeper insights. The adopt this approach because it is interested in understanding the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes and whether women are involved in the formulation. This approach is rooted in the aspiration to glean a profound understanding of women's participation in water governance in rural areas. Specifically, the phenomenology qualitative approach which seeks to understand an issue of interest from the perspective of those who experience it is deployed in the study. In this study, the study elicited the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes in rural areas to describe and interpret women's participation in water governance in rural areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study used a single-case study research design. A case study research design constitutes an empirical investigation that delves into a current incident within its authentic real-life context. The single case study design aids the researcher in exploring and examining current real-life phenomena through in-depth contextual analysis of a small number of circumstances or events and their connections [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. The design was chosen for this study because it enables the researchers to choose a small geographic region or a small group of people to study. The single case study design was ultimately chosen for this study because all two study objectives generally required the collection of qualitative data. This design was used to learn more specifically, contextually, and in-depth about the participation of women in decision-making regarding the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSample Size and Sampling Technique\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFive communities (Ga, Dorimon, Zanko, Vieri, and Naaha) were selected for the study because they are easily accessible, have borehole, and have operational WSMTs. The study selected only community-level participants which included 37 participants. The community-level participants were WSMTs and they were chosen because it was thought that they were well-qualified to provide the required specific information on the participation of women in decision-making regarding the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes. However, in selecting the research participants, the purposive sampling technique was used. Purposive sampling entails identifying and selecting individuals or groups of individuals who are especially knowledgeable about or experienced with a phenomenon of interest [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3.1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposition of the study population\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus Group Discussion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDorimon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZanko\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVieri\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNaaha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eSource: \u003cem\u003eAuthors Compilation (2025)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eData collection and analysis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data were gathered from 3rd January to 17th February 2025 which was obtained from only primary sources. In doing so, one focus group discussion was held in each of the five communities. Hence, in all, five key interviews were conducted using the interview guides as the instruments for data collection. Interviews were conducted in Waale/dagaare at the community level. Questions in the FGD guide bordered on the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes and women's participation in the formulation of rules and regulations for the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes. Finally, the study also used observation to collect qualitative data from a field to allow the researcher to take pictures of borehole s in the study communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Ethical approval was sought from the Research and Ethics Board of the SD Dombo University of Business and Integrated Development Studies before the commencement of data collection. In addition, verbal informed consent was sought from the community-level research participants after the objectives and purpose of the study were explained to them. Permission was granted after the team engaged them on the objectives and purpose of the study. In all of these instances, the research participants were assured of anonymity and that the information provided would be used for the stated purpose. All interviews and FGD sessions were audiotaped with the permission of the participants and altered and transcribed verbatim for analysis. The data were analysed using the thematic analysis which was done manually, following the inductive approach. An inductive approach means that the themes or codes identified are strongly linked to the data themselves [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results and Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section of the article is dedicated to presenting the results and discussion of the study. The sections are subdivided into the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes in rural areas and women's participation in the formulation of rules and regulations for the operations and maintenance of rural boreholes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes in rural areas.\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of the study reveal that all the study communities depend on boreholes as their major source of drinking water, yet there are limited boreholes in the study communities. In this regard, it resulted in pressure and overuse of the boreholes, leading to their frequent breakdowns. However, children are often sent to fetch water from the boreholes for household purposes. Some of them are so young that they cannot pump out the water from the boreholes in a standing position. As a result, they have to jump and hang onto the handle of the borehole to pump out the water. Once they jump to pump the borehole, it makes noise because of the pressure on it beyond what is normal, and these children are happy with the noise the borehole makes whenever they pump. In that regard, children always use the borehole as a playing point whenever they are sent to fetch water from it. These actions, however, cause damage to some of the parts of the boreholes. Given this, communities ban children from operating the boreholes to maintain them. Although communities indicated that they have banned children from operating the boreholes, results from observations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4.1\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that children still operate these boreholes, which means that the rules in place to govern these boreholes are not functioning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eChildren operating boreholes in the study communities.\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePhotos taken by the authors\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the study discovered that boreholes are usually locked when early signs are showing are getting break down. This is done to prevent the complete breakdown of the borehole. However, in some communities, there is heavy pressure on the limited boreholes. In this regard, to regulate the operations and prevent the breakdown of the borehole, the WSMTs always lock the boreholes every evening and come to open them again in the morning. This is done to regulate the operations of the boreholes to reduce the pressure and maintain the functionality of the facilities. It has been discovered that allowing boreholes to be operated for twenty-four hours will lead to the frequent breakdown of the borehole. In the Ga community, the women's group leader said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring dry seasons, the boreholes are always crowded, and due to that people spend several hours without getting water to fetch. Because of this, we always lock the boreholes after Isha prayers (7:00\u0026ndash;7:30 p.m.), and open them in the morning (6:00 a.m.) (focus group discussion with WSMTs, January 20, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, one common rule among all the communities has to do with the fact that all men in the community must contribute each to borehole repairs when necessary. Yet the amount of money varies from community to community and the amount ranges from 1 to 7 GH₵. On the contrary in some communities such as the Naaha and Ga women must also contribute an amount of 2 GH₵ each to support the repairing of the borehole when necessary. This rule in place ensures that there is a ready source of funds for the maintenance and repairs of the borehole.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides that, urinating or defecating near the borehole is strictly prohibited by all communities, regardless of age. To ensure proper hygiene, all the communities discourage urinating or defecating within the premises of the borehole. The communities have high esteem for values such as cleanliness is next to godliness therefore, they do not allow anyone to mess up the surroundings of where they take water. Water is vulnerable and with a little mistake, the water will be contaminated either by the act of defecation or urinating within the premises of the boreholes. In doing so, women make sure that they do not allow their children to either urinate or defecate within the borehole. Some women in the community prefer to even allow their children at home when visiting the borehole. This is done to ensure that the community have clean and safe drinking water. Additionally, in an FGD in the Zanko community, it was he study revealed that anyone needing to relieve themselves must do so at least 200 meters away from the borehole. This ensures that the surrounding of the borehole is kept clean and safe for the operations of the borehole.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a similar finding, it was discovered in the Vieri community that in as much as they do not allow people to urinate or defecate within the premises of the borehole, they also heavily discourage the dumping of waste or refuse near the borehole. However, offenders are required to pay a monetary fine of 100 GH₵ to the community fund for violating these hygiene rules and regulations governing the borehole. Also, they are required to clean the borehole surrounding alone without the support of anyone and this will be detrimental for others. However, in some communities such as Dorimon, Vieri and Ga, it is discovered that violators who repeatedly violate these regulations are restricted from fetching water for a specific period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe restriction on using borehole water for molding bricks or blocks is a crucial regulation aimed at preserving the functionality and longevity of the borehole in the community. Since boreholes are primarily intended to provide clean drinking water, their excessive use for non-essential purposes such as construction can lead to frequent mechanical failures. Therefore, the community recognizes that maintaining the borehole in good condition is essential for ensuring continued access to potable water. In this regard, prohibiting the use borehole as a source of water for construction purposes, they reduce the strain on the system and minimize the risk of breakdowns that could disrupt water supply. Furthermore, the regulation directing people to fetch water from the dam for brick molding and construction demonstrates a sustainable approach to water resource management. Unlike boreholes, which provide a limited supply of clean water, dams serve as larger reservoirs that can accommodate non-drinking water needs. However, in the Ga and Zanko community, members designate the dam as the preferred water source for construction activities, the community ensures that the borehole remains dedicated to its primary purpose of providing safe drinking water for all residents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe enforcement of these rules is also driven by the scarcity of clean and safe drinking water in the community. In an FGD in the Zanko community, it was revealed that the government\u0026rsquo;s repeated but unsuccessful attempts to establish additional boreholes due to financial constraints have reinforced the importance of protecting the existing one. Recognizing this, the community members took it upon themselves to contribute toward the borehole\u0026rsquo;s construction, fostering a strong sense of ownership and responsibility. This communal effort underscores the necessity of implementing strict regulations to prevent misuse and ensure the long-term sustainability of the water source.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlso, in an FGD in the Naaha community, it was believed that cooking pots possessed some chemicals which caused the frequent breakdown of boreholes. To maintain the functionality of the boreholes in the community, the WSMTs decided prohibits the use of such to fetch water from the boreholes. To support this argument, participants in a FGD held at the Naaha community said that:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere was a day that our chairman returned from training in Tamale and called a meeting. In the meeting, he said that the reason behind the frequent breakdown of the borehole was that we were using cooking pots to fetch water from the boreholes. He said that there are always some chemical reactions between the cooking pots and the boreholes, which can result in the breakdown. He therefore suggested that we should ban the use of cooking pots to fetch water in our community. From there we advised the whole community to refrain from using cooking pots to fetch water (focus group discussion with WSMTs, January 10, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eParticipation of men and women in the formulation of the rules and regulations.\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results reveal that before the implementation of the rules and regulations governing the operations and maintenance of boreholes within the community, meetings were regularly organized by the WSMTs, including chiefs and assemblymen. In these meetings, both male and female members of the WSMTs were allowed to participate and share their ideas and opinions on the best ways to govern the community\u0026rsquo;s boreholes. There were no restrictions on participation, ensuring that everyone had a voice. Through this inclusive approach, women felt empowered and developed a sense of ownership over the boreholes, as they were respected and allowed to contribute to the formulation of rules and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the results also reveal that women are considered the primary operators of rural boreholes because of their everyday visits to the facility. In this regard, they are fully involved in the formulation of the rules and regulations governing the boreholes in the community. To enlighten this further, In an FGD held in the Zanko community, it was revealed that the views and opinions of women are considered when having meetings related to the governance of community boreholes. Women share their minds concerning rules and regulations relating to the governance of the boreholes in the community. Also, in an FGD in the Vieri community, it was discovered that women sometimes become the initiators of ideas, and men usually respect their views in the formulation of the structures that govern the boreholes. Both men and women come together to formulate these governing rules for the operations and maintenance of the rural boreholes. For instance, the issue of banning children from operating the borehole was the idea of the women. Women discovered that children were the cause of the frequent breakdown of the boreholes in the community. This is because children always play with the pump of the boreholes. Even though the women are the ones who usually ask the children to fetch water from the boreholes for the household, they observed that these children were the cause of the breakdown of the boreholes. Therefore, the idea is share with the members of the WSMTs to ban children from operating the boreholes in the community.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, it was revealed in an FGD in Dorimon that decisions regarding operations, maintenance, and repair are taken by both men and women who constitute the WSMTs. Women are sometimes considered the initiators of most decisions regarding the operations, maintenance, and repairs of boreholes in the community. They are the first people to share ideas with the men concerning issues that need to be discussed. Furthermore, in an FGD held in the Ga community, it was discovered that women usually know what is best if decisions are to be made. Women are largely responsible for managing water systems at the local level. In this regard, they usually communicate with other women who are members of WSMTs in other communities to know how their boreholes are operated and repaired when they break down. Before a decision is made regarding the governance of boreholes, women are the ones who bring the issue on board. For instance, when women identify faults with the operations of the borehole, they first inform the chairman of the WSMTs. The chairman then must inform the other members about issues and call a meeting if necessary. During the meetings regarding the governance of borehole, women are always present and can contribute because they have an idea concerning the matter. Moreover, the inclusion of women in the teams\u0026rsquo; work is good and encouraging. A participant in a focus group discussion in Naaha opined that:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEverything always starts with women. They are the people who will inform the team chairman about anything they notice about the operations, maintenance, and repairs of the borehole. Therefore, the chairman also informs the other members of the team and schedules a day for us to meet. When we start the meeting, the chairman opens the floor and then tells us the agenda. We normally ask the women to lead the process since the borehole site is their workplace. There is a saying that the driver knows the car better than the owner. This means that since the women operate the boreholes more than we do, they know much more than we do concerning the governance of boreholes (FGD with WSMT in Naaha community, February 2, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe above submission suggests that decision-making regarding operations, maintenance, and repair begins with women. They are considered the master brains behind the decisions regarding rural water governance. A consensus-based process is used to make decisions about the operation, maintenance, and repairs of boreholes. Members of the WSMTs do not vote when they are making decisions. Thus, they deliberate until there is consensus when they have varied opinions on an issue, as stated by participants in an FGD:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhenever we have different views in meetings, we normally look at all opinions and select the best, but we don\u0026rsquo;t vote. In this community, we have a youth chief, and he helps us make decisions regarding the operations and maintenance of our boreholes. So, whenever we have differences in opinions, we do not vote; we only put our heads together and select the best opinions in consultation with our youth chief. In every stage, we involve or inform the women about it. Sometimes they are the ones that even lead the process (focus group discussion with WSMT in the Vieri community, January 10, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants in a different FGD said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat we normally do is that, if there are different opinions on board, the whole committee will look at the most rational one and select it as the best option,\" but we have never voted during decision-making. For instance, if we want to deliberate on the cost that everyone will be paying for the repairs, someone can say that let\u0026rsquo;s pay five Ghana cedis each, and a different person can also say that he suggests Gh 10 each. Then, from these suggestions, the women also suggest an amount that they will be contributing each. Therefore, the whole team and the whole committee will look at it and select the one that is rational based on the strengths of the community members since not all of them are working. (Focus Group Discussion with WSMT in the Ga community, January 20, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe revelations above imply that WSMTs make decisions regarding the operations, maintenance, and repairs of their boreholes through a consensus, with priority given to women in the decision-making process. They do not practice voting when it comes to decision-making; they deliberate and agree to rational decisions. With regards to the effectiveness of women's participation in decision-making regarding the governance of rural borehole, discussions with the WSMTs reveal that men are aware that women are supposed to always take part in all the governing processes relating to this borehole. In this regard, women's participation in decision-making regarding the governance of rural borehole, specifically the operations, maintenance, and repairs of boreholes, was very high in the communities in the Ga and Vieri communities. This goes to explain why opportunities are given to women to be central in the decision-making process. Since women are considered the primary operators of boreholes in rural areas, their contributions become vital when it comes to decision-making. It was revealed in a FGD that:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur women's participation is very effective because every week these women always do checks on the borehole to validate its functionality, but as for us, the men, if not the breakdown of the borehole, we don\u0026rsquo;t go there. So, whenever we have meetings, they participate more actively than we, the men, and their contributions are always important to us because they know much more than we do concerning the management of boreholes. We don\u0026rsquo;t leave the women behind; they are involved from the initial stage to the final stage (focus group discussion with WSMT in the Vieri community, January 10, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe above analysis illustrates the effectiveness of women's participation in decision-making regarding the operations, maintenance, and repair of borehole in rural areas. However, the subsequent sections focus on the factors that facilitate women's participation in the operations, maintenance, and repair of rural borehole. Also, the last aspect of the chapter contains the challenges associated with women\u0026rsquo;s participation in the governance of rural borehole.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion of Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study shows that communities have put laws and regulations in place to control how boreholes are used and maintained, but they are not always strictly enforced. Due to their scarcity, boreholes the main water supply are subjected to extreme pressure, which frequently causes malfunctions. Children who assist their mothers in fetching water for the households utilize the borehole improperly, for example, by leaping on the handle to pump water which hastens wear and tear. In order to prevent damage, communities have formally prohibited children from operating the boreholes, nevertheless, observations reveal that these regulations are not being well enforced. This suggests a discrepancy between the application of the rules and their observance, underscoring the necessity of more robust enforcement measures to guarantee the long-term viability of borehole infrastructure in rural regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn many communities, a proactive attitude to borehole maintenance is demonstrated by the practice of locking boreholes to control usage. Communities hope to prolong the life of their water sources by limiting access during specific hours in order to lessen wear and tear. But there could be drawbacks to this strategy as well, such restricting access to water in an emergency or making it harder for locals who require water after hours. Furthermore, the discrepancy between these results and the study by Braimah and Fielmua [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e] indicates that various communities may manage boreholes differently, maybe as a result of variations in awareness, governance systems, or enforcement capabilities. This variation calls into question the necessity of uniform rules and community involvement in order to create sustainable water management plans that strike a balance between accessibility and preservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, Ghana's traditional water governance methods, in which water supplies were managed jointly with shared responsibilities, are reflected in the community's contribution to borehole maintenance. According to Agyenim and Gupta [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e], water was once seen as a shared resource, with each member having equal rights and obligations with regard to its upkeep and use. The disparity in contributions among communities is consistent with the findings of Opoku-Ankomah, Demb\u0026eacute;l\u0026eacute; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e], who noted that riparian villages frequently created local regulations to control sustainability and water availability. However, the literature also indicated that since men and women have different duties when it comes to utilizing and administering water systems Naiga, Penker [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], it has been suggested worldwide that suitable gender relations be established to overcome the crisis in water governance and ensure sustainable management of borehole. Therefore, in certain communities, like Naaha and Ga, the inclusion of women in financial contributions represents a change toward more gender-inclusive water governance, which is consistent with the larger joint efforts between men and women in water management that Dorm-Adzobu and Ampomah [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e] have observed. This approach strengthens the sustainability of water sources by guaranteeing the availability of cash for borehole maintenance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the focus on cleanliness and hygiene near boreholes is consistent with traditional governance methods that place a high priority on safeguarding water supplies. Many traditional cultures implemented stringent laws to protect water bodies, such as establishing protected areas and outlawing activities that would cause contamination, as noted by Lautze, Barry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. In a similar vein, Mensah [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e] and Odame-Ababio [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e] observe that infractions of regulations pertaining to water frequently led to fines or other sanctions, thereby strengthening collective accountability for resource management. These communities' financial penalties and labour-intensive punishments for violators are a holdover from earlier times when the goal of sanctions for violating water-related laws was to discourage destructive activity and preserve sustainability. Furthermore, Agyenim and Gupta [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e] stress that water was viewed as a shared resource and that everyone had a responsibility to safeguard it, which supports the communities' rigorous adherence to hygienic standards to guarantee clean and safe drinking water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ban on using borehole water for brick molding is consistent with conventional water governance methods, where rules were put in place to guarantee sustainability and avoid resource misuse. Lautze, Barry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e] point out that, similar to contemporary community initiatives to protect boreholes, chiefs and priests previously controlled water resources to avoid abuse and deterioration. Similarly, existing community-led policies to prioritize boreholes for drinking water reflect the collective sense of ownership over water resources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. As demonstrated by the traditional conservation techniques outlined by Botchway and Sarkodie Agyemang [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e], the requirement to employ dams for construction operations is also consistent with historical patterns of allocating particular water sources for specified applications. This method shows the ongoing value of organized water governance in rural areas by striking a balance between development requirements and the long-term sustainability of drinkable water supplies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results also support gender inclusion and participatory governance theories in water governance, especially those that highlight the function of community-based management systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e]. Both men and women participated in the creation of the laws and policies controlling boreholes, exemplifying the values of group effort and incorporating local knowledge, both of which are essential to the long-term viability of community-managed water systems. In addition to promoting inclusivity, women's active engagement in decision-making processes improves them by bringing in a variety of viewpoints. According to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], women's participation in decision-making, particularly in resource governance, enhances local institutions and produces better management results. Women's voices are respected in rule-making and meeting participation is unlimited, demonstrating gender-sensitive governance practices that are essential for sustainable and equitable resource management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the recognition of women as primary operators of boreholes aligns with gender and development literature, which highlights the critical role women play in water resource management at the household and community levels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e]. The fact that women not only identify operational challenges but also initiate solutions, such as banning children from using boreholes, exemplifies their agency in governance structures. This supports the argument that women\u0026rsquo;s participation goes beyond token representation to active leadership in resource management [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, their collaboration with women from other communities demonstrates horizontal learning and knowledge-sharing practices, which are essential for adaptive governance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]. The findings affirm that women\u0026rsquo;s active involvement in water governance contributes to sustainable borehole operations, reinforcing the broader discourse on gender-inclusive governance in rural water management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis revealed how gender inclusion, operational procedures, and community-based governance structures relate to sustainable borehole management in rural Ghana as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5.1\u003c/span\u003e. The Water and Sanitation Management Teams are at the centre of the system as the regulatory body in charge of governing borehole operations. The framework highlights the significance of gender inclusion, especially the active participation of women, in the formulation and application of laws and regulations governing boreholes within the community. Women utilize boreholes more than anybody else, so their participation in decision-making guarantees that operational issues are successfully resolved. In order to prevent misuse and damage, the operational practices component focuses on important governance measures including limiting children's access to boreholes, keeping water sources hygienic, and enforcing strategies like locking boreholes into place. These governance systems, which are molded by participatory decision-making, support long-term infrastructure and water availability through sustainable borehole management. Finally, the framework reinforces the significance of inclusive, community-driven water management systems in rural regions, supporting the larger goal of sustainable and effective water governance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions and Implications for Policy","content":"\u003cp\u003e This study emphasizes the importance of community-based management systems in rural borehole governance, with a particular focus on women's participation in decision-making. The study shows that although rules and regulations are in place to direct borehole operations and upkeep, enforcement is still difficult, requiring greater community involvement. Because they actively participate in the creation and application of regulations, women's participation in governance structures improves borehole sustainability. Their involvement ensures that borehole maintenance is in line with community interests and requirements by fostering a sense of social ownership. The study also emphasizes how crucial it is to strike a balance between conservation and access, as demonstrated by measures like limiting borehole use during specific hours and forbidding children from using the borehole.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study also shows that women are crucial to rural water governance, supporting notions of gender inclusion and participatory governance. Not only are women the main users of boreholes, but they also have a significant role in making decisions and establishing regulations to stop abuse and malfunctions. Adaptive governance is strengthened by their cooperation with other community members, especially when it comes to exchanging expertise with women from other communities. This is consistent with a larger body of research on gender-sensitive governance, which contends that inclusive decision-making promotes resource management that is more sustainable. The study also implies that traditional water governance systems are reflected in local governance practices, which strengthens the continuity of shared accountability for maintaining the sustainability of water resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the study affirms that a gender-inclusive strategy that include both men and women in decision-making is necessary for sustainable borehole maintenance in rural Ghana. Effective water management methods are shaped in large part by women's active participation in governing systems, which goes beyond simple symbolism. Policymakers and local authorities can fortify community-based water management systems, guaranteeing fair access and long-term sustainability, by acknowledging women's leadership in borehole governance. In order to empower women as important partners in the governance of water resources, future initiatives should concentrate on strengthening enforcement mechanisms and advocating for gender-responsive governance practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrawing from the findings, several policy implications can be identified: \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col style=\"list-style-type: lower-roman;\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEstablishing women\u0026apos;s active participation in decision-making processes should be a top priority for policymakers in order to develop community-based management structures. Policies should guarantee that women are represented in WSMTs and decision-making bodies since they are the main users and operators of boreholes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCommunity-driven monitoring systems that promote adherence to borehole laws while striking a balance between sustainability and accessibility must be implemented as part of enhanced enforcement procedures.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePrograms for capacity-building and financial assistance should be put in place to strengthen women\u0026apos;s leadership in water governance and give them the tools they need to properly manage and maintain borehole infrastructure.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIn order to embrace best practices in borehole governance and guarantee long-term water security, local governments and development organizations should also encourage knowledge sharing among communities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDisclosure statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors report there are no competing interests to declare.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData available on request from the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNo funding was received.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Registration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis study is not a clinical trial and does not require registration\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe author was solely responsible for the conception and design of the study, data collection and analysis, interpretation of findings, and drafting and revising the manuscript. 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Glob Environ Change. 2009;19(3):354\u0026ndash;65.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-water","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diwa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Water](https://www.springer.com/43832)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Water","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Operations, Maintenance, Participation, Governance, Borehole, Wa, Ghana","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6341617/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6341617/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examines women's participation in borehole governance in rural Ghana, focusing on the Wa West District. Using a qualitative research approach, it explores the rules and regulations governing borehole operations and maintenance and the extent of women's involvement in formulating these regulations. Five communities (Ga, Dorimon, Zanko, Vieri, and Naaha) were selected based on accessibility, borehole presence, and active Water and Sanitation Management Teams (WSMTs). The study involved 37 community-level participants selected through purposive sampling. Data collection relied on primary sources, including focus group discussions (FGDs) in each community. Thematic analysis, conducted manually using an inductive approach, guided the data interpretation. Findings reveal that communities have formally prohibited children from operating boreholes due to misuse leading to breakdowns. To prevent damage, boreholes are locked when early signs of malfunction appear. Additionally, strict hygiene measures are enforced, prohibiting urination or defecation near boreholes. Both men and women participate in WSMT meetings, where ideas on borehole governance are shared without restrictions. Women, as primary borehole users, play a crucial role in decision-making and the formulation of operational rules. The study highlights the importance of a gender-inclusive approach in borehole governance for sustainable water management. Women's active participation strengthens local water management strategies beyond symbolic involvement. The study recommends that policymakers prioritize women's inclusion in decision-making to enhance community-based governance structures and ensure the long-term sustainability of rural boreholes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Gender-Inclusive Governance in Rural Water Management: Women's Participation in Borehole Operations and Maintenance in Ghana","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-21 06:08:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6341617/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-05-26T03:14:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-25T08:48:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"187636844299089989693420375226971842855","date":"2025-05-21T11:03:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-20T18:38:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"72871490851444145065644267492148132973","date":"2025-05-19T06:42:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"241052813565076871999368074275298021202","date":"2025-05-18T13:24:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"231440380450530074624099598712681077581","date":"2025-05-18T10:57:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"120268208128935769604037463635303580859","date":"2025-05-16T12:22:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-16T10:53:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-06T12:43:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-06T11:55:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-06T11:48:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Water","date":"2025-03-31T04:35:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-water","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diwa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Water](https://www.springer.com/43832)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Water","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"85b510c6-298c-4faa-92f0-38e626380180","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-21T16:08:50+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6341617","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00253-7","journal":{"identity":"discover-water","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Discover Water"},"publishedOn":"2025-07-16 16:05:36","publishedOnDateReadable":"July 16th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-21 06:08:02","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s43832-025-00253-7","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00253-7","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6341617","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6341617","identity":"rs-6341617","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}