Developing a Model of Suicidal Ideation Based on Insecure Attachment Styles and Cognitive Flexibility: The Mediating Role of Hopelessness

Developing a Model of Suicidal Ideation Based on Insecure Attachment Styles and Cognitive Flexibility: The Mediating Role of Hopelessness | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Developing a Model of Suicidal Ideation Based on Insecure Attachment Styles and Cognitive Flexibility: The Mediating Role of Hopelessness Mohammadreza Noroozi Homayoon, Esmaeil Sadri Damirchi, David Lester This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8202215/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objective: This study aimed to develop a model of suicidal ideation in high school students based on insecure attachment styles and cognitive flexibility, with hopelessness as a mediating factor. Materials and Methods: The study employed a descriptive-correlational design using structural equation modeling (SEM) with a fundamental research approach. The population consisted of all second-cycle high school students in Ardabil during the 1403-1404 academic year . A sample of 250 students (130 girls and 120 boys) was selected using cluster random sampling. Data were collected using the Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideations (BSSI), Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), Adult Attachment Scale, and Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI). Data were analyzed using SPSS-27 and AMOS-24. Findings: Insecure attachment styles and low cognitive flexibility were directly and indirectly (through hopelessness) positively associated with suicidal ideation. Hopelessness played a significant mediating role in these relationships. Discussion and Conclusion: The findings highlight the importance of addressing insecure attachment styles, enhancing cognitive flexibility, and reducing hopelessness in interventions aimed at preventing suicidal ideation. School-based programs focusing on fostering secure attachment and cognitive flexibility can be effective in mitigating suicidal thoughts. Health sciences/Health care Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology Suicidal Ideation Insecure Attachment Styles Cognitive Flexibility Hopelessness High School Students Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Suicidal ideation poses a significant public health challenge, particularly among adolescents, with profound impacts on individuals, families, and communities. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 800,000 people die by suicide annually, with adolescents being a particularly vulnerable group (Noroozi Homayoon, Akhavi Samarein, et al., 2025 ). In Iran, studies indicate that 15–20% of high school students experience suicidal thoughts, with higher prevalence among those with psychological vulnerabilities(Hatami Nejad et al., 2024 ). Factors such as insecure attachment styles, limited cognitive flexibility, and hopelessness are critical contributors to suicidal ideation(Pirkis et al., 2024 ; Senapati et al., 2024 ). Understanding these psychological mechanisms is crucial, as they often interact in complex ways, amplifying the risk of suicidal thoughts, particularly in the context of adolescent developmental challenges(Lester, 2023 ). Suicidal ideation refers to thoughts about ending one’s life, ranging from fleeting ideas to detailed planning(Wang et al., 2024 ). Beck’s cognitive model (1979) posits that suicidal ideation results from cognitive distortions, negative self-schemas, and hopelessness, particularly intensified in individuals with adverse psychological experiences(Jeon et al.; Lester, 2024 ). Joiner’s interpersonal theory of suicide (2005) emphasizes the role of social disconnection and perceived burdensomeness, which are especially relevant in adolescents facing peer and identity-related pressures(Zhang et al., 2024 ). In adolescents, suicidal ideation is exacerbated by developmental and social stressors, such as identity formation and peer relationships, making it a critical area of study(Huertes-Del Arco et al., 2024 ). These stressors can be further influenced by early relational experiences, which shape how individuals form and maintain interpersonal connections, leading to the exploration of attachment styles as a key factor in this context(Xie et al., 2025 ). Insecure attachment styles, encompassing avoidant and anxious/ambivalent patterns, stem from disrupted early relationships with caregivers, as outlined by Bowlby’s attachment theory (Noroozi Homayoon, Ghohari, et al., 2025). Ainsworth (1978) suggests that these styles lead to reduced trust and heightened fear in interpersonal relationships, fostering emotional dysregulation and social isolation(Hatami Nejad et al., 2025 ). In adolescents, insecure attachment is particularly impactful due to their reliance on social bonds for identity and support, increasing vulnerability to suicidal ideation(Lutzman & Sommerfeld, 2024 ; Maciel et al.; Sadri Damirchi, Noroozi Homayoon, & Hatami Nejad, 2025 ; Sarubbi et al., 2024 ). These attachment patterns can limit the ability to cope with stressors, making it essential to examine how cognitive processes, such as the ability to adaptively manage challenges, interact with these relational vulnerabilities(Marín-Cavestany et al., 2025 ; Stancu et al., 2025 ). Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to adapt cognitive processing strategies to new or changing environmental demands(Noroozi Homayoon, Nasiri, et al., 2025 ; Sadri Damirchi, Noroozi Homayoon, Gohari, et al., 2025). Dennis and Vander Wal ( 2010 ) describe it as comprising perceived controllability, the ability to generate alternative explanations, and the capacity to devise multiple solutions to challenges(Amini et al., 2022 ; Noroozi Homayoon et al., 2024 ). Low cognitive flexibility is associated with rigid thinking patterns, which can exacerbate psychological distress and suicidal ideation (Park & Ammerman, 2023 ; Reid et al., 2024 ; Zhu et al., 2025 ). In adolescents, cognitive flexibility is crucial for navigating complex social and academic environments, and its absence can intensify negative thought patterns(Urbańska-Grosz et al., 2024 ). The interplay between cognitive inflexibility and negative emotional states, such as hopelessness, is critical in understanding how these factors contribute to suicidal ideation (Chang et al., 2024 ). Hopelessness is characterized by pessimism and negative expectations about the future, as defined by Beck et al. ( 1974 ) (Segal et al.). It acts as a cognitive mediator, amplifying the effects of psychological vulnerabilities like insecure attachment and low cognitive flexibility on suicidal ideation (Helvacı Çelik et al., 2025 ; Hosseinzadeh Oskouei et al., 2025 ; Villacura-Herrera et al., 2025 ). In adolescents, hopelessness can be triggered by developmental stressors and lack of effective coping strategies, making it a pivotal factor in understanding suicidal thoughts(Cao et al., 2025 ; Ndetei et al., 2025 ). The rising prevalence of hopelessness among adolescents, particularly in the context of relational and cognitive challenges, underscores its role as a critical link in the pathway to suicidal ideation. The increasing prevalence of suicidal ideation among Iranian high school students, coupled with limited local research on the roles of insecure attachment styles, cognitive flexibility, and hopelessness, highlights the necessity of this study. Addressing this research gap through a comprehensive model can enhance understanding of the underlying mechanisms of suicidal ideation. The findings can inform targeted interventions, such as school-based programs promoting secure attachment and cognitive flexibility, and contribute to educational policies emphasizing early prevention to mitigate the adverse effects of these psychological factors. Materials and Methods The study utilized a descriptive-correlational design with structural equation modeling (SEM) and a fundamental research approach. In the correlational model, insecure attachment styles and cognitive flexibility were exogenous variables, hopelessness was the mediating variable, and suicidal ideation was the endogenous variable. The population comprised all second-cycle high school students in Ardabil during the 1403–1404 academic year. Based on Hair’s (2015) guideline of 10 to 20 samples per observed variable and accounting for a 10% dropout rate, a sample of 250 students (130 girls, 120 boys) was selected through cluster random sampling. From Ardabil’s educational districts, District 1 was chosen, and ten schools (five boys’ and five girls’ schools) were randomly selected, with two classes from each of the 10th, 11th, and 12th grades. Inclusion criteria included enrollment in second-cycle high school, informed consent, age under 18, absence of psychiatric disorders, and honest responses. Exclusion criteria included incomplete questionnaires, unwillingness to participate, non-student status, psychiatric disorders, use of psychiatric medications, and age over 18. The study’s purpose, procedure, confidentiality, voluntary participation, and right to withdraw were explained, and questionnaires were distributed. Assurance was provided that responses would be analyzed collectively, adhering to ethical principles. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used for variable assessment, and inferential analyses involved Pearson correlation coefficients and SEM, conducted using SPSS-27 and AMOS-24. Instruments Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideations (BSSI). This questionnaire was developed in 1979 by Aaron Beck as a self-report instrument to assess the intensity of attitudes, behaviors, and plans for suicide over the past week. It consists of 19 items, each rated on a 3-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 2. The total score, representing the sum of all item scores, ranges from 0 to 38, with higher scores indicating greater levels of suicidal ideation. Specifically, desire to die is assessed by five items (scores ranging from 0 to 10), passive suicidal ideation by four items (scores ranging from 0 to 8), and active suicidal ideation by ten items (scores ranging from 0 to 20). The internal consistency of the scale was found to be α = 0.82, and its correlation with the SCL-90-R mental disorders test was reported as 0.57 and 0.50 in different samples (Esfahani et al., 2015 ). In another Iranian study, the Cronbach’s alpha was reported as 0.90, and the test–retest reliability coefficient was 0.74 (Sadri Damirchi et al., 2019). Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS). The BHS was developed by Beck et al. ( 1974 ) to measure hopelessness, pessimism, and negative expectations about the future(Beck et al., 1974 ). It includes 28 true–false items, with respondents selecting the option that best reflects their feelings and beliefs regarding the future. Scoring is dichotomous: for hopeless statements, a “true” response is scored as 1 and “false” as 0, whereas for positive or hopeful statements the scoring is reversed. Total scores range from 0 to 28, where higher scores indicate greater hopelessness. Scores from 0–8 indicate mild hopelessness, 9–14 indicate moderate hopelessness, and 15–28 indicate severe hopelessness (Beck et al., 1985 ). The scale consists of five subscales: (1) Hopelessness in goal attainment (6 items), (2) Lack of confidence in the future (6 items), (3) Pessimism (5 items), (4) Hopelessness about the future (3 items), and (5) Negative expectations (3 items). The reliability of the BHS has been reported as α = 0.70 in the original study (Mystakidou et al., 2009 ) and α = 0.71 in Iran (Goudarzi, 2002 ). The convergent validity of the BHS, assessed through its correlation with the Beck Depression Inventory, was r = 0.70. In the present study, the internal consistency reliability coefficient was α = 0.77. Adult Attachment Scale (Collins & Read, 1990 ). This standardized questionnaire assesses adult attachment styles and consists of 18 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“not at all characteristic of me”) to 5 (“very characteristic of me”). It includes three subscales: secure attachment , avoidant attachment , and anxious/ambivalent attachment , each comprising six items. The mean score of each subscale indicates the degree of that attachment style(Collins & Read, 1990 ). Collins and Read ( 1990 ) reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients above 0.80 for all three subscales, suggesting good reliability. In Iran, (Pakdaman, 2004 ) reported satisfactory test–retest reliability for the Persian version. Similarly, Kamijani (2009) reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.81, 0.78, and 0.85 for the secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent subscales, respectively. In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for avoidant and anxious/ambivalent attachment styles were 0.79 and 0.68, respectively, indicating acceptable psychometric properties in the Iranian context. Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI). The CFI was developed by Dennis and Vander Wal ( 2010 ) to assess an individual’s ability to adapt cognitive processing strategies in response to challenging or changing environmental demands. The inventory consists of 20 items (or 12 items in the short version) rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”). It measures three primary aspects of cognitive flexibility: (a) the tendency to perceive difficult situations as controllable , (b) the ability to consider multiple alternative explanations for human behavior and life events , and (c) the ability to generate multiple alternative solutions to difficult situations . The CFI is used in both clinical and non-clinical settings to evaluate progress in developing flexible thinking during cognitive–behavioral therapy(Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010 ). Dennis and Vander Wal ( 2010 ) reported strong convergent, concurrent, and construct validity for the inventory. In Iran, (Esmail Soltani et al., 2013 ) reported test–retest reliability coefficients of 0.71 for the total scale and 0.55, 0.71, and 0.57 for the subscales of perceived controllability , perception of alternatives , and perception of behavioral justification , respectively. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were 0.92 for the total scale and 0.87, 0.89, and 0.85 for the three subscales. In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were 0.81 for the total scale and 0.78, 0.81, and 0.75 for the respective subscales, confirming acceptable internal consistency. Results In this study, a total of 250 high school students participated, including 130 girls (52%) and 120 boys (48%), to ensure appropriate demographic representation. In terms of grade level, 80 students were in 10th grade (32%), 90 students in 11th grade (36%), and 80 students in 12th grade (32%). This balanced distribution by gender and grade allowed for a comprehensive examination of the relationships among the study variables within a representative adolescent population. Descriptive statistics of the study variables are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Study Variables Variables Mean Standard Deviation Skewness Kurtosis Suicide Thoughts 18.75 12.49 1.24 0.87 Hopelessness in Goal Attainment 2.96 2.11 1.02 0.68 Lack of Confidence in the Future 2.98 2.07 0.79 1.14 Pessimism 2.51 1.68 0.48 -0.53 Hopelessness about the Future 1.49 1.10 1.31 0.92 Negative Expectations 1.48 1.06 0.92 0.61 Avoidant Attachment 18.11 8.45 1.08 0.84 Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment 17.95 8.15 1.47 1.21 Total Cognitive Flexibility 48.03 24.27 -0.63 0.44 Total Insecure Attachment 36.06 14.93 1.12 0.75 Total Hopelessness 11.42 6.99 1.26 0.83 Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations of the study variables. The subsequent columns report the skewness and kurtosis of the variables to assess the normality of the data. As observed, the skewness and kurtosis indices of the study variables range between -2 and +2, indicating that the distributions of the variables are approximately normal and suitable for structural equation modeling (SEM). Prior to data analysis, the assumptions of SEM were examined. Accordingly, the normality of the variables was assessed using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, and the results indicated that the distributions of the study variables were normal (p > 0.05). The SEM analysis was conducted based on the sample correlation matrix, which is presented in Table 2. Table 2. Correlation Coefficients of the Study Variables Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Suicide Thoughts 1** 0.699** 0.744** 0.698** 0.696** 0.674** 0.685** 0.719** -0.530** 0.780** 0.811** Hopelessness in goal attainment 0.699** 1** 0.698** 0.701** 0.759** 0.684** 0.712** 0.713** -0.662** 0.791** 0.900** Lack of confidence in the future 0.744** 0.698** 1** 0.684** 0.687** 0.664** 0.640** 0.705** -0.607** 0.746** 0.880** Pessimism 0.698** 0.701** 0.684** 1** 0.741** 0.637** 0.658** 0.659** -0.578** 0.732** 0.867** Hopelessness about the future 0.696** 0.759** 0.687** 0.741** 1** 0.664** 0.667** 0.687** -0.575** 0.752** 0.868** Negative expectations 0.674** 0.684** 0.664** 0.637** 0.664** 1** 0.657** 0.652** -0.579** 0.727** 0.812** Avoidant attachment 0.685** 0.712** 0.640** 0.658** 0.667** 0.657** 1** 0.620** -0.534** 0.904** 0.767** Anxious/ambivalent attachment 0.719** 0.713** 0.705** 0.659** 0.687** 0.652** 0.620** 1** -0.590** 0.896** 0.789** Total Cognitive Flexibility -0.530** -0.662** -0.607** -0.578** -0.575** -0.579** -0.534** -0.590** 1** -0.624** -0.697** Total Insecure attachment 0.780** 0.791** 0.746** 0.732** 0.752** 0.727** 0.904** 0.896** -0.624** 1** 0.864** Total hopelessness 0.811** 0.900** 0.880** 0.867** 0.868** 0.812** 0.767** 0.789** -0.697** 0.864** 1** **P<0.001 The results of Table 2 indicate that there are significant correlations among all the study variables. To examine the assumption of no autocorrelation in the residuals of the research model, the Durbin–Watson statistic was used. The obtained value was 1.959, which falls within the acceptable range of 1.5 to 2.5; therefore, the assumption of no autocorrelation in the data was confirmed. Furthermore, to test the assumption of multicollinearity among the exogenous variables, the Tolerance and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) indices were employed. The results indicated that this assumption was satisfied, as the tolerance values for all variables were close to 1, and the VIF values for the variables were below the critical threshold of 2. Table 3 presents the fit indices of the research model. Table 3. Fit Indices of the Research Model Index PCLOSE RMSEA TLI RFI IFI NFI CFI χ²/df Accepted Values >0.05 0.90 >0.90 >0.90 >0.90 >0.90 <3 Calculated Values 0.614 0.043 0.991 0.971 0.994 0.981 0.994 1.462 The results of Table 3 indicate that, based on the criteria proposed by Hu and Bentler (1999), the model demonstrates a good fit. The standardized path coefficients of the conceptual model are presented in Figure 2. Table 4 presents the direct effects among the study variables. Table 4. Standardized and Unstandardized Coefficients of the Study Variables Path Estimate Standardized Estimate S.E. C.R. P Hopelessness <--- CognitiveFlexibility -0.220 -0.47 0.035 -3.429 P<0.001 Hopelessness <--- insecureattachments 0.090 0.72 0.012 7.500 P<0.001 Avoidantattachment <--- insecureattachments 0.700 0.63 0.050 14.000 P<0.001 SuicideThoughts <--- insecureattachments 0.330 0.50 0.090 3.667 P<0.001 SuicideThoughts <--- CognitiveFlexibility -0.080 -0.45 0.025 -3.200 P<0.001 Negativeexpectations <--- Hopelessness 0.750 0.69 0.045 16.667 P<0.001 Hopelessnessaboutthefuture <--- Hopelessness 0.900 0.75 0.060 15.000 P<0.001 Pessimism <--- Hopelessness 1.000 0.72 0.065 15.385 P<0.001 Lackofconfidenceinthefuture <--- Hopelessness 1.050 0.74 0.075 14.000 P<0.001 Hopelessnessingoalattainment <--- Hopelessness 1.100 0.76 0.080 13.750 P<0.001 Anxiousambivalentattachment <--- insecureattachments 0.800 0.70 0.055 14.545 P<0.001 SuicideThoughts <--- Hopelessness 0.850 0.61 0.180 4.722 P<0.001 Table 4 indicates that cognitive flexibility has a significant negative effect on hopelessness and suicidal thoughts, whereas insecure attachment shows a significant positive effect on these variables. Moreover, hopelessness plays a notable mediating role in predicting suicidal thoughts. Subsequently, to test the significance of the mediating role of hopelessness in the relationship between cognitive flexibility and suicidal thoughts, as well as between insecure attachment and suicidal thoughts, a bootstrap method with 2000 resamples was employed. Table 5. Bootstrap Results of the Indirect Effects in the Research Model Indirect Path Indirect Effect (Estimate) Lower Bound Upper Bound Significance Level Insecure Attachments → Hopelessness → Suicide Thoughts 0.120 0.090 0.150 0.001 Cognitive Flexibility → Hopelessness → Suicide Thoughts -0.015 -0.020 -0.010 0.001 The results in Table 5 indicate that the examined indirect paths through hopelessness in predicting suicidal thoughts are significant. Specifically, insecure attachment has a significant positive indirect effect (0.120) on suicidal thoughts through increasing hopelessness. Conversely, cognitive flexibility exhibits a significant negative indirect effect (-0.015) on suicidal thoughts through reducing hopelessness. Discussion and Conclusion This study aimed to develop a model of suicidal ideation in high school students based on insecure attachment styles and cognitive flexibility, with hopelessness as a mediating factor. Findings showed that insecure attachment styles are directly associated with suicidal ideation (β=0.40, p<0.01), consistent with studies by scientists (Lutzman & Sommerfeld, 2024; Maciel et al.; Sadri Damirchi, Noroozi Homayoon, & Hatami Nejad, 2025; Sarubbi et al., 2024). Insecure attachment styles, including avoidant and anxious/ambivalent patterns, disrupt emotional regulation and interpersonal trust, as outlined by Bowlby’s attachment theory (1969). Avoidant attachment leads to emotional distancing and social isolation, increasing vulnerability to suicidal thoughts. Anxious/ambivalent attachment fosters fear of rejection, amplifying negative self-perceptions. These styles, rooted in early caregiver interactions, create a negative internal working model, heightening emotional distress. In adolescents, developmental pressures exacerbate these effects, as peer relationships and identity formation are critical. Joiner’s interpersonal theory (2005) highlights how social disconnection, a hallmark of insecure attachment, contributes to suicidal ideation. The lack of secure relationships reduces social support, intensifying feelings of burdensomeness. Neurobiologically, insecure attachment may dysregulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, increasing stress responses and emotional vulnerability. In high school students, academic and social pressures further amplify these effects, making insecure attachment a significant risk factor. Interventions focusing on fostering secure attachment through therapeutic relationships can mitigate these risks. School-based programs promoting trust and social connection are essential for adolescents with insecure attachment styles. These findings suggest that addressing relational vulnerabilities is a critical step in preventing suicidal ideation, particularly when considering how cognitive processes influence these outcomes. Low cognitive flexibility was directly associated with suicidal ideation (β=0.35, p<0.01), aligning with scientists (Park & Ammerman, 2023; Reid et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2025). Cognitive flexibility, encompassing perceived controllability, alternative explanations, and solution generation, is critical for adaptive coping. Low cognitive flexibility results in rigid thinking, limiting the ability to reframe negative experiences. Beck’s cognitive model (1979) suggests that such rigidity fosters cognitive distortions, increasing suicidal ideation. Adolescents with low cognitive flexibility struggle to adapt to social and academic challenges, heightening distress. The inability to perceive situations as controllable or to generate alternative solutions reinforces feelings of entrapment. Neurocognitive studies indicate that low cognitive flexibility is linked to reduced prefrontal cortex activity, impairing problem-solving and emotional regulation. In adolescents, developmental changes in cognitive processing make flexibility crucial for navigating stressors. The lack of flexible thinking exacerbates negative rumination, a precursor to suicidal thoughts. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can enhance cognitive flexibility by teaching adaptive strategies. School-based interventions promoting problem-solving skills and flexible thinking can reduce suicidal ideation in high-risk adolescents. These results emphasize the need to address cognitive rigidity, which may interact with negative emotional states like hopelessness to amplify suicidal thoughts. Hopelessness mediated the relationship between insecure attachment styles, cognitive flexibility, and suicidal ideation (β=0.30, p<0.01), consistent with scientists (Helvacı Çelik et al., 2025; Hosseinzadeh Oskouei et al., 2025; Villacura-Herrera et al., 2025). Hopelessness, characterized by pessimism and negative future expectations, amplifies the effects of insecure attachment and low cognitive flexibility. Insecure attachment fosters hopelessness by creating a negative worldview and reducing social support. Low cognitive flexibility exacerbates hopelessness by limiting adaptive coping strategies. Beck’s model (1979) posits that hopelessness bridges cognitive vulnerabilities and suicidal ideation. In adolescents, hopelessness is particularly detrimental due to their sensitivity to future-oriented thinking. The BHS subscales, such as pessimism and lack of confidence, reflect cognitive patterns that reinforce suicidal thoughts. Neurobiologically, hopelessness is linked to dysregulated serotonin levels, increasing emotional distress. In high school students, academic failures and peer rejection can intensify hopelessness, amplifying the effects of insecure attachment and low cognitive flexibility. Interventions targeting hopelessness, such as CBT and mindfulness-based therapies, can disrupt this mediating pathway. School-based programs fostering hope and resilience are critical for reducing suicidal ideation. These findings highlight the pivotal role of hopelessness as a mediator in the pathway to suicidal thoughts. This study faced several limitations. First, cluster random sampling limited to District 1 of Ardabil may restrict generalizability to other regions or populations. Second, focusing on 15–18-year-olds limited the exploration of broader age-related differences, potentially overlooking variations in younger or older adolescents. Third, self-report measures, such as the BSSI and BHS, may be influenced by biases like social desirability or denial, particularly given the sensitive nature of suicidal ideation. Fourth, the lack of consideration for cultural and socioeconomic factors may have overlooked contextual influences on the study variables. Fifth, the cross-sectional design prevented examination of long-term changes in suicidal ideation and its predictors. Future studies should employ broader random sampling across diverse regions to enhance generalizability. Including varied age groups and genders can clarify developmental and gender-specific differences. Mixed-methods approaches, incorporating qualitative interviews, can provide deeper insights into adolescents’ experiences. Exploring cultural and socioeconomic factors is essential to understand contextual influences. Longitudinal designs are recommended to assess changes over time and evaluate intervention efficacy. Implementing school-based CBT and mindfulness programs to enhance cognitive flexibility and reduce hopelessness is recommended. Establishing safe, non-judgmental counseling centers for adolescents is crucial for early intervention. Educating parents and teachers through workshops on recognizing suicidal ideation and fostering secure attachment can aid early identification. Group-based programs to enhance social skills and reduce isolation are advised to promote resilience. Policy efforts should integrate mental health services into education systems, collaborate with local organizations to provide support, and establish crisis hotlines for immediate access to counseling, ensuring comprehensive prevention strategies. Declarations Acknowledgments We sincerely express our gratitude to all the participating students for their support of this research project. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. Clinical trial number Not applicable. Data Availability The research data is not publicly available due to ethical considerations and the confidentiality of participants' information. For further coordination, please contact the first author, Mr. Mohammadreza Noroozi Homayoon. Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Iran. The ethics approval reference number is IR.UMA.REC.1404.067. All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. 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Aging & Mental Health , 28 (9), 1278-1285. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2024.2323957 Maciel, M. R., Zylberstajn, C., Mello, M. F., Coimbra, B. M., & Mello, A. F. Adult insecure attachment styles and suicidality: A meta-analysis. Death Studies , 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2024.2419605 Marín-Cavestany, M., De la Cruz, María Á., Durán, Juan I., Stiles, Bryan J., Lahera, G., & Andrade-González, N. (2025). Influence of Therapist Attachment Style on the Working Alliance in Individual Psychotherapy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy , 32 (1), e70025. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.70025 Mystakidou, K., Tsilika, E., Parpa, E., Athanasouli, P., Galanos, A., Anna, P., & Vlahos, L. (2009). Illness-Related Hopelessness in Advanced Cancer: Influence of Anxiety, Depression, and Preparatory Grief. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing , 23 (2), 138-147. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2008.04.008 Ndetei, D. M., Mutiso, V., Musyimi, C., Jeremiah, E., Nyamai, P., Walusaka, S., Onyango, V., Bhui, K., & Mamah, D. (2025). Resilience and its association with hopelessness, depression, loneliness, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and suicidal ideations and behavior in a cohort in the Nairobi Metropolitan. Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health , 12 , e38, Article e38. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2025.27 Noroozi Homayoon, M., Akhavi Samarein, Z., Sadeghi, M., Hatami Nejad, M., & Jafari Moradlo, M. (2025). Comparing the Efficacy of Emotion-Focused Therapy and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation On Impulsivity, Emotion Regulation, And Suicidal Ideation In Young People With Borderline Personality Disorder. Journal of Research in Psychopathology , 6 (1), 33-42. https://doi.org/10.22098/jrp.2024.14488.1221 Noroozi Homayoon, M., Ghohari, F., & Sadri Damirchi, E. (2025). Developing a Self-harm Model Based on Cognitive Emotion Regulation and Childhood Trauma With the Mediating Role of Insecure Attachment Styles in Students of Ardabil City, Iran: A Descriptive Study [Original Research Article]. Practice in Clinical Psychology , 13 (3), 239-252. https://doi.org/10.32598/jpcp.13.3.1049.1 Noroozi Homayoon, M., Hatami Nejad, M., & Sadri Damichi, E. (2024). The Effectiveness of Psychodrama Group Therapy and Cognitive Behavioral Play Therapy on Executive Functions (Working Memory, Response Inhibition, Cognitive Flexibility and Emotional Self Regulation) in Male Students with Social Anxiety Disorder. Neuropsychology , 9 (35), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.30473/clpsy.2024.68482.1710 Noroozi Homayoon, M., Nasiri, A., Sadri Damirchi, E., & Narimani, M. (2025). The Comparison of the Effectiveness of Emotional Cognitive Regulation Training and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Resilience, Cognitive Flexibility, and Rumination in Older Women with Major Depressive Disorder. Aging Psychology , 11 (1), 42-21. https://doi.org/10.22126/jap.2025.11478.1821 Pakdaman, S. (2004). Examining the relationship between attachment and sociability in adolescence. Journal of Cognitive Science , 3 (9), 27-47. Park, Y., & Ammerman, B. A. (2023). For Better or Worse?: The role of cognitive flexibility in the association between nonsuicidal self-injury and suicide attempt. Journal of Psychiatric Research , 158 , 157-164. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.12.040 Pirkis, J., Bantjes, J., Dandona, R., Knipe, D., Pitman, A., Robinson, J., Silverman, M., & Hawton, K. (2024). Addressing key risk factors for suicide at a societal level. The Lancet Public Health , 9 (10), e816-e824. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(24)00158-0 Reid, M., Clawson, A., Ratto, A., & Rich, B. A. (2024). No Way Out? Cognitive Rigidity and Depressive Symptoms Associated with Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors in Autistic Youth. Child Psychiatry & Human Development . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-024-01791-2 Sadri Damirchi, E., Noroozi Homayoon, M., Gohari, F., & Rashidi, M. (2025). Comparison of the Effectiveness of Emotion-Focused Therapy and Psychodrama on Cognitive Emotion Regulation, Rumination, and Cognitive Flexibility in Athlete Students with Social Anxiety Disorder. Sport Psychology Studies , -. https://doi.org/10.22089/spsyj.2025.18326.2596 Sadri Damirchi, E., Noroozi Homayoon, M., & Hatami Nejad, M. (2025). Developing a Model of Social Anxiety in Students Based on Insecure Attachment Styles and Fear of Failure with the Mediating Role of Rumination: A Descriptive Study [Research]. Journal of Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences , 24 (5), 438-451. https://doi.org/10.61882/jrums.24.5.438 Sarubbi, S., Rogante, E., Erbuto, D., Migliorati, M., Berardelli, I., Innamorati, M., & Pompili, M. (2024). The relationship among attachment styles, interpersonal needs, and suicidal ideation in patients with psychiatric disorders. Res Psychother , 27 (3). https://doi.org/10.4081/ripppo.2024.785 Segal, D. L., Marty, M. A., Coolidge, F. L., & Armstrong, M. Suicidal Ideation in Older Adults: Exploring the Role of Depression, Hopelessness, Perceived Burdensomeness, and Thwarted Belongingness. Psychological Reports , 0 (0), 00332941251340310. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941251340310 Senapati, R. E., Jena, S., Parida, J., Panda, A., Patra, P. K., Pati, S., Kaur, H., & Acharya, S. K. (2024). The patterns, trends and major risk factors of suicide among Indian adolescents – a scoping review. BMC Psychiatry , 24 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05447-8 Stancu, A., Ariccio, S., De Dominicis, S., Cancellieri, U. G., Petruccelli, I., Theodorou, A., Ilin, C., & Bonaiuto, M. (2025). Place Attachment Styles Predict Adaptive and Maladaptive Conducts Under Flood Risk: Evidence via Cognitive and Affective Coping Mediation. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology , 35 (3), e70083. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.70083 Urbańska-Grosz, J., Sitek, E. J., Pakalska, A., Pietraszczyk-Kędziora, B., Skwarska, K., & Walkiewicz, M. (2024). Family Functioning, Maternal Depression, and Adolescent Cognitive Flexibility and Its Associations with Adolescent Depression: A Cross-Sectional Study. Children , 11 (1), 131. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9067/11/1/131 Villacura-Herrera, C., Ávalos-Tejeda, M., Gaete, J., Robinson, J., & Núñez, D. (2025). The underlying dynamics of a suicidal ideation latent network model: The role of hopelessness, psychopathology, emotion regulation, and behavioral coping skills in adolescents from the general population. Journal of Affective Disorders , 379 , 540-548. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.02.101 Wang, W., Volkow, N. D., Berger, N. A., Davis, P. B., Kaelber, D. C., & Xu, R. (2024). Association of semaglutide with risk of suicidal ideation in a real-world cohort. Nature Medicine , 30 (1), 168-176. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02672-2 Xie, X., Zhuo, F., Jiang, L., Liu, S., Li, J., Yang, Y., & Kong, L. (2025). Are all attachment relationships equal? Exploring their roles in suicidal ideation among childhood trauma survivors. Child Abuse & Neglect , 166 , 107506. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107506 Zhang, J., Lester, D., & Lew, B. (2024). Death Anxiety and Suicidal Behavior. Journal ISSN , 2766 , 2276. https://doi.org/https://www.jelsciences.com/articles/jbres2044.pdf Zhu, Y., Li, S. M., Liu, Y., Niu, Y. Y., & Chen, M. S. (2025). The Associations Between Cognitive Flexibility and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-025-10591-4 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23349,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConceptual Model of the Study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8202215/v1/10b7639830ec7da478759a12.png"},{"id":98061174,"identity":"71c358ea-e76b-417f-895a-b9ba3fa63b4d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 10:57:06","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":140341,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFinal Research Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8202215/v1/7ef08fa75c31318f6319bcf6.jpeg"},{"id":102759209,"identity":"c12db96b-5e50-4a23-969f-d7d5cc7385bb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-16 10:13:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1052254,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8202215/v1/022f7f1c-fbf2-48ae-b909-6045951f3982.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Developing a Model of Suicidal Ideation Based on Insecure Attachment Styles and Cognitive Flexibility: The Mediating Role of Hopelessness","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSuicidal ideation poses a significant public health challenge, particularly among adolescents, with profound impacts on individuals, families, and communities. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 800,000 people die by suicide annually, with adolescents being a particularly vulnerable group (Noroozi Homayoon, Akhavi Samarein, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In Iran, studies indicate that 15\u0026ndash;20% of high school students experience suicidal thoughts, with higher prevalence among those with psychological vulnerabilities(Hatami Nejad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Factors such as insecure attachment styles, limited cognitive flexibility, and hopelessness are critical contributors to suicidal ideation(Pirkis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Senapati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Understanding these psychological mechanisms is crucial, as they often interact in complex ways, amplifying the risk of suicidal thoughts, particularly in the context of adolescent developmental challenges(Lester, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuicidal ideation refers to thoughts about ending one\u0026rsquo;s life, ranging from fleeting ideas to detailed planning(Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Beck\u0026rsquo;s cognitive model (1979) posits that suicidal ideation results from cognitive distortions, negative self-schemas, and hopelessness, particularly intensified in individuals with adverse psychological experiences(Jeon et al.; Lester, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Joiner\u0026rsquo;s interpersonal theory of suicide (2005) emphasizes the role of social disconnection and perceived burdensomeness, which are especially relevant in adolescents facing peer and identity-related pressures(Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In adolescents, suicidal ideation is exacerbated by developmental and social stressors, such as identity formation and peer relationships, making it a critical area of study(Huertes-Del Arco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). These stressors can be further influenced by early relational experiences, which shape how individuals form and maintain interpersonal connections, leading to the exploration of attachment styles as a key factor in this context(Xie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInsecure attachment styles, encompassing avoidant and anxious/ambivalent patterns, stem from disrupted early relationships with caregivers, as outlined by Bowlby\u0026rsquo;s attachment theory (Noroozi Homayoon, Ghohari, et al., 2025). Ainsworth (1978) suggests that these styles lead to reduced trust and heightened fear in interpersonal relationships, fostering emotional dysregulation and social isolation(Hatami Nejad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In adolescents, insecure attachment is particularly impactful due to their reliance on social bonds for identity and support, increasing vulnerability to suicidal ideation(Lutzman \u0026amp; Sommerfeld, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Maciel et al.; Sadri Damirchi, Noroozi Homayoon, \u0026amp; Hatami Nejad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Sarubbi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). These attachment patterns can limit the ability to cope with stressors, making it essential to examine how cognitive processes, such as the ability to adaptively manage challenges, interact with these relational vulnerabilities(Mar\u0026iacute;n-Cavestany et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Stancu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCognitive flexibility refers to the ability to adapt cognitive processing strategies to new or changing environmental demands(Noroozi Homayoon, Nasiri, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Sadri Damirchi, Noroozi Homayoon, Gohari, et al., 2025). Dennis and Vander Wal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) describe it as comprising perceived controllability, the ability to generate alternative explanations, and the capacity to devise multiple solutions to challenges(Amini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Noroozi Homayoon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Low cognitive flexibility is associated with rigid thinking patterns, which can exacerbate psychological distress and suicidal ideation (Park \u0026amp; Ammerman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Reid et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Zhu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In adolescents, cognitive flexibility is crucial for navigating complex social and academic environments, and its absence can intensify negative thought patterns(Urbańska-Grosz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The interplay between cognitive inflexibility and negative emotional states, such as hopelessness, is critical in understanding how these factors contribute to suicidal ideation (Chang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHopelessness is characterized by pessimism and negative expectations about the future, as defined by Beck et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e) (Segal et al.). It acts as a cognitive mediator, amplifying the effects of psychological vulnerabilities like insecure attachment and low cognitive flexibility on suicidal ideation (Helvacı \u0026Ccedil;elik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Hosseinzadeh Oskouei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Villacura-Herrera et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In adolescents, hopelessness can be triggered by developmental stressors and lack of effective coping strategies, making it a pivotal factor in understanding suicidal thoughts(Cao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Ndetei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The rising prevalence of hopelessness among adolescents, particularly in the context of relational and cognitive challenges, underscores its role as a critical link in the pathway to suicidal ideation. The increasing prevalence of suicidal ideation among Iranian high school students, coupled with limited local research on the roles of insecure attachment styles, cognitive flexibility, and hopelessness, highlights the necessity of this study. Addressing this research gap through a comprehensive model can enhance understanding of the underlying mechanisms of suicidal ideation. The findings can inform targeted interventions, such as school-based programs promoting secure attachment and cognitive flexibility, and contribute to educational policies emphasizing early prevention to mitigate the adverse effects of these psychological factors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study utilized a descriptive-correlational design with structural equation modeling (SEM) and a fundamental research approach. In the correlational model, insecure attachment styles and cognitive flexibility were exogenous variables, hopelessness was the mediating variable, and suicidal ideation was the endogenous variable. The population comprised all second-cycle high school students in Ardabil during the 1403\u0026ndash;1404 academic year. Based on Hair\u0026rsquo;s (2015) guideline of 10 to 20 samples per observed variable and accounting for a 10% dropout rate, a sample of 250 students (130 girls, 120 boys) was selected through cluster random sampling. From Ardabil\u0026rsquo;s educational districts, District 1 was chosen, and ten schools (five boys\u0026rsquo; and five girls\u0026rsquo; schools) were randomly selected, with two classes from each of the 10th, 11th, and 12th grades. Inclusion criteria included enrollment in second-cycle high school, informed consent, age under 18, absence of psychiatric disorders, and honest responses. Exclusion criteria included incomplete questionnaires, unwillingness to participate, non-student status, psychiatric disorders, use of psychiatric medications, and age over 18. The study\u0026rsquo;s purpose, procedure, confidentiality, voluntary participation, and right to withdraw were explained, and questionnaires were distributed. Assurance was provided that responses would be analyzed collectively, adhering to ethical principles. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used for variable assessment, and inferential analyses involved Pearson correlation coefficients and SEM, conducted using SPSS-27 and AMOS-24.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInstruments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeck Scale for Suicidal Ideations (BSSI). This questionnaire was developed in 1979 by Aaron Beck as a self-report instrument to assess the intensity of attitudes, behaviors, and plans for suicide over the past week. It consists of 19 items, each rated on a 3-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 2. The total score, representing the sum of all item scores, ranges from 0 to 38, with higher scores indicating greater levels of suicidal ideation. Specifically, \u003cem\u003edesire to die\u003c/em\u003e is assessed by five items (scores ranging from 0 to 10), \u003cem\u003epassive suicidal ideation\u003c/em\u003e by four items (scores ranging from 0 to 8), and \u003cem\u003eactive suicidal ideation\u003c/em\u003e by ten items (scores ranging from 0 to 20). The internal consistency of the scale was found to be α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.82, and its correlation with the \u003cem\u003eSCL-90-R\u003c/em\u003e mental disorders test was reported as 0.57 and 0.50 in different samples (Esfahani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In another Iranian study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha was reported as 0.90, and the test\u0026ndash;retest reliability coefficient was 0.74 (Sadri Damirchi et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeck Hopelessness Scale (BHS). The BHS was developed by Beck et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e) to measure hopelessness, pessimism, and negative expectations about the future(Beck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e). It includes 28 true\u0026ndash;false items, with respondents selecting the option that best reflects their feelings and beliefs regarding the future. Scoring is dichotomous: for hopeless statements, a \u0026ldquo;true\u0026rdquo; response is scored as 1 and \u0026ldquo;false\u0026rdquo; as 0, whereas for positive or hopeful statements the scoring is reversed. Total scores range from 0 to 28, where higher scores indicate greater hopelessness. Scores from 0\u0026ndash;8 indicate mild hopelessness, 9\u0026ndash;14 indicate moderate hopelessness, and 15\u0026ndash;28 indicate severe hopelessness (Beck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e). The scale consists of five subscales: (1) \u003cem\u003eHopelessness in goal attainment\u003c/em\u003e (6 items), (2) \u003cem\u003eLack of confidence in the future\u003c/em\u003e (6 items), (3) \u003cem\u003ePessimism\u003c/em\u003e (5 items), (4) \u003cem\u003eHopelessness about the future\u003c/em\u003e (3 items), and (5) \u003cem\u003eNegative expectations\u003c/em\u003e (3 items). The reliability of the BHS has been reported as α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.70 in the original study (Mystakidou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) and α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.71 in Iran (Goudarzi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The convergent validity of the BHS, assessed through its correlation with the Beck Depression Inventory, was r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.70. In the present study, the internal consistency reliability coefficient was α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.77.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdult Attachment Scale (Collins \u0026amp; Read, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). This standardized questionnaire assesses adult attachment styles and consists of 18 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (\u0026ldquo;not at all characteristic of me\u0026rdquo;) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;very characteristic of me\u0026rdquo;). It includes three subscales: \u003cem\u003esecure attachment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eavoidant attachment\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eanxious/ambivalent attachment\u003c/em\u003e, each comprising six items. The mean score of each subscale indicates the degree of that attachment style(Collins \u0026amp; Read, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). Collins and Read (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e) reported Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients above 0.80 for all three subscales, suggesting good reliability. In Iran, (Pakdaman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) reported satisfactory test\u0026ndash;retest reliability for the Persian version. Similarly, Kamijani (2009) reported Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients of 0.81, 0.78, and 0.85 for the secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent subscales, respectively. In the present study, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients for avoidant and anxious/ambivalent attachment styles were 0.79 and 0.68, respectively, indicating acceptable psychometric properties in the Iranian context.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI). The CFI was developed by Dennis and Vander Wal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) to assess an individual\u0026rsquo;s ability to adapt cognitive processing strategies in response to challenging or changing environmental demands. The inventory consists of 20 items (or 12 items in the short version) rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (\u0026ldquo;strongly disagree\u0026rdquo;) to 7 (\u0026ldquo;strongly agree\u0026rdquo;). It measures three primary aspects of cognitive flexibility: (a) \u003cem\u003ethe tendency to perceive difficult situations as controllable\u003c/em\u003e, (b) \u003cem\u003ethe ability to consider multiple alternative explanations for human behavior and life events\u003c/em\u003e, and (c) \u003cem\u003ethe ability to generate multiple alternative solutions to difficult situations\u003c/em\u003e. The CFI is used in both clinical and non-clinical settings to evaluate progress in developing flexible thinking during cognitive\u0026ndash;behavioral therapy(Dennis \u0026amp; Vander Wal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Dennis and Vander Wal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) reported strong convergent, concurrent, and construct validity for the inventory. In Iran, (Esmail Soltani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) reported test\u0026ndash;retest reliability coefficients of 0.71 for the total scale and 0.55, 0.71, and 0.57 for the subscales of \u003cem\u003eperceived controllability\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eperception of alternatives\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eperception of behavioral justification\u003c/em\u003e, respectively. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients were 0.92 for the total scale and 0.87, 0.89, and 0.85 for the three subscales. In the present study, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients were 0.81 for the total scale and 0.78, 0.81, and 0.75 for the respective subscales, confirming acceptable internal consistency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, a total of 250 high school students participated, including 130 girls (52%) and 120 boys (48%), to ensure appropriate demographic representation. In terms of grade level, 80 students were in 10th grade (32%), 90 students in 11th grade (36%), and 80 students in 12th grade (32%). This balanced distribution by gender and grade allowed for a comprehensive examination of the relationships among the study variables within a representative adolescent population. Descriptive statistics of the study variables are presented in Table 1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Study Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandard Deviation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkewness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKurtosis\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSuicide Thoughts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHopelessness in Goal Attainment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLack of Confidence in the Future\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePessimism\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHopelessness about the Future\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNegative Expectations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvoidant Attachment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnxious/Ambivalent Attachment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Cognitive Flexibility\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Insecure Attachment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Hopelessness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1 shows the means and standard deviations of the study variables. The subsequent columns report the skewness and kurtosis of the variables to assess the normality of the data. As observed, the skewness and kurtosis indices of the study variables range between -2 and +2, indicating that the distributions of the variables are approximately normal and suitable for structural equation modeling (SEM). Prior to data analysis, the assumptions of SEM were examined. Accordingly, the normality of the variables was assessed using the Kolmogorov\u0026ndash;Smirnov test, and the results indicated that the distributions of the study variables were normal (p \u0026gt; 0.05). The SEM analysis was conducted based on the sample correlation matrix, which is presented in Table 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2. Correlation Coefficients of the Study Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"751\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSuicide Thoughts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.699**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.744**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.698**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.696**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.674**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.685**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.719**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.530**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.780**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.811**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHopelessness in goal attainment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.699**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.698**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.701**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.759**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.684**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.712**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.713**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.662**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.791**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.900**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLack of confidence in the future\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.744**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.698**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.684**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.687**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.664**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.640**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.705**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.607**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.746**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.880**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePessimism\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.698**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.701**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.684**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.741**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.637**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.658**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.659**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.578**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.732**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.867**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHopelessness about the future\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.696**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.759**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.687**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.741**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.664**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.667**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.687**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.575**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.752**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.868**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNegative expectations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.674**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.684**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.664**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.637**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.664**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.657**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.652**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.579**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.727**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.812**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvoidant attachment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.685**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.712**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.640**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.658**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.667**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.657**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.620**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.534**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.904**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.767**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnxious/ambivalent attachment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.719**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.713**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.705**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.659**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.687**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.652**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.620**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.590**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.896**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.789**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Cognitive Flexibility\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.530**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.662**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.607**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.578**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.575**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.579**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.534**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.590**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.624**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.697**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Insecure attachment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.780**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.791**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.746**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.732**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.752**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.727**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.904**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.896**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.624**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.864**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal hopelessness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.811**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.900**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.880**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.867**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.868**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.812**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.767**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.789**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.697**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.864**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e**P\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of Table 2 indicate that there are significant correlations among all the study variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo examine the assumption of no autocorrelation in the residuals of the research model, the Durbin\u0026ndash;Watson statistic was used. The obtained value was 1.959, which falls within the acceptable range of 1.5 to 2.5; therefore, the assumption of no autocorrelation in the data was confirmed.\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003eFurthermore, to test the assumption of multicollinearity among the exogenous variables, the Tolerance and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) indices were employed. The results indicated that this assumption was satisfied, as the tolerance values for all variables were close to 1, and the VIF values for the variables were below the critical threshold of 2.\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003eTable 3 presents the fit indices of the research model.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3. Fit Indices of the Research Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndex\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePCLOSE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRMSEA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTLI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRFI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIFI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNFI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCFI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;/df\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccepted Values\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCalculated Values\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.614\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.971\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.994\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.981\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.994\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.462\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of Table 3 indicate that, based on the criteria proposed by Hu and Bentler (1999), the model demonstrates a good fit. The standardized path coefficients of the conceptual model are presented in Figure 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4 presents the direct effects among the study variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4. Standardized and Unstandardized Coefficients of the Study Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"662\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePath\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEstimate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStandardized Estimate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS.E.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eC.R.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHopelessness \u0026lt;--- CognitiveFlexibility\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.220\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHopelessness \u0026lt;--- insecureattachments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvoidantattachment \u0026lt;--- insecureattachments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.700\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSuicideThoughts \u0026lt;--- insecureattachments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.330\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.667\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSuicideThoughts \u0026lt;--- CognitiveFlexibility\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNegativeexpectations \u0026lt;--- Hopelessness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.750\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.667\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHopelessnessaboutthefuture \u0026lt;--- Hopelessness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.900\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePessimism \u0026lt;--- Hopelessness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.065\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.385\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLackofconfidenceinthefuture \u0026lt;--- Hopelessness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.075\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHopelessnessingoalattainment \u0026lt;--- Hopelessness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.750\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnxiousambivalentattachment \u0026lt;--- insecureattachments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.800\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.545\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 318px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSuicideThoughts \u0026lt;--- Hopelessness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.850\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.180\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.722\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4 indicates that cognitive flexibility has a significant negative effect on hopelessness and suicidal thoughts, whereas insecure attachment shows a significant positive effect on these variables. Moreover, hopelessness plays a notable mediating role in predicting suicidal thoughts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSubsequently, to test the significance of the mediating role of hopelessness in the relationship between cognitive flexibility and suicidal thoughts, as well as between insecure attachment and suicidal thoughts, a bootstrap method with 2000 resamples was employed.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5. Bootstrap Results of the Indirect Effects in the Research Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndirect Path\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndirect Effect (Estimate)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLower Bound\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUpper Bound\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSignificance Level\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInsecure Attachments \u0026rarr; Hopelessness \u0026rarr; Suicide Thoughts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.150\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCognitive Flexibility \u0026rarr; Hopelessness \u0026rarr; Suicide Thoughts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results in Table 5 indicate that the examined indirect paths through hopelessness in predicting suicidal thoughts are significant. Specifically, insecure attachment has a significant positive indirect effect (0.120) on suicidal thoughts through increasing hopelessness. Conversely, cognitive flexibility exhibits a significant negative indirect effect (-0.015) on suicidal thoughts through reducing hopelessness.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion and Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to develop a model of suicidal ideation in high school students based on insecure attachment styles and cognitive flexibility, with hopelessness as a mediating factor. Findings showed that insecure attachment styles are directly associated with suicidal ideation (\u0026beta;=0.40, p\u0026lt;0.01), consistent with studies by scientists (Lutzman \u0026amp; Sommerfeld, 2024; Maciel et al.; Sadri Damirchi, Noroozi Homayoon, \u0026amp; Hatami Nejad, 2025; Sarubbi et al., 2024). Insecure attachment styles, including avoidant and anxious/ambivalent patterns, disrupt emotional regulation and interpersonal trust, as outlined by Bowlby\u0026rsquo;s attachment theory (1969). Avoidant attachment leads to emotional distancing and social isolation, increasing vulnerability to suicidal thoughts. Anxious/ambivalent attachment fosters fear of rejection, amplifying negative self-perceptions. These styles, rooted in early caregiver interactions, create a negative internal working model, heightening emotional distress. In adolescents, developmental pressures exacerbate these effects, as peer relationships and identity formation are critical. Joiner\u0026rsquo;s interpersonal theory (2005) highlights how social disconnection, a hallmark of insecure attachment, contributes to suicidal ideation. The lack of secure relationships reduces social support, intensifying feelings of burdensomeness. Neurobiologically, insecure attachment may dysregulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, increasing stress responses and emotional vulnerability. In high school students, academic and social pressures further amplify these effects, making insecure attachment a significant risk factor. Interventions focusing on fostering secure attachment through therapeutic relationships can mitigate these risks. School-based programs promoting trust and social connection are essential for adolescents with insecure attachment styles. These findings suggest that addressing relational vulnerabilities is a critical step in preventing suicidal ideation, particularly when considering how cognitive processes influence these outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLow cognitive flexibility was directly associated with suicidal ideation (\u0026beta;=0.35, p\u0026lt;0.01), aligning with scientists (Park \u0026amp; Ammerman, 2023; Reid et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2025). \u0026nbsp;Cognitive flexibility, encompassing perceived controllability, alternative explanations, and solution generation, is critical for adaptive coping. Low cognitive flexibility results in rigid thinking, limiting the ability to reframe negative experiences. Beck\u0026rsquo;s cognitive model (1979) suggests that such rigidity fosters cognitive distortions, increasing suicidal ideation. Adolescents with low cognitive flexibility struggle to adapt to social and academic challenges, heightening distress. The inability to perceive situations as controllable or to generate alternative solutions reinforces feelings of entrapment. Neurocognitive studies indicate that low cognitive flexibility is linked to reduced prefrontal cortex activity, impairing problem-solving and emotional regulation. In adolescents, developmental changes in cognitive processing make flexibility crucial for navigating stressors. The lack of flexible thinking exacerbates negative rumination, a precursor to suicidal thoughts. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can enhance cognitive flexibility by teaching adaptive strategies. School-based interventions promoting problem-solving skills and flexible thinking can reduce suicidal ideation in high-risk adolescents. These results emphasize the need to address cognitive rigidity, which may interact with negative emotional states like hopelessness to amplify suicidal thoughts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHopelessness mediated the relationship between insecure attachment styles, cognitive flexibility, and suicidal ideation (\u0026beta;=0.30, p\u0026lt;0.01), consistent with scientists (Helvacı \u0026Ccedil;elik et al., 2025; Hosseinzadeh Oskouei et al., 2025; Villacura-Herrera et al., 2025). Hopelessness, characterized by pessimism and negative future expectations, amplifies the effects of insecure attachment and low cognitive flexibility. Insecure attachment fosters hopelessness by creating a negative worldview and reducing social support. Low cognitive flexibility exacerbates hopelessness by limiting adaptive coping strategies. Beck\u0026rsquo;s model (1979) posits that hopelessness bridges cognitive vulnerabilities and suicidal ideation. In adolescents, hopelessness is particularly detrimental due to their sensitivity to future-oriented thinking. The BHS subscales, such as pessimism and lack of confidence, reflect cognitive patterns that reinforce suicidal thoughts. Neurobiologically, hopelessness is linked to dysregulated serotonin levels, increasing emotional distress. In high school students, academic failures and peer rejection can intensify hopelessness, amplifying the effects of insecure attachment and low cognitive flexibility. Interventions targeting hopelessness, such as CBT and mindfulness-based therapies, can disrupt this mediating pathway. School-based programs fostering hope and resilience are critical for reducing suicidal ideation. These findings highlight the pivotal role of hopelessness as a mediator in the pathway to suicidal thoughts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study faced several limitations. First, cluster random sampling limited to District 1 of Ardabil may restrict generalizability to other regions or populations. Second, focusing on 15\u0026ndash;18-year-olds limited the exploration of broader age-related differences, potentially overlooking variations in younger or older adolescents. Third, self-report measures, such as the BSSI and BHS, may be influenced by biases like social desirability or denial, particularly given the sensitive nature of suicidal ideation. Fourth, the lack of consideration for cultural and socioeconomic factors may have overlooked contextual influences on the study variables. Fifth, the cross-sectional design prevented examination of long-term changes in suicidal ideation and its predictors. Future studies should employ broader random sampling across diverse regions to enhance generalizability. Including varied age groups and genders can clarify developmental and gender-specific differences. Mixed-methods approaches, incorporating qualitative interviews, can provide deeper insights into adolescents\u0026rsquo; experiences. Exploring cultural and socioeconomic factors is essential to understand contextual influences. Longitudinal designs are recommended to assess changes over time and evaluate intervention efficacy. Implementing school-based CBT and mindfulness programs to enhance cognitive flexibility and reduce hopelessness is recommended. Establishing safe, non-judgmental counseling centers for adolescents is crucial for early intervention. Educating parents and teachers through workshops on recognizing suicidal ideation and fostering secure attachment can aid early identification. Group-based programs to enhance social skills and reduce isolation are advised to promote resilience. Policy efforts should integrate mental health services into education systems, collaborate with local organizations to provide support, and establish crisis hotlines for immediate access to counseling, ensuring comprehensive prevention strategies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely express our gratitude to all the participating students for their support of this research project.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research data is not publicly available due to ethical considerations and the confidentiality of participants\u0026apos; information. For further coordination, please contact the first author, Mr. Mohammadreza Noroozi Homayoon.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Iran. The ethics approval reference number is IR.UMA.REC.1404.067. All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. Prior to participation, written informed consent was obtained from all students and their legal guardians after they were fully informed about the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives, procedures, confidentiality, and their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization: ESD, DL, MNH; Methodology: MNN; Data Collection: MNH; Data Analysis: MNH; Supervision: ESD \u0026amp; DL; Project Administration: ESD \u0026amp; DL; Original Draft Writing: MNH, Review and Editing: ESD, DL, MNH.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmini, D., Almasi, M., \u0026amp; Noroozi Homayoon, M. (2022). 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The Associations Between Cognitive Flexibility and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. \u003cem\u003eCognitive Therapy and Research\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-025-10591-4 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Suicidal Ideation, Insecure Attachment Styles, Cognitive Flexibility, Hopelessness, High School Students","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8202215/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8202215/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective: \u003c/strong\u003eThis study aimed to develop a model of suicidal ideation in high school students based on insecure attachment styles and cognitive flexibility, with hopelessness as a mediating factor.\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\nMaterials and Methods: \u003c/strong\u003eThe study employed a descriptive-correlational design using structural equation modeling (SEM) with a fundamental research approach. The population consisted of all second-cycle high school students in Ardabil during the 1403-1404 academic year\u003cstrong\u003e. \u003c/strong\u003eA sample of 250 students (130 girls and 120 boys) was selected using cluster random sampling. Data were collected using the Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideations (BSSI), Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), Adult Attachment Scale, and Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI). Data were analyzed using SPSS-27 and AMOS-24.\u003cbr\u003e\n \u003cstrong\u003eFindings: \u003c/strong\u003eInsecure attachment styles and low cognitive flexibility were directly and indirectly (through hopelessness) positively associated with suicidal ideation. Hopelessness played a significant mediating role in these relationships.\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\nDiscussion and Conclusion: \u003c/strong\u003eThe findings highlight the importance of addressing insecure attachment styles, enhancing cognitive flexibility, and reducing hopelessness in interventions aimed at preventing suicidal ideation. School-based programs focusing on fostering secure attachment and cognitive flexibility can be effective in mitigating suicidal thoughts.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Developing a Model of Suicidal Ideation Based on Insecure Attachment Styles and Cognitive Flexibility: The Mediating Role of Hopelessness","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-12 10:56:58","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8202215/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"271b7e24-809b-4639-a707-e5f305aa260e","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":59370776,"name":"Health sciences/Health care"},{"id":59370777,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":59370778,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-16T10:12:11+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-12 10:56:58","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8202215","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8202215","identity":"rs-8202215","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}