Environmental Sustainability in Restoration of Water and Wastewater Treatment Sectors in Africa

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It is well known that water is an essential resource for human health worldwide. However, it is become increasingly important to develop the projects and build infrastructures for water systems to effectively manage this vital resource. The Water Treatment Plant (WTP) is a component of the water systems infrastructure responsible for providing a treatment processes of water. The primary goal of this research was to evaluate the environmental sustainability of restoration of the water treatment sector in Africa, based on the following pillars of sustainability: ecologic, economic and social. This research was prepared based on the sample, where was evaluated the environmental sustainability of the water treatment infrastructures and their related components. The sample was water treatment infrastructures of Mozambique and Nigeria, located on the southeast and west coast of Africa respectively. Both countries have a variety of water resources. Sustainability Water Wastewater Treatment Ecology and Economic Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 INTRODUCTION The History shows that water treatment processes have been implemented since the pre-Christian era. At that time, it was difficult to distinguish clean water from contaminated water, but efforts were made to improve the taste, remove bad odors, and reduce bitterness in the water. In advance, is described the processes have been used to treat the water in pre-Christian era: (i) The water was heated using the sun, and cloth to strain the hot water, removing the bad smell [ 7 ]; (ii) In the Holy Bible are described that in Mara, Moisés and the Israelites discovered that the water was bitter. They then threw a tree into the water to remove the bitterness in the water[ 2 ]. Over the years, water treatment processes have been modernized to those used today. Since, the United Nation (UN) recognized water as a human right, regardless of social, economic, cultural, or gender conditions, access to treated water has remained a challenge. Despite this, according to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO), today, around 2.2 billion of people still lack safely managed drinking water (treated water) at home, 3.4 billion of people do not have safely managed sanitation and 2 billion of people cannot wash their hands with soap and water at home [ 17 ]. The United States of America first implemented safe drinking water standards in 1914, focusing on public water supplies. In the 1940, these standards were expanded to cover all municipal drinking water systems. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), a comprehensive federal law aimed at ensuring the safety of public drinking water, was enacted in 1974 [ 7 ]. Water treatment processes involve various actions to treat and purify water, making it safe for human consumption or meeting the required standards for a specific purpose. There is a dilemma surrounding the concept of pure water, as literatures suggests that chemically pure water does not exist naturally on the Earth’s surface. The expression of “pure water” is often used as synonym for drinking water to indicate that the water meets the necessary quality standards for human consumption. In the context of this research, the following definition must be addressed: (i) The contaminated water is water that contains pathogenic organisms and toxic substances, making it dangerous for human use [ 11 ]. This means the water is not suitable for human consumption and domestic purposes; (ii) The polluted water, is water that contains quantities of substances that alter the quality, making it harmful to use and affecting its appearance, taste and odor [ 11 ]; (iii) The substances, due to their inherent characteristics or elevated concentrations, that cause water pollution are referred to as “impurities in water”[ 11 ]. The aim of this research article is “environmental sustainability in restoration of water and wastewater treatment sector in Africa”. This focus is supported by the previous definitions - such as, contaminated water, polluted water, and impurities in water, which highlight the necessity of effective water treatment processes in water systems to achieve the main purpose, “water for human consumption or human utility”. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION Water is considered a precious resource, in Africa, as in other parts of the world, governments have been doing financial efforts to build infrastructure for water management and use. However, it is essential to justify these efforts. This research explores the environmental sustainability of restoring a water treatment processes, an integral part of the infrastructures responsible for water management and use, with focus on ecological, economic and social factors. OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH To describe the environmental sustainability of the restoration of the water treatment infrastructure in Africa; To describe the various processes involved in water treatment; To address action that negatively affect the environment and water. MATERIALS AND METHODS This document, a research study on environmental sustainability in restoration of water and wastewater treatment in Africa, was prepared based on templates provided by Atlantic International University (USA), educational literature from Eduardo Mondlane University Library (Mozambique), as well as sources like, ChatGPT, Google Scholar and Microsoft Academy Search. When describing the procedures/methodology, it can be noted that, according to the subject, format and templates provided by Atlantic International University, the research was prepared collecting data from the previously mentioned literature, as well as incorporating professional experiential of the author information. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND In the previous chapters, the definition of the water treatment processes was provided. This chapter will describe the water treatment processes. Before delving into the specifics of these processes, will be introduced the characteristics of water that are relevant to define the water treatment as well as substances that can harmful the water quality. However, the characteristics of water are: (i) Physic Characteristics: color, turbidity, taste and odor; (ii) Chemical Characteristics: hardness, salinity, agressivity, alkalinity, et all [18]. The substance that can harmful the water quality are: iron, manganese, nitrogen, chlorides, fluorides, toxic compounds (such as copper, zinc, lead, cyanides, hexavalent chromium, cadmium, arsenic, selenium, silver, mercury and barium), organic substances, detergents, pesticides (insecticides, rodenticides, herbicides, fungicides, ant killers), radioactive substances and microorganisms (algae, bacteria, viruses, protozoa and worms)[18]. The Water Treatment Processes are: Coagulation: is method employing a natural or chemical coagulant, to coagulate suspended particles, include microbes to enhance their sedimentation (WHO, 4 th Edition, 2011-p.142). Flocculation: this method has same purpose of coagulation. The coagulation is the first step and and works for larger particles, while the flocculation is the follows and works for smaller particles. Sedimentation: is any method for water treatment using the settling of suspended particles, including microbes, to remove them from the water (WHO, 4 th Edition, 2011-p.142). Decantation and Filtration: These processes separate water from solid particles after the sedimentation process. Decantation relies on the particles density, while filtration uses a porous barrier to separate solid from water. Disinfection: Which is process of destroying or inactivating pathogenic (disease causing) organisms, can be accomplished by a number of methods, both physical (ozone or ultraviolet radiation) and chemical (chlorine) [16]. Aeration: This process increases contact between water and air, facilitating the exchange of gases and substances. This process helps remove unwanted gases (such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine and methane), oxidation of the compounds (like iron and manganese) and increases the dissolved oxygen content. Desalination: is used to remove salts from brackish or saline surface water and groundwater in order to render it acceptable for human consumption or other uses (WHO, 4 th Edition, 2011-p.98). Desalination processes can be: (i) Reverse Osmosis: common technique that uses semi-permeable membranes that allow water to pass through, while blocking salts. Saltwater is forced through these membranes under high pressure, resulting in fresh water. (ii) Distillation: The water is heated until it vaporizes, and the vapor is condensed to form pure water. (iii) Freezing: The water is frozen and the salts are separated from the ice. The selection of water treatment processes, as described previously, depends on the quality of the water, which is influenced by the type of water source used in the infrastructure. The water infrastructure can be: Clean Water Supply System; Wastewater System (Sewarage System & Storm Water System); Fire fighting System; Irrigation System. RESULTS & DISCUSSION 1. WASTEWATER The wastewater discharge effluent standard will be discussed based in following data: · Sample 1: wastewater discharge effluent collected after the 2M Factory (Industry), located in Maputo City, Mozambique [19]. · Mozambique Effluent Discharge Standard [20]; · Uganda Effluent Discharge Standard [21]; and · Nigeria Effluent Discharge Standard [22] Table 1: Wastewater - Effluent Discharge Standard Parameter Unit Sample 1 Mozambique Discharge Standard Uganda Discharge Standard Nigeria Discharge Standard pH 7,01 6-9 5,0-8,5 6-9 Turbity NTU - - - 5 Salinity µhmo/cm - - - Electric Condutivity ppm 1753 - 1000 - TDS mg/L - 750 500 DO mg/L 3,38 150 - - Nitrates (NO3) mg/L 10,8 50 - 10 Phosphates (PO4) mg/L 3,22 5 - - Total Coliform CFU/100mL 700 400 400 400 Fecal coliform CFU/100mL 100 - Iron (Fe) mg/L - 0,3 3.5 - Lead (Pb) mg/L - 0,01 0,1 0,05 Nitrites mg/L - 3 - Chloride mg/L - 250 250 250 Hardness mg/L 500 - Based on the standard features of the samples shown in Table 2, the following analyses can be made: · The analysis of the industrial effluent sample shows that the values for conductivity, total coliforms and fecal coliforms parameters are higher than the discharge standard limits established by the African countries. · The pH value of the sample is 7.2, which falls within the acceptable discharge limits (between 6 to 9) set by these countries. · The total coliforms and fecal coliforms values of the sample are f the sample are 700 CFU/100ml and 100 CFU/100ml respectively. These values significantly exceed the standard discharge limits. In fact, most of the African countries require 400 CFU/100ml of total coliforms in discharge effluent. · In general, the discharge effluent standard limits are approximately across most African countries. However, some parameter values need to be adjusted to meet compliance requirements. Analysis of the Impacts Social The values of the total coliforms and fecal coliform parameters of discharge effluent iare 7000CFU/100ml and 100 CFU/100ml respectively. The excessive presence of these microorganisms can pose serious health risk, the gastrointestinal diseases in humans [1]. Economic If wastewater treatment plant in these countries fail not be constructed to treat the effluent discharge, significant financial resources may be required in the health sector to treat the people affected by diseases caused by contamined water. Ecologic The discharge may significantly impact the survival of the local aquatic plants and animals in the affected area (where the discharge will be made). 2. WATER The quality of water river and groundwater will be discussed based on: · Sample 1: Water river from Shen Dam, Shen Village, Jos South Local Government, Plateau State, Nigéria ( information provide by Chris Gyang Mang ). · Sample 2: Water from Alto Molócuè River located at Alto-Moloòcué Village, Zambezia Province, Mozambique [23]; · Sample 3: Groundwater collected from borehole located at Mafassane Village, Inhambane Province, Mozambique [3]. Table 2: Water – Quality Standard of the Samples Parameter Unit Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 WHO - Guideline Limits [18] Before WTP After WTP Before WTP Before WTP pH - 6,2 7,3 7,2 6,0 6,5-8,5 Turbity NTU 45,0 0,8 400 2,73 5 Salinity µhmo/cm - - - 0.20 Electric Conditivity ppm - - 39 353 50-2000 TDS mg/L 580 180 - 188,0 1000 DO mg/L 3,5 7,0 - - Nitrates (NO3) mg/L 18,0 4,0 20.5 - 50 Phosphates (PO4) mg/L 2,5 0,3 - - 1 Total Coliform CFU/100mL 5000 0 - 2 0 Fecal coliform CFU/100mL 1200 0 - <1 0 Iron (Fe) mg/L 1,2 0 - - 0,3 Lead (Pb) mg/L 0,05 <0,001 - - 0,01 Nitrites mg/L - - 20,63 - 3,0 Chloride mg/L - - 22,3 - 250 Calcium mg/L - - 7,2 - 50 Magnesium mg/L - - 3,7 - 50 Hardness mg/L - - 30 - 500 Based on the standard features of the samples indicated on the Table 2, the following analyses can be made: · pH is one of the most important water quality parameter for operation. The recommended pH range for drinking water is between 6,5-8,5 [18]. The pH values of the samples 1 and 3 are approximately within the recommended range for, while the pH value of sample 2 is outside the recommended range for drinking water; · Turbidity in drinking water should be less than 5 NTU [18]. The turbidity values of samples 1 and 2 exceed the recommended limit, with sample 1 having lower turbidity than sample 2.Sample 3, which is groundwater, has a turbidity value below the recommended 5 NTU, which is typical for groundwater; · According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the palatability of water with a Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) level of less than 600 mg/L is generally considered good. The TDS values of samples 1 and 3, where available, are within the recommended limits for drinking water. · The presence of total coliforms and fecal coliforms in drinking water is undesirable, meaning both parameters should be absent [18]. In the samples, these parameters are present in higher concentrations in the river water (sample 2) and in lower concentrations in the groundwater. Based on, the recommended values for drinking water parameters indicated by WHO and the information of the samples indicated on Table 1, clearly can be understanding that the water treatment processes are essential for ensuring the safety water consumption in Africa. Analysis of the Impacts Social Beginning with the social analysis of the sustainability of water treatment process restoration in Africa, the following points can be considered: 1. As per Figure 1, the water river contains values of total coliform and fecal coliform 5000 CFU/100 mL and 1200 CFU/100 mL, respectively. According WHO, drinking water should be absent of these parameters [18], this indicates that the water poses a threat to human health. The groundwater, contains values of total coliform and fecal coliform 2 CFU/100 mL and 1 CFU/100 mL, respectively. It is mean, that water represents a long-term health risk. Consumption of water containing total coliforms and fecal coliforms can lead to gastrointestinal diseases in humans [1]; 2. As per Table 2, the water river contains an iron concentration of 1.2 mg/L. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the recommended iron concentration for drinking water is less than 0.3 mg/L. In terms of the iron parameter, the water is not suitable for drinking in Africa. Consumption of water with iron levels above the recommended limit can cause hemorrhagic necrosis in humans [1]; 3. As per Table 2, the water river has a nitrite concentration of 20.63 mg/L. According to WHO, the recommended nitrite concentration for drinking water is less than 3.0 mg/L. Therefore, the river water is not suitable for drinking. Consumption of water with high nitrite levels can lead to pneumonia and anemia by reducing oxygen levels in the blood[1]; 4. As per Table 2, the water river contains 0.05 mg/L of lead. WHO recommends that lead concentrations in drinking water be less than 0.01 mg/L. Therefore, the river water is not suitable for drinking. Consumption of water with lead levels above the recommended limit can lead to acute poisoning in humans [1]. Based on the samples, both the river water and groundwater are not suitable for human consumption, posing serious threats to human health. Under these conditions, the water can cause diseases such as gastrointestinal issues, skin damage, anemia, pneumonia, and poisoning. Therefore, it is crucial to construct water treatment plants to ensure safe water for consumption and protect public health in Africa. Economic As mentioned previously, consuming untreated river water and groundwater can be harmful to people, leading to gastrointestinal diseases, skin damage, anemia, pneumonia, and other health issues. Additionally, significant financial resources may be required to address the resulting health problems. It is undeniable that the contribution of water treatment processes to water systems is of great importance, as these systems significantly impact healthy and quality of life. However, it is also important to highlight that these water treatment processes play a crucial role in extending the useful life of the systems. The water treatment process can protecting equipments (valves, pressure meter, pumps, chambers, etc) against of the silting and corrosion. This helps mitigate the need for costly equipment replacements during the management period. The following points can be considered: 1. As shown in Figure 2, the water river, samples (1 and 2), have turbidity values of 45 NTU and 400 NTU, respectively. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the recommended turbidity value for drinking water is less than 5 NTU. High turbidity can complicate the disinfection process [1], leading to increased financial costs. 2. As shown in Figure1, the water river and groundwater, samples (1 and 3), have pH values of 6.2 and 6, respectively. According to WHO, the recommended pH range for drinking water is between 6.5 and 8.5. The low pH of this water can cause corrosion in the equipment [1], which would require additional financial resources for equipment replacement. The clean water provided by water treatment processes enhances the quality of life in society. An example, is the creation of water parks, such as Aquapark Maputo in Maputo City (Mozambique), uShaka Marine World in Durban City (South Africa), Carthage Land in Tunis City (Tunísia), Dolphina Park in Sharm El Sheikh and Hurghada Cities (Egypt), Jungle Aqua Park in Hurghada City (Egypt), Oasiria Water Park in Marrakech (Morocco), Valley of Waves in Sun City (South Africa) and Sunrise Water Park in Abuja City (Nigeria). This infrastructures attracts tourists from all over the world, in turn, boosts tourism in those countries and contributes to economic growth as well. One of the impacts of the restoration of the water treatment processes in society is the increased employability generated by the project, from the consultant phase to construction phase. The construction phase, in particular, offers the most employment opportunities, as a larger workforce is required. It is also important to highlight the significance of employability during the management phase of the Water Treatment Processes, as these infrastructures require qualified human resources for their operation and maintenance. Ecological As shown in Figure 2, the water river (samples 1 and 2), has turbidity levels of 45 NTU and 400 NTU, respectively. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the recommended turbidity level for drinking water is less than 5 NTU. High turbidity can affect the appearance of water [1], reducing the penetration of light in the water, limiting photosynthesis in aquatic plants. This, in turn, decreases oxygen production and can lead to the death of both aquatic animals and plants. Finally, sustainability means to meet the present needs without compromising our future generation to meet their own needs [5]. It is rather a short statement but has prolonged implication on our ecosphere. Successive loading of pollutants in the effluent of waste water treatment plants impose environmental burden of aquatic and land life. Resulting cost for treatment of water borne diseases in these countries outweighs the cost for polluted wastewater treatment. This creates adverse impact on the society concerned. That's why it is very important that the water and wastewater treatment plants in the African countries should comply by compliance to restore environmental sustainability in this region to protect the ecosystem and support life. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS As described in the previous chapters, the restoration of water and wastewater treatment infrastructures in Africa has become essential, both locally and globally. This restoration is crucial for ensuring a better quality of life for people and for improving the management of water resources. As shown in Fig. 1 , the water river has high levels of total coliforms and fecal coliforms. This contamination may result from the discharge of untreated wastewater effluent or the release of fecal matter into the river. It is recommended to discourage the careless disposal of wastewater effluent into rivers without prior treatment in wastewater treatment plants. The groundwater also contains total coliforms and fecal coliforms, likely due to soil contamination from improper defecation practices near latrines. The construction of latrines should be carried out only after a thorough geotechnical study to minimize the risk of groundwater contamination. The water treatment processes require extensive knowledge of chemical products such as aluminum sulfate, chlorine and others. Therefore, it is recommended that qualified technicians to manage the processes. There is hope that, in the future, the management of the water treatment process will become more efficient with the help of Automation Software and Artificial Intelligence, thereby enhancing water quality and sustainability of this infrastructures. Abbreviation WTP Water Treatment Plant HDPE High-Density Polyethylene USA United State of America AIU Atlantic International University Declarations ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We extend our heartfelt gratitude to the team of Atlantic International University for granting us the opportunity to pursue this research endeavor. Finally, we would like to express our deepest gratitude to our family, especially Mr Stélio Rafael Sumbane’s sons, for their unwavering support and encouragement throughout our academic pursuits. Their love and encouragement have been our greatest source of strength. FUNDING DECLARATION We do not have any funding. ETHICS, CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE, AND CONSENT TO PUBLISH DECLARATION Not applicable. CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER Not applicable. DATA AVAILABILITY All data generated or analysed during this study are included in the published articles [and are referred in the list of references: [1], [3], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23] in the manuscript]. References BOLETIM DA REPÚBLICA DE MOÇAMBIQUE (2004), “Decreto n.°180/2004 de 15 de Setembro de 2004”– Regulamento sobre a Qualidade da Água para o Consumo Humano, Maputo, p.373-377. HOLY BIBLE, “EXODUS” - Chapter 15, Verse 23-25 SWISS LAB -Laboratório de Análises de Água (2017), “Relatório de Ensaio n°.4096”, Maputo, p.1. ZAGO, Mayara & DUSI, Luciane. (2017). “Treatment of Sewage by Seastic Fossa and Complementary Unit”, Caçador – Brazil, p.98. Islam, M. S., &Sangaran, S. (2022). Sustainable Treatment of Emerging Organic Pollutants (Eops), Endocrine Disruption Chemicals (Edcs) from Water &Waste Water and Role of AIU Online Based Distance Learning Education System to Achieve UNESCO 2030 Goals Towards Sustainable Development. European Journal of Applied Sciences, 10 (4), p.556-569. Dr. Arun Kumar (January 28, 2015). Lecture 8: Water Treatment Processes; Objective: Understand functioning of different unit processes for water treatment. Projesan Water & Co. (July 13, 2022). “Juntos pela evolução da água” – A história do Tratamento de Água, p.1-3. Quintela, António de Carvalho (1981) , “Hidráulica 4ª e 5ª Edições”, Lisboa. Lencastre, Armando. (1983). “Hidráulica Geral 1700, Edição”, Lisboa Matsinhe, Nelson e Rietveld, Luuk (1992). “Manual de Abastecimento de Água”, Maputo. https://www.passeidireto.com/arquivo/24750174/tratamento-de-agua Kerr, Charles (1989). “Intermediate Technology” – Community Water Development . Craun GF (Editor) (1996) “Water Quality In Latin America: Balancing the microbial and chemical risks in drinking water disinfection’ International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Argentina, Pan American Health Organisation and World Health Organisation, ILSI Press, Washington DC, USA. Pearson I, with Still D and van Vuuren V (2000) ‘Field Evaluation of Alternative Disinfection Technologies for Rural Water Supply Projects’ Project K5/828, Water Research Commission (WRC), South Africa. WRC (1989) “Disinfection of Rural and Small-Community Water Supplies – A manual for design and operation” Water Research Center (WRC), Buckinghamshire, UK. Skinner, B.H. (2001). Chlorination Small Water Supplies. A review of gravity-powered and water-powered chlorinators, p-1. https://www.who.int/news/item/06-07-2023-women-and-girls-bear-brunt-of-water-and-sanitation-crisis---new-unicef-who-report WHO (2011). “Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality” Fourth Edition”, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Eduardo Mondlane University Library, Engeneering Faculty (2022) – “Rapulua, Sifia Janete”- Avaliação da Qualidade da Água do Rio Infulene ], p-Y to NN. BOLETIM DA REPÚBLICA DE MOÇAMBIQUE (2023), “Decreto n.°52/2023 de 30 de Agosto de 2023 “– Regulamento de Padrões de Qualidade de Água Bruta e de Descargas de Efluentes Líquidos e Sólidos , p.2004. STATUTORY INSTRUMENT SUPPLEMENT No.44 (21 st December, 2020 ). “The National Environment (Standard for Discharge of Effluent into Water or Land) Regulations, 2020”, Printed by UPPC, by Order of the Government, Entebbe, Uganda. Federal Republic of Nigeria – Official Gazette (2009), “National Environmental (Food, Beverages and Tobacco Sector) Regulations”, p.B1233-B1235. AIAS - Administração de Infra-Estruturas do Águas e Saneamento (2014). “Detailed Desin of Water Supply System of Alto Molocue Village, Zambézia Province, Mozambique (Elaborated by TECNICA – Engenheiros e Consultores Lda.)”, p.30. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6701576","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":464743466,"identity":"34b423b9-5fc1-486e-b02b-15cde8d77ed6","order_by":0,"name":"Mohammad Shahidul Islam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Atlantic International University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohammad","middleName":"Shahidul","lastName":"Islam","suffix":""},{"id":464743467,"identity":"535cab37-081f-4a35-9c4b-28b8bd6f6995","order_by":1,"name":"Stélio Rafael Sumbane","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAu0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACZhDBz87YQKIWyWaStRgcJla5fP8Z080FNXfkjA8zt0l8YLCT0yVkmcGNHLPbM449MzY7zNgmOYMh2djsACEtEjxmt3nYDiduO8zYbMzDcCBxGyEtQIcBtfw7XL+5GajlDzFaGA4AHcbbdjjBgJmx8TEDMVoMbqSV3Z7Zd9hwxmHGxoc9BkT4Rb7/8LbbBd8Oy/O3tz848KPCTo6gFnRLSVM+CkbBKBgFowAHAADnlUICU+huuwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Atlantic International University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Stélio","middleName":"Rafael","lastName":"Sumbane","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-19 19:08:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6701576/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6701576/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":83750140,"identity":"c0cf6749-cbf3-462c-bacc-cd2f24627972","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 06:31:28","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":150300,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWater-Information of pH, Total Coliform and Fecal Coliform\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6701576/v1/087b7315df7de88a7f0a9db7.png"},{"id":83750141,"identity":"fc5b0a0d-10e6-4e0f-a6b7-c5fc501834d9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 06:31:28","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":69726,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWater - information about Turbidity\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6701576/v1/5aca8b370c6314de3b1cfbc8.png"},{"id":84577795,"identity":"006c3aae-e101-4e05-83cc-1edafc9e4f6b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-13 17:23:35","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":612525,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6701576/v1/2ee39285-e869-4e8e-9097-57f73763853e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental Sustainability in Restoration of Water and Wastewater Treatment Sectors in Africa\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe History shows that water treatment processes have been implemented since the pre-Christian era. At that time, it was difficult to distinguish clean water from contaminated water, but efforts were made to improve the taste, remove bad odors, and reduce bitterness in the water. In advance, is described the processes have been used to treat the water in pre-Christian era: (i) The water was heated using the sun, and cloth to strain the hot water, removing the bad smell [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]; (ii) In the Holy Bible are described that in Mara, Mois\u0026eacute;s and the Israelites discovered that the water was bitter. They then threw a tree into the water to remove the bitterness in the water[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver the years, water treatment processes have been modernized to those used today. Since, the United Nation (UN) recognized water as a human right, regardless of social, economic, cultural, or gender conditions, access to treated water has remained a challenge. Despite this, according to the United Nations Children\u0026rsquo;s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO), today, around 2.2\u0026nbsp;billion of people still lack safely managed drinking water (treated water) at home, 3.4\u0026nbsp;billion of people do not have safely managed sanitation and 2\u0026nbsp;billion of people cannot wash their hands with soap and water at home [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe United States of America first implemented safe drinking water standards in 1914, focusing on public water supplies. In the 1940, these standards were expanded to cover all municipal drinking water systems. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), a comprehensive federal law aimed at ensuring the safety of public drinking water, was enacted in 1974 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater treatment processes involve various actions to treat and purify water, making it safe for human consumption or meeting the required standards for a specific purpose. There is a dilemma surrounding the concept of pure water, as literatures suggests that chemically pure water does not exist naturally on the Earth\u0026rsquo;s surface. The expression of \u0026ldquo;pure water\u0026rdquo; is often used as synonym for drinking water to indicate that the water meets the necessary quality standards for human consumption. In the context of this research, the following definition must be addressed: (i) The contaminated water is water that contains pathogenic organisms and toxic substances, making it dangerous for human use [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. This means the water is not suitable for human consumption and domestic purposes; (ii) The polluted water, is water that contains quantities of substances that alter the quality, making it harmful to use and affecting its appearance, taste and odor [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]; (iii) The substances, due to their inherent characteristics or elevated concentrations, that cause water pollution are referred to as \u0026ldquo;impurities in water\u0026rdquo;[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this research article is \u0026ldquo;environmental sustainability in restoration of water and wastewater treatment sector in Africa\u0026rdquo;. This focus is supported by the previous definitions - such as, contaminated water, polluted water, and impurities in water, which highlight the necessity of effective water treatment processes in water systems to achieve the main purpose, \u0026ldquo;water for human consumption or human utility\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePROBLEM DESCRIPTION\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater is considered a precious resource, in Africa, as in other parts of the world, governments have been doing financial efforts to build infrastructure for water management and use. However, it is essential to justify these efforts. This research explores the environmental sustainability of restoring a water treatment processes, an integral part of the infrastructures responsible for water management and use, with focus on ecological, economic and social factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo describe the environmental sustainability of the restoration of the water treatment infrastructure in Africa;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo describe the various processes involved in water treatment;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address action that negatively affect the environment and water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis document, a research study on environmental sustainability in restoration of water and wastewater treatment in Africa, was prepared based on templates provided by Atlantic International University (USA), educational literature from Eduardo Mondlane University Library (Mozambique), as well as sources like, ChatGPT, Google Scholar and Microsoft Academy Search.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen describing the procedures/methodology, it can be noted that, according to the subject, format and templates provided by Atlantic International University, the research was prepared collecting data from the previously mentioned literature, as well as incorporating professional experiential of the author information.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTHEORETICAL BACKGROUND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the previous chapters, the definition of the water treatment processes was provided. This chapter will describe the water treatment processes. Before delving into the specifics of these processes, will be introduced the characteristics of water that are relevant to define the water treatment as well as substances that can harmful the water quality. However, the characteristics of water are: (i) Physic Characteristics: color, turbidity, taste and odor; (ii) Chemical Characteristics: hardness, salinity, agressivity, alkalinity, et all [18].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe substance that can harmful the water quality are: iron, manganese, nitrogen, chlorides, fluorides, toxic compounds (such as copper, zinc, lead, cyanides, hexavalent chromium, cadmium, arsenic, selenium, silver, mercury and barium), organic substances, detergents, pesticides (insecticides, rodenticides, herbicides, fungicides, ant killers), radioactive substances and microorganisms (algae, bacteria, viruses, protozoa and worms)[18].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Water Treatment Processes are:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoagulation: is method employing a natural or chemical coagulant, to coagulate suspended particles, include microbes to enhance their sedimentation (WHO, 4\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e Edition, 2011-p.142).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFlocculation: this method has same purpose of coagulation. The coagulation is the first step and and works for larger particles, while the flocculation is the follows and works for smaller particles.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSedimentation: is any method for water treatment using the settling of suspended particles, including microbes, to remove them from the water (WHO, 4\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e Edition, 2011-p.142).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDecantation and Filtration: These processes separate water from solid particles after the sedimentation process. Decantation relies on the particles density, while filtration uses a porous barrier to separate solid from water.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDisinfection: Which is process of destroying or inactivating pathogenic (disease causing) organisms, can be accomplished by a number of methods, both physical (ozone or ultraviolet radiation) and chemical (chlorine) [16].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAeration: This process increases contact between water and air, facilitating the exchange of gases and substances. This process helps remove unwanted gases (such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine and methane), oxidation of the compounds (like iron and manganese) and increases the dissolved oxygen content.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDesalination: is used to remove salts from brackish or saline surface water and groundwater in order to render it acceptable for human consumption or other uses (WHO, 4\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e Edition, 2011-p.98). Desalination processes can be: (i) Reverse Osmosis: common technique that uses semi-permeable membranes that allow water to pass through, while blocking salts. Saltwater is forced through these membranes under high pressure, resulting in fresh water. (ii) Distillation: The water is heated until it vaporizes, and the vapor is condensed to form pure water. (iii) Freezing: The water is frozen and the salts are separated from the ice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe selection of water treatment processes, as described previously, depends on the quality of the water, which is influenced by the type of water source used in the infrastructure. The water infrastructure can be:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eClean Water Supply System;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWastewater System (Sewarage System \u0026amp; Storm Water System);\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFire fighting System;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIrrigation System.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS \u0026 DISCUSSION ","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWASTEWATER\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe wastewater discharge effluent standard will be discussed based in following data:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Sample 1: wastewater discharge effluent collected after the 2M Factory (Industry), located in Maputo City, Mozambique [19].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Mozambique Effluent Discharge Standard [20];\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Uganda Effluent Discharge Standard [21]; and\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Nigeria Effluent Discharge Standard [22]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1: Wastewater - Effluent Discharge Standard\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMozambique Discharge Standard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUganda\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDischarge Standard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNigeria Discharge Standard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7,01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6-9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5,0-8,5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6-9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTurbity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNTU\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSalinity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026micro;hmo/cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eElectric Condutivity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eppm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1753\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e750\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNitrates (NO3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10,8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhosphates (PO4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Coliform\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCFU/100mL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e700\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFecal coliform\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCFU/100mL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIron (Fe)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLead (Pb)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNitrites\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChloride\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHardness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the standard features of the samples shown in Table 2, the following analyses can be made:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; The analysis of the industrial effluent sample shows that the values for conductivity, total coliforms and fecal coliforms parameters are higher than the discharge standard limits established by the African countries. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; The pH value of the sample is 7.2, which falls within the acceptable discharge limits (between 6 to 9) set by these countries.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; The total coliforms and fecal coliforms values of the sample are f the sample are 700 CFU/100ml and 100 CFU/100ml respectively. These values significantly exceed the standard discharge limits. In fact, most of the African countries require 400 CFU/100ml of total coliforms in discharge effluent. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; In general, the discharge effluent standard limits are approximately across most African countries. However, some parameter values need to be adjusted to meet compliance requirements.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of the Impacts\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe values of the total coliforms and fecal coliform parameters of discharge effluent iare 7000CFU/100ml and 100 CFU/100ml respectively. The excessive presence of these microorganisms can pose serious health risk, the gastrointestinal diseases in humans [1].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEconomic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIf wastewater treatment plant in these countries fail not be constructed to treat the effluent discharge, significant financial resources may be required in the health sector to treat the people affected by diseases caused by contamined water.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEcologic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe discharge may significantly impact the survival of the local aquatic plants and animals in the affected area (where the discharge will be made).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWATER\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe quality of water river and groundwater will be discussed based on:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Sample 1: Water river from Shen Dam, Shen Village, Jos South Local Government, Plateau State, Nig\u0026eacute;ria (\u003cem\u003einformation provide by Chris Gyang Mang\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Sample 2: Water from Alto Mol\u0026oacute;cu\u0026egrave; River located at Alto-Molo\u0026ograve;cu\u0026eacute; Village, Zambezia Province, Mozambique [23];\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Sample 3: Groundwater collected from borehole located at Mafassane Village, \u0026nbsp;Inhambane Province, Mozambique [3].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2: Water \u0026ndash; Quality Standard of the Samples\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample 2 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Sample 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWHO - Guideline \u0026nbsp;Limits [18]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBefore WTP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter WTP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBefore WTP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBefore WTP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6,2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7,3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7,2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6,0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6,5-8,5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTurbity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNTU\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45,0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2,73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSalinity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026micro;hmo/cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eElectric Conditivity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eppm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e353\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50-2000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e580\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e188,0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7,0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNitrates (NO3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18,0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4,0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhosphates (PO4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2,5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Coliform\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCFU/100mL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFecal coliform\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCFU/100mL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIron (Fe)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLead (Pb)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0,001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNitrites\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20,63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChloride\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22,3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCalcium\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7,2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMagnesium\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHardness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the standard features of the samples indicated on the Table 2, the following analyses can be made:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; pH is one of the most important water quality parameter for operation. The recommended pH range for drinking water is between 6,5-8,5 [18]. The pH values of the samples 1 and 3 are approximately within the recommended range for, while the pH value of sample 2 is outside the recommended range for drinking water;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Turbidity in drinking water should be less than 5 NTU [18]. The turbidity values of samples 1 and 2 exceed the recommended limit, with sample 1 having lower turbidity than sample 2.Sample 3, which is groundwater, has a turbidity value below the recommended 5 NTU, which is typical for groundwater;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the palatability of water with a Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) level of less than 600 mg/L is generally considered good. The TDS values of samples 1 and 3, where available, are within the recommended limits for drinking water.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; The presence of total coliforms and fecal coliforms in drinking water is undesirable, meaning both parameters should be absent [18]. In the samples, these parameters are present in higher concentrations in the river water (sample 2) and in lower concentrations in the groundwater.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on, the recommended values for drinking water parameters indicated by WHO and the information of the samples indicated on Table 1, clearly can be understanding that the water treatment processes are essential for ensuring the safety water consumption in Africa. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of the Impacts\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeginning with the social analysis of the sustainability of water treatment process restoration in Africa, the following points can be considered:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1. As per Figure 1, the water river contains values of total coliform and fecal coliform 5000 CFU/100 mL and 1200 CFU/100 mL, respectively. According WHO, drinking water should be absent of these parameters [18], this indicates that the water poses a threat to human health. The groundwater, contains values of total coliform and fecal coliform 2 CFU/100 mL and 1 CFU/100 mL, respectively. It is mean, that water represents a long-term health risk. Consumption of water containing total coliforms and fecal coliforms can lead to gastrointestinal diseases in humans [1];\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;As per Table 2, the water river contains an iron concentration of 1.2 mg/L. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the recommended iron concentration for drinking water is less than 0.3 mg/L. In terms of the iron parameter, the water is not suitable for drinking in Africa. Consumption of water with iron levels above the recommended limit can cause hemorrhagic necrosis in humans [1];\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;As per Table 2, the water river has a nitrite concentration of 20.63 mg/L. According to WHO, the recommended nitrite concentration for drinking water is less than 3.0 mg/L. Therefore, the river water is not suitable for drinking. Consumption of water with high nitrite levels can lead to pneumonia and anemia by reducing oxygen levels in the blood[1];\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;As per Table 2, the water river contains 0.05 mg/L of lead. WHO recommends that lead concentrations in drinking water be less than 0.01 mg/L. Therefore, the river water is not suitable for drinking. Consumption of water with lead levels above the recommended limit can lead to acute poisoning in humans [1].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the samples, both the river water and groundwater are not suitable for human consumption, posing serious threats to human health. Under these conditions, the water can cause diseases such as gastrointestinal issues, skin damage, anemia, pneumonia, and poisoning. Therefore, it is crucial to construct water treatment plants to ensure safe water for consumption and protect public health in Africa.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEconomic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs mentioned previously, consuming untreated river water and groundwater can be harmful to people, leading to gastrointestinal diseases, skin damage, anemia, pneumonia, and other health issues. Additionally, significant financial resources may be required to address the resulting health problems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is undeniable that the contribution of water treatment processes to water systems is of great importance, as these systems significantly impact healthy and quality of life. However, it is also important to highlight that these water treatment processes play a crucial role in extending the useful life of the systems. The water treatment process can protecting equipments (valves, pressure meter, pumps, chambers, etc) against of the silting and corrosion. This helps mitigate the need for costly equipment replacements during the management period. The following points can be considered:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;As shown in Figure 2, the water river, samples (1 and 2), have turbidity values of 45 NTU and 400 NTU, respectively. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the recommended turbidity value for drinking water is less than 5 NTU. High turbidity can complicate the disinfection process [1], leading to increased financial costs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;As shown in Figure1, the water river and groundwater, samples (1 and 3), have pH values of 6.2 and 6, respectively. According to WHO, the recommended pH range for drinking water is between 6.5 and 8.5. The low pH of this water can cause corrosion in the equipment [1], which would require additional financial resources for equipment replacement.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe clean water provided by water treatment processes enhances the quality of life in society. An example, is the creation of water parks, such as Aquapark Maputo in Maputo City (Mozambique), uShaka Marine World in Durban City (South Africa), Carthage Land in Tunis City (Tun\u0026iacute;sia), Dolphina Park in Sharm El Sheikh and Hurghada Cities (Egypt), Jungle Aqua Park in Hurghada City (Egypt), Oasiria Water Park in Marrakech (Morocco), Valley of Waves in Sun City (South Africa) and Sunrise Water Park in Abuja City (Nigeria). This infrastructures attracts tourists from all over the world, in turn, boosts tourism in those countries and contributes to economic growth as well.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the impacts of the restoration of the water treatment processes in society is the increased employability generated by the project, from the consultant phase to construction phase. The construction phase, in particular, offers the most employment opportunities, as a larger workforce is required. It is also important to highlight the significance of employability during the management phase of the Water Treatment Processes, as these infrastructures require qualified human resources for their operation and maintenance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEcological\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Figure 2, the water river (samples 1 and 2), has turbidity levels of 45 NTU and 400 NTU, respectively. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the recommended turbidity level for drinking water is less than 5 NTU. High turbidity can affect the appearance of water [1], reducing the penetration of light in the water, limiting photosynthesis in aquatic plants. This, in turn, decreases oxygen production and can lead to the death of both aquatic animals and plants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, sustainability means to meet the present needs without compromising our future generation to meet their own needs [5]. It is rather a short statement but has prolonged implication on our ecosphere. Successive loading of pollutants in the effluent of waste water treatment plants impose environmental burden of aquatic and land life. Resulting cost for treatment of water borne diseases in these countries outweighs the cost for polluted wastewater treatment. This creates adverse impact on the society concerned. That\u0026apos;s why it is very important that the water and wastewater treatment plants in the African countries should comply by compliance to restore environmental sustainability in this region to protect the ecosystem and support life.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION \u0026 RECOMMENDATIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs described in the previous chapters, the restoration of water and wastewater treatment infrastructures in Africa has become essential, both locally and globally. This restoration is crucial for ensuring a better quality of life for people and for improving the management of water resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the water river has high levels of total coliforms and fecal coliforms. This contamination may result from the discharge of untreated wastewater effluent or the release of fecal matter into the river. It is recommended to discourage the careless disposal of wastewater effluent into rivers without prior treatment in wastewater treatment plants. The groundwater also contains total coliforms and fecal coliforms, likely due to soil contamination from improper defecation practices near latrines. The construction of latrines should be carried out only after a thorough geotechnical study to minimize the risk of groundwater contamination.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe water treatment processes require extensive knowledge of chemical products such as aluminum sulfate, chlorine and others. Therefore, it is recommended that qualified technicians to manage the processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is hope that, in the future, the management of the water treatment process will become more efficient with the help of Automation Software and Artificial Intelligence, thereby enhancing water quality and sustainability of this infrastructures.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviation","content":"\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWTP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 529px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater Treatment Plant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHDPE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 529px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh-Density Polyethylene\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 529px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnited State of America\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAIU\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 529px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAtlantic International University\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eACKNOWLEDGEMENTS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe extend our heartfelt gratitude to the team of Atlantic International University for granting us the opportunity to pursue this research endeavor.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, we would like to express our deepest gratitude to our family, especially Mr Stélio Rafael Sumbane’s sons, for their unwavering support and encouragement throughout our academic pursuits. Their love and encouragement have been our greatest source of strength.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFUNDING DECLARATION\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe do not have any funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eETHICS, CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE, AND CONSENT TO PUBLISH DECLARATION\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDATA AVAILABILITY\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in the published articles [and are referred in the list of references: [1], [3], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23] in the manuscript].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBOLETIM DA REP\u0026Uacute;BLICA DE MO\u0026Ccedil;AMBIQUE (2004), \u0026ldquo;Decreto n.\u0026deg;180/2004 de 15 de Setembro de 2004\u0026rdquo;\u0026ndash; \u003cem\u003eRegulamento sobre a Qualidade da \u0026Aacute;gua para o Consumo Humano, \u003c/em\u003eMaputo, p.373-377.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHOLY BIBLE, \u0026ldquo;EXODUS\u0026rdquo; - Chapter 15, Verse 23-25\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSWISS LAB -Laborat\u0026oacute;rio de An\u0026aacute;lises de \u0026Aacute;gua (2017), \u0026ldquo;Relat\u0026oacute;rio de Ensaio n\u0026deg;.4096\u0026rdquo;, Maputo, p.1.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZAGO, Mayara \u0026amp; DUSI, Luciane. (2017). \u0026ldquo;Treatment of Sewage by Seastic Fossa and Complementary Unit\u0026rdquo;, Ca\u0026ccedil;ador \u0026ndash; Brazil, p.98. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIslam, M. S., \u0026amp;Sangaran, S. (2022). Sustainable Treatment of Emerging Organic Pollutants (Eops), Endocrine Disruption Chemicals (Edcs) from Water \u0026amp;Waste Water and Role of AIU Online Based Distance Learning Education System to Achieve UNESCO 2030 Goals Towards Sustainable Development. European Journal of Applied Sciences, 10 (4), p.556-569.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDr. Arun Kumar (January 28, 2015). Lecture 8: Water Treatment Processes; Objective: Understand functioning of different unit processes for water treatment.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProjesan Water \u0026amp; Co. (July 13, 2022). \u0026ldquo;Juntos pela evolu\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o da \u0026aacute;gua\u0026rdquo;\u003cem\u003e \u0026ndash; A hist\u0026oacute;ria do Tratamento de \u0026Aacute;gua, \u003c/em\u003ep.1-3.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQuintela, Ant\u0026oacute;nio de Carvalho (1981)\u003cem\u003e,\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ldquo;Hidr\u0026aacute;ulica 4\u0026ordf; e 5\u0026ordf; Edi\u0026ccedil;\u0026otilde;es\u0026rdquo;, Lisboa.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLencastre, Armando. (1983). \u0026ldquo;Hidr\u0026aacute;ulica Geral 1700, Edi\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o\u0026rdquo;, Lisboa\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMatsinhe, Nelson e Rietveld, Luuk (1992). \u0026ldquo;Manual de Abastecimento de \u0026Aacute;gua\u0026rdquo;, Maputo.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ehttps://www.passeidireto.com/arquivo/24750174/tratamento-de-agua\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKerr, Charles (1989). \u0026ldquo;Intermediate Technology\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003e\u0026ndash; Community Water Development\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCraun GF (Editor) (1996) \u0026ldquo;Water Quality In Latin America: Balancing the microbial and chemical risks in drinking water disinfection\u0026rsquo; International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Argentina, Pan American Health Organisation and World Health Organisation, ILSI Press, Washington DC, USA.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePearson I, with Still D and van Vuuren V (2000) \u0026lsquo;Field Evaluation of Alternative Disinfection Technologies for Rural Water Supply Projects\u0026rsquo; Project K5/828, Water Research Commission (WRC), South Africa. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWRC (1989) \u0026ldquo;Disinfection of Rural and Small-Community Water Supplies \u0026ndash; A manual for design and operation\u0026rdquo; Water Research Center (WRC), Buckinghamshire, UK. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSkinner, B.H. (2001). Chlorination Small Water Supplies. A review of gravity-powered and water-powered chlorinators, p-1.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ehttps://www.who.int/news/item/06-07-2023-women-and-girls-bear-brunt-of-water-and-sanitation-crisis---new-unicef-who-report\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWHO (2011). \u0026ldquo;Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality\u0026rdquo; Fourth Edition\u0026rdquo;, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEduardo Mondlane University Library, Engeneering Faculty (2022) \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Rapulua, Sifia Janete\u0026rdquo;- \u003cem\u003eAvalia\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o da Qualidade da \u0026Aacute;gua do Rio Infulene\u003c/em\u003e], p-Y to NN.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBOLETIM DA REP\u0026Uacute;BLICA DE MO\u0026Ccedil;AMBIQUE (2023), \u0026ldquo;Decreto n.\u0026deg;52/2023 de 30 de Agosto de 2023 \u0026ldquo;\u0026ndash; \u003cem\u003eRegulamento de Padr\u0026otilde;es de Qualidade de \u0026Aacute;gua Bruta e de Descargas de Efluentes L\u0026iacute;quidos e S\u0026oacute;lidos\u003c/em\u003e, p.2004.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSTATUTORY INSTRUMENT SUPPLEMENT No.44 (21\u003csup\u003est \u003c/sup\u003eDecember, 2020 ). \u0026ldquo;The National Environment (Standard for Discharge of Effluent into Water or Land) Regulations, 2020\u0026rdquo;, Printed by UPPC, by Order of the Government, Entebbe, Uganda.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFederal Republic of Nigeria \u0026ndash; Official Gazette (2009), \u0026ldquo;National Environmental (Food, Beverages and Tobacco Sector) Regulations\u0026rdquo;, p.B1233-B1235.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAIAS - Administra\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o de Infra-Estruturas do \u0026Aacute;guas e Saneamento (2014). \u0026ldquo;Detailed Desin of Water Supply System of Alto Molocue Village, Zamb\u0026eacute;zia Province, Mozambique (Elaborated by TECNICA \u0026ndash; Engenheiros e Consultores Lda.)\u0026rdquo;, p.30.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Sustainability, Water, Wastewater, Treatment, Ecology and Economic","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6701576/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6701576/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis article addresses about Environmental Sustainability in restoration of water treatment infrastructures in Africa. It is well known that water is an essential resource for human health worldwide. However, it is become increasingly important to develop the projects and build infrastructures for water systems to effectively manage this vital resource. The Water Treatment Plant (WTP) is a component of the water systems infrastructure responsible for providing a treatment processes of water. The primary goal of this research was to evaluate the environmental sustainability of restoration of the water treatment sector in Africa, based on the following pillars of sustainability: ecologic, economic and social. This research was prepared based on the sample, where was evaluated the environmental sustainability of the water treatment infrastructures and their related components. The sample was water treatment infrastructures of Mozambique and Nigeria, located on the southeast and west coast of Africa respectively. Both countries have a variety of water resources.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Environmental Sustainability in Restoration of Water and Wastewater Treatment Sectors in Africa","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-02 06:31:24","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6701576/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"99f919be-71ef-4e32-96bb-98c9f525a597","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 2nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-13T17:23:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-02 06:31:24","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6701576","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6701576","identity":"rs-6701576","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}