A computational framework for evaluating an edge-integrated, multi-ramp construction model of the Great Pyramid of Giza

A computational framework for evaluating an edge-integrated, multi-ramp construction model of the Great Pyramid of Giza | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article A computational framework for evaluating an edge-integrated, multi-ramp construction model of the Great Pyramid of Giza Vicente Luis Rosell Roig This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7331924/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 07 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in npj Heritage Science → Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Despite decades of study, a quantitative, integrated framework to evaluate minute-scale throughput, geometric control, and a zero external footprint for Khufu’s pyramid has been lacking. We test the Integrated Edge-Ramp (IER) model—a helical path formed by omitting and backfilling perimeter courses—using a unified, end-to-end pipeline coupling parametric geometry, discrete-event logistics, and staged finite-element analysis (FEA). An adaptive multi-ramp strategy can sustain 4–6-minute dispatches and yields a median on-site duration of 13.8–20.6 years (95% CI); including quarrying, river transport, and seasonal pauses gives 20–27 years. FEA indicates that stresses and settlements remain within plausible limits for Old Kingdom limestone under self-weight. The model’s geometry is also consistent with internal voids identified by muon imaging (a hypothesis-generating result). The IER helps reconcile throughput, survey access, and zero-footprint closure, and produces falsifiable predictions (edge-fill signatures, corner wear). Our study provides a transferable, open-data/code framework for testing construction hypotheses for ancient megastructures. Great Pyramid of Giza integrated edge ramp construction computational archaeology heritage logistics finite-element modeling ancient Egyptian engineering open-data/code framework Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files adaptiverampIERmodel.mp4 1rampIERmodel.mp4 4rampIERmodel.mp4 4rampIERmodel.mp4 adaptiverampIERmodel.mp4 4rampIERmodel.mp4 SupplementaryMaterialdefinitive.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 07 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in npj Heritage Science → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 15 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 07 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 27 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 26 Oct, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 26 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 26 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7331924","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":540252177,"identity":"a0412c58-6063-4032-9fb7-19ac2815ba8d","order_by":0,"name":"Vicente Luis Rosell 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Giza","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-heritage-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"hsci","sideBox":"Learn more about [Heritage Science](http://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40494","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40494/3","title":"npj Heritage Science","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO 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We test the Integrated Edge-Ramp (IER) model\u0026mdash;a helical path formed by omitting and backfilling perimeter courses\u0026mdash;using a unified, end-to-end pipeline coupling parametric geometry, discrete-event logistics, and staged finite-element analysis (FEA). An adaptive multi-ramp strategy can sustain 4\u0026ndash;6-minute dispatches and yields a median on-site duration of 13.8\u0026ndash;20.6 years (95% CI); including quarrying, river transport, and seasonal pauses gives 20\u0026ndash;27 years. FEA indicates that stresses and settlements remain within plausible limits for Old Kingdom limestone under self-weight. The model\u0026rsquo;s geometry is also consistent with internal voids identified by muon imaging (a hypothesis-generating result). The IER helps reconcile throughput, survey access, and zero-footprint closure, and produces falsifiable predictions (edge-fill signatures, corner wear). Our study provides a transferable, open-data/code framework for testing construction hypotheses for ancient megastructures.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A computational framework for evaluating an edge-integrated, multi-ramp construction model of the Great Pyramid of Giza","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-06 18:06:49","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7331924/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-15T17:31:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-07T22:49:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"54542585324219340818985022744839709873","date":"2025-11-20T13:05:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"141911989833512710023241786190353819295","date":"2025-11-20T12:48:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-27T20:01:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-26T20:56:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-26T20:01:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"npj heritage science","date":"2025-10-26T19:55:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-heritage-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"hsci","sideBox":"Learn more about [Heritage Science](http://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40494","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40494/3","title":"npj Heritage Science","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"94c3cf55-c43d-4517-b61c-89741a75126a","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 6th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-09T16:07:40+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7331924","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s40494-026-02405-x","journal":{"identity":"npj-heritage-science","isVorOnly":false,"title":"npj Heritage Science"},"publishedOn":"2026-03-07 15:59:59","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 7th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-06 18:06:49","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s40494-026-02405-x","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s40494-026-02405-x","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7331924","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7331924","identity":"rs-7331924","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}