Building Climate Resilience: A Review of the Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Pastoralist and Farming Communities in Northern Ghana

Building Climate Resilience: A Review of the Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Pastoralist and Farming Communities in Northern Ghana | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Building Climate Resilience: A Review of the Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Pastoralist and Farming Communities in Northern Ghana Abdul-Wahab Tahiru, Silas Uwumborge Takal, Samuel Jerry Cobbina, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7115204/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 19 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Discover Sustainability → Version 1 posted 16 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Northern Ghana is increasingly vulnerable to the multifaceted impacts of climate change, including rising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, and prolonged droughts. These climatic stressors significantly disrupt the livelihoods of farming and pastoralist communities, exacerbating existing challenges such as land degradation, dwindling natural resources, and natural resource-based conflicts. This study presents a systematic review of both observed and projected climate change impacts in Northern Ghana, critically assessing current adaptation strategies. Following the PRISMA methodology, the review involved the identification, screening, and analysis of relevant literature sourced from Web of Science and ProQuest databases. Eligible studies were rigorously evaluated to extract data on adaptation practices, community responses, and policy interventions. Key findings highlight the prevalence and effectiveness of strategies such as rainwater harvesting, livelihood diversification, and the application of indigenous knowledge systems in enhancing community resilience. However, the review also identifies critical gaps in resource access, institutional support, and knowledge integration that hinder broader impact. Recommendations include scaling up water security infrastructure, improving access to climate-smart financing mechanisms, and promoting hybrid knowledge systems that integrate traditional ecological knowledge with modern technologies. Agriculture Adaptation Strategies Climate change PRISMA Statement Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Northern Ghana, comprising the Upper East, Upper West, and the Northern Regions is increasingly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change. Characterized by a semi-arid climate and a heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture, this region faces compounding challenges stemming from rising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, and ongoing land degradation (Owusu & Waylen, 2013). Over the past several decades, northern Ghana has experienced a significant rise in average temperatures. Climate projections suggest that, under high-emission scenarios, temperatures in this area could increase by up to 2.5°C by 2080 (Sylla et al., 2016; Tahiru et al., 2024 ). This warming trend has contributed to increased evapotranspiration, reducing soil moisture and placing greater stress on water resources critical for both farming and livestock rearing (Bawakyillenuo et al., 2016 ). Rainfall patterns have also become markedly unpredictable. Traditionally, the region experiences a unimodal rainy season from May to September. However, recent years have seen increasing variability in both the onset and quantity of rainfall, undermining the reliability of seasonal weather patterns (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2012 ; Tahiru et al., 2023 ; Tahiru et al., 2024 ). This inconsistency disrupts agricultural planning, with many farmers facing difficulties in aligning planting and harvesting cycles with the altered precipitation regime. Land degradation, particularly desertification, poses an additional existential threat. Approximately 35% of Ghana's total land area is at risk of desertification, with the northern savannah zones being the most affected (EPA Ghana, 2020 ). The drivers of land degradation include both climatic and anthropogenic factors such as deforestation, overgrazing, bush burning, and unsustainable farming practices leading to the loss of fertile land and biodiversity. This not only diminishes agricultural output but also threatens food security and the socio-economic stability of farming and pastoralist communities. The socio-economic ramifications of these climatic stresses are far-reaching. Agriculture, which employs over 60% of the population in Northern Ghana, is particularly sensitive to climate variability (GSS, 2021). Declining crop yields, livestock morbidity, and increasing water scarcity have led to food insecurity, reduced household incomes, and migration. Moreover, competition over dwindling natural resources especially water and arable land has intensified conflicts between farmers and herders, exacerbating regional instability (Nyantakyi-Frimpong & Bezner Kerr, 2015). 1.1 Objectives The overarching aim of this study is to explore and address the multifaceted impacts of climate change on the agro-pastoral communities of Northern Ghana. Given the region's heightened vulnerability due to its climatic conditions and socio-economic dynamics, the study seeks to achieve the following specific objectives: Assess Climate Impacts on Farming and Pastoralist Communities. Evaluate Current Adaptation Strategies Recommend Scalable Solutions : 2. Methodology Here is the methodology that was utilized to gather the articles about the climate change adaptation initiatives that farmers in Ghana have used. Following the PRISMA technique, which includes processes such as finding relevant studies, screening them to see whether they are eligible, and lastly abstracting and interpreting the data, this systematic review was conducted. For this review, the databases that were searched were ProQuest and Web of Science. 2.1. Prisma The standards for this evaluation were established by the PRISMA Statement, a popular instrument in environmental management. According to Sierra-Correa and Cantera Kintz (2015), PRISMA has three primary advantages: (1) It creates a structure for reviewing a lot of scientific literature in a certain amount of time; (2) It helps to develop clear research questions that make systematic investigation easier; and (3) It makes it very clear which studies can be included and which ones cannot. We may undertake extensive searches for ideas relating to how Ghanaian farmers are reducing the impact of climate change and utilize PRISMA to organize data for use in future evaluations of environmental management. This approach allows us to monitor the ways in which Ghanaian farmers are coping with the evolving climate. 2.2. Resources This study made extensive use of the databases ProQuest and Web of Science. Web of Science indexes over 33,000 articles covering a wide range of subjects, including but not limited to the social sciences, environmental studies, development planning, and other interdisciplinary fields. Through ProQuest Central, a well-known full-text multidisciplinary resource, you can access 47 databases from ProQuest, covering 175 topic categories and a diverse range of content types. From the natural and physical sciences to agriculture and the social sciences, it covers a lot of ground. Thanks to its cutting-edge architecture, ProQuest Central enables several database access and use scenarios, both independently and in tandem. 2.3. Eligibility and exclusion criteria In order to determine what could and could not be included, we employed specified criteria. Review articles, books, chapters, series, and conference proceedings were not included in the literature review; it only encompassed publications that published empirical research. Additionally, we only evaluated articles written in English to avoid any issues with translation or interpretation. Research and related publications will be tracked throughout a 15-year period from 2010 to 2025. The review limited its reach to social science databases, excluding publications from the Science Citation Index Expanded. According to Table 1 , the research could only include papers that dealt with climate change, adaptation, and practices in Ghana. 2.4. Systematic review process The systematic review approach, which consists of four stages, was initiated in May 2024. As a first step, we retrieved key terms that might be applied to further searches. We gathered the terms related to climate change, adaptation, and the agricultural sector from a thesaurus and previous studies, as shown in Table 2 . Four duplicate articles were removed as a consequence of a thorough review. The screening technique rejected 259 out of 336 articles (Fig. 1 ) because they did not match the preset eligibility standards. At last, we took the time to read each of the 75 items. Ultimately, sixty articles were disregarded due to the following reasons: they did not concern inland agricultural communities, did not contain any empirical data, did not address adaptation measures, or were not about Ghana. For this review, we settled on fifteen separate investigations. The publications' names, aims, methods, study sites, publication years, and writers are detailed in Table 3 . Table 1 The exclusion and inclusion standards. Criterion Eligibility Exclusion Literature type Journal (research/original articles) Journals (reviews), chapters in book, conference proceedings and book series, Language English Non-English Timeline indexes 2010 – 2025 < 2010 Indexes Social Science Citation index, Art and Humanities Index, Science Citation Indexed Expanded Countries Ghana N/A Table 2 The exploring strings used for the process in the systematic review. Databases Keywords used ProQuest TITLE-ABS-KEY (("Climate* change*" OR "Climate* risk* OR " climate* AND variability " OR " climate* AND extreme* " OR " climate AND variability* OR "climate* uncertain*" OR "global warming*" OR "temperature risk" OR "sea level risk" AND ("Adapt* ability" OR "adapt* strategy*" OR "adapt* capacity*" OR "adapt* capability*" OR "adapt* strength*" OR "adapt* potential*" OR "adopt* ability*" OR "adopt* capacity*" OR "adopt* capability*" OR "Adopt* potential*" OR adopt* AND strategy*)) AND (farmer*) Web of Science TS = (("Climate-change*" OR "Climate-risk*" OR "climate-variability*" OR "climate- extreme*" OR "climate- variability*" OR "climate-uncertainty*" OR "global-warming*" OR "temperature-risk*" OR "sea-level- risk*") AND ("Adaptation ability*" OR "adaptation-strategy*" OR "adaptation- capacity*" OR "adaptation- capability*" OR "adaptation- strength*" OR "adaptation -potential*" OR "adoption- ability*" OR "adoption-capacity*" OR "adoption- capability*" OR "Adoption- potential*" OR "adoption -strategy*") AND (farmer*) 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Climate Change Impacts on Communities The ramifications of climate change in Northern Ghana are multifaceted, profoundly affecting both farming and pastoralist communities. 3.1.1 Farming Communities Farmers in Northern Ghana are increasingly grappling with declining crop yields, largely attributable to erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and rising temperatures. Staple crops such as maize, millet, and sorghum have recorded yield reductions ranging from 15–30% in recent years, significantly undermining food security in the region (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2012 ; FAO, 2021 ). The unreliability of rainfall disrupts planting and harvesting schedules, resulting in failed crops or suboptimal yields. Additionally, decreased soil moisture driven by higher evapotranspiration rates accelerates soil degradation and nutrient loss. These biophysical stressors not only reduce soil fertility but also intensify land degradation processes such as crusting, erosion, and desertification (Bawakyillenuo et al., 2016 ). Without timely and adequate soil management interventions, these impacts are projected to worsen with future climatic changes. The rising temperatures have also contributed to a surge in pest and disease outbreaks. One particularly devastating example is the increased prevalence of the fall armyworm ( Spodoptera frugiperda ), which has caused extensive damage to maize and other cereals across the region (Goergen et al., 2016 ). These pests thrive under warm and dry conditions, expanding their geographical range and life cycles due to the changing climate. Farmers frequently report severe infestations, leading to total crop losses in some cases. Compounding these issues are systemic challenges such as limited access to effective pest control measures, including biological and chemical treatments, and inadequate agricultural extension services. Many smallholder farmers lack timely information on pest outbreaks or guidance on integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, leaving them ill-equipped to address these emerging threats (Issahaku & Abdulai, 2020). 3.1.2 Pastoralist Communities Pastoralist communities in Northern Ghana face acute and intensifying challenges due to the effects of climate change, particularly in the form of water scarcity and the degradation of grazing lands. It is estimated that approximately 60% of boreholes in some districts dry up annually, severely constraining access to water for both livestock and human populations (GSS, 2021; Yaro et al., 2016). These shortages become especially critical during the dry season, when alternative water sources are virtually non-existent. Simultaneously, the availability of natural pastures is rapidly declining due to desertification, bush fires, land degradation, and agricultural encroachment. The expansion of croplands into traditional grazing corridors, combined with the loss of vegetative cover, has significantly reduced the spatial and nutritional quality of rangelands (EPA Ghana, 2020 ). These ecological stressors have intensified competition over remaining natural resources, often resulting in violent conflicts between pastoralists and sedentary farming communities. Such resource-based disputes not only disrupt economic activity but also undermine local peace and regional stability (Nyantakyi-Frimpong & Bezner Kerr, 2015). In addition, livestock mortality rates have risen markedly in recent years due to heat stress, inadequate pasture, and increased disease prevalence. Cattle, goats, and sheep which are cornerstones of the pastoral economy are now more vulnerable to climate-sensitive diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, and parasitic infestations (ILRI, 2020 ). The combination of poor nutrition and limited veterinary services has led to decreased milk yields, lower calving rates, and significant losses in meat production, ultimately threatening food security and income for pastoral households. The International Livestock Research Institute (2020) notes that these dynamics severely undermine the economic sustainability of pastoralism across the West African Sahel, with Northern Ghana facing some of the most acute vulnerabilities. Climate change has thus amplified pre-existing pressures within the pastoral system, deepening cycles of poverty, displacement, and vulnerability. These intertwined challenges: environmental degradation, resource scarcity, conflict, and socio-economic marginalization underscore the urgent need for comprehensive, multi-stakeholder strategies to enhance resilience. Recommended measures include the development of climate-resilient water infrastructure, land-use planning that safeguards transhumance corridors, improved veterinary and extension services, and inclusive governance mechanisms to mediate farmer-herder conflicts. Such holistic interventions are vital to sustaining pastoral livelihoods and promoting long-term socio-ecological stability in Northern Ghana. 3.2 Adaptation Strategies. In response to the escalating challenges posed by climate change, communities in Northern Ghana have adopted various adaptation strategies to safeguard their livelihoods (Takal et al., 2025 ). These strategies encompass water harvesting techniques, diversification of livelihoods, and the integration of indigenous knowledge systems. Each approach offers unique benefits and faces distinct challenges, influencing their overall effectiveness and scalability. Table 3 Characteristics of the papers used for the review. Title Objective Methodology Study location Year Author Climate and Food Insecurity Risks: Identifying Exposure and Vulnerabilities in the Post-Food Production System of Northern Ghana comprehensively analyze how climate change and weather variabilities affect post-production activities in n used questionnaires, which likely gather quantitative and qualitative information Northern Ghana 2023 Balikisu Osman Climate change and variability awareness and livelihood adaptive strategies among smallholder farmers in semi-arid northern Ghana examined smallholder farmers' observation of climate change and variability mixed methodological approach semi-arid northern Ghana 2021 Felix Asante, Lawrence Guodaar, Saasi Arimiyaw Adapting to climate change: Perspectives from smallholder farmers in North-western Ghana examine how smallholder farmers in north-western Ghana have been adapting to climate change qualitative research design north-western Ghana 2023 Dramani J.M. File, Francis Xavier Jarawura, Emmanuel Kanchebe Derbile Indigenous adaptation to climate change risks in northern Ghana It examined these strategies in response to climate change risks mixed-methods approach northern Ghana 2021 Lawrence Guodaar, Douglas K. Bardsley, Jungho Suh Vulnerabilities of Smallholder Farmers' Livelihoods and Adaptations to Climate Change and Variability in Semi-Arid Northwestern Ghana: Observations and Perspectives To analyze the collected data and assess vulnerability mixed-methods approach Nandom District 2024 Ishmael Lente, William K. Heve, Maxwell Yeboah Owusu-Twum The impact of climate variability on agricultural food crop production and output: the case of some selected communities in Offinso South District of Ghana To investigate the influence of climate change variables on food crop production employed a descriptive cross-sectional survey Offinso South District 2022 Bonsu Philip Osei, Mensah Ronald Osei, Frimpong Agyemang Factors Influencing the Adoption of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies by Smallholder Farmers in East Mamprusi District of Northern Region, Ghana To identify the primary adaptation strategies adopted by farmers mixed-methods approach East Mamprusi District 2016 F. K. Obeng, R. A. Awasina, S. N. Ayambila Climate change extremes and barriers to successful adaptation outcomes: Disentangling a paradox in the semi-arid savanna zone of northern Ghana. investigate the connections between climate change and agricultural adaptation strategies among smallholder farmers qualitative approach northern Ghana 2020 Frederick Dapilah, Jonas Østergaard Nielsen Evidence of Climate Change Coping and Adaptation Practices by Smallholder Farmers in Northern Ghana to identify the coping practices employed by smallholder farmers in northeast Ghana mixed-methods approach northeast Ghana 2021 Philip Antwi-Agyei, Hanson Nyantakyi-Frimpong Climate Change Adaptation Strategies and Constraints in Northern Ghana: Evidence of Farmers in Sissala West District to determine the factors influencing farmers’ adaptation to climate change in the Sissala West District, logistic regression model Sissala West District 2018 Clifford James Fagariba, Shaoxian Song, Serge Kevin Gildas Soule Baoro The Implications of Climate Change on Food Security and Rural Livelihoods: Experiences from Northern Ghana to examine the implications of climate change on food security and rural livelihoods specifically in northern Ghana participant observation northern Ghana 2012 Mamudu Abunga Akudugu, Saa Dittoh, Edward Salifu Mahama Climate Change and Rural Female Farmers in Ghana: A Study of the Wenchi Municipality to assess the level of knowledge and awareness of climate change among rural female farmers in Wurompo In-depth interviews Wenchi Municipality 2021 Yarney L, Sakyi Ek, Achamwie Pk Modelling the determinants of adoption of multiple climate change coping and adaptation strategies. a micro analysis of smallholder farmers in northern ghana to model the determinants of adoption of multiple climate change coping and adaptation (CCCA) strategies by smallholder farmers in northern Ghana endogenous switch Poisson and generalized Poisson regression northern Ghana 2020 Shaibu Baanni Azumah Rainwater Harvesting - A Potential Safety Net for Water Security in Ghana to inform policy makers, stakeholders, and institutions responsible for water resources management extensive review of literature Northern Ghana 2019 Amankwah Emmanuel, Mensah Jackson Napoleon Community Based Initiatives and Strategies for Adapting to Annual Floods along The Black and White and Volta Rivers in the Central Gonja District of Northern Region, Ghana to investigate how communities along the Black and White Volta Rivers in the Central Gonja District of Northern Ghana adapt to climate change-induced floods simple random sampling Central Gonja District 2015 Judith A.K Bawa, Seidu Al-hassan, Wumbei Abukari 3.2.1 Water Harvesting and Irrigation Adaptation Strategies Water scarcity, intensified by erratic rainfall patterns and prolonged droughts has compelled farmers in Northern Ghana to adopt water harvesting techniques as a critical adaptation strategy. These measures are aimed at enhancing soil moisture retention, improving water use efficiency, and ensuring crop survival, particularly during periods of rainfall deficit. In-situ water harvesting techniques, such as contour bunds and Zai pits, have gained traction among smallholder farmers. These methods are designed to capture and retain rainwater directly in the soil, thereby reducing surface runoff, curbing soil erosion, and improving moisture availability for crops. Empirical studies show that such interventions can increase soil moisture retention by up to 59%, resulting in notable improvements in crop yield and land productivity (Nyamangara et al., 2013; Agyeman et al., 2021 ). Zai pits, for instance, have proven especially effective in degraded lands by concentrating water and nutrients around plant roots, facilitating soil regeneration. Beyond field-level practices, community-based water infrastructure, particularly the construction of small-scale dams—has emerged as a vital component in supporting dry-season irrigation. The Bongo District in the Upper East Region exemplifies this approach, hosting several micro-dams, including the Vea Dam, which have transformed dry-season agriculture in surrounding communities (GSS, 2021). These dams serve as reliable water sources for irrigation, livestock, and domestic use, enabling farmers to engage in multiple cropping cycles and mitigate the risks associated with seasonal rainfall variability. Despite their documented benefits, the widespread adoption and sustainability of water harvesting and small dam infrastructure face notable constraints. High upfront investment costs, particularly for earthworks and construction materials, often exceed the capacity of individual farmers. Additionally, limited technical expertise in the design, implementation, and maintenance of water harvesting systems impedes their scalability (Abdul-Ganiyu et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, the maintenance of small dams requires sustained community mobilization and institutional support, both of which are frequently undermined by financial constraints, governance challenges, and lack of ownership frameworks. To enhance the impact of these adaptation strategies, there is a need for targeted policy interventions, including public-private investment partnerships, capacity-building for local water user associations, and the promotion of indigenous water management knowledge. Scaling up these efforts will require coordinated support from governmental agencies, NGOs, and research institutions to ensure technical assistance, financial inclusion, and sustainable governance mechanisms 3.2.2 Livelihood Diversification as a Climate Adaptation Strategy To mitigate the vulnerabilities associated with climate-dependent agriculture, rural communities in Northern Ghana have increasingly turned to livelihood diversification as a key adaptation strategy. By integrating practices that are less sensitive to climatic fluctuations, households aim to reduce their dependence on rain-fed farming and improve their socio-economic resilience. One prominent diversification strategy is agroforestry (Takal et al., 2025 ), particularly the cultivation of drought-tolerant and economically valuable tree species such as shea ( Vitellaria paradoxa ) and cashew ( Anacardium occidentale ). These trees contribute to household income through the sale of products like shea butter and cashew nuts, which are in high demand in both local and international markets. Beyond their economic value, these trees provide significant ecological benefits: they stabilize soils, reduce erosion, enhance water retention, and regulate microclimates, thereby supporting broader land restoration and climate adaptation efforts (Garrity et al., 2010 ; Agyeman et al., 2022 ). In addition to agroforestry, small livestock rearing has become an increasingly popular alternative livelihood, especially among women and youth. The rearing of poultry, goats, and particularly rabbits has gained traction due to their relatively low input requirements in terms of water, feed, and housing. Rabbit farming, for instance, has shown strong potential for improving household nutrition and income, as rabbits reproduce quickly and their meat is a high-protein, culturally accepted food source (Teye et al., 2018; FAO, 2020 ). Such small-scale animal husbandry systems are well-suited to arid environments and offer a buffer during periods of agricultural shortfall. Despite the promise of these alternative livelihoods, several structural barriers hinder their widespread adoption and long-term sustainability. Chief among these are limited access to microfinance, which restricts the ability of farmers to invest in inputs, housing, and veterinary care, and inadequate training and extension services, which limits knowledge of best practices in animal husbandry and agroforestry techniques (Yaro et al., 2016). Moreover, weak market linkages and limited value addition further constrain the profitability of diversified activities. Addressing these barriers requires targeted policy and institutional support, including the expansion of rural credit facilities, capacity-building programs tailored to climate-resilient livelihoods, and investments in value chains to enhance market access. By enabling community members to adopt and sustain diversified livelihood strategies, these interventions can significantly enhance adaptive capacity and reduce poverty in climate-vulnerable areas of Northern Ghana. 3.2.3 Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Hybrid Climate Adaptation Approaches Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) have long shaped agricultural and environmental management practices in Northern Ghana, providing time-tested frameworks for coping with climatic variability. Local farmers often rely on environmental cues, such as the migration patterns of birds, flowering of specific trees (e.g., Butyrospermum parkii ), and insect activity, to forecast rainfall and determine optimal planting periods (Codjoe et al., 2014 ; Nyadzi et al., 2021). These ethno-meteorological indicators form the basis of a culturally embedded climate knowledge system, transmitted orally across generations and refined through community experience. In addition to forecasting, traditional agronomic practices such as intercropping—particularly maize with legumes like cowpea or groundnut—have played a pivotal role in enhancing food security and environmental sustainability. These techniques improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, reduce pest incidence by disrupting pest life cycles, and buffer households against total crop failure during erratic seasons (Agyeman et al., 2022 ; Zakaria et al., 2019). However, the increasing unpredictability of climate patterns poses new challenges to the reliability of IKS. Disruptions in ecological signals caused by shifting rainfall regimes, higher temperatures, and biodiversity loss have diminished the accuracy of traditional forecasting methods (Adams et al., 2018 ). This has led to a critical need for the integration of indigenous and scientific climate knowledge into hybrid information systems that enhance decision-making at the farm level. Collaborative approaches involving local communities, meteorological services, and extension officers are essential for co-producing context-specific climate services. Projects such as Participatory Scenario Planning (PSP) in parts of West Africa have shown promise in bridging this gap, combining seasonal forecasts with local insights to create user-friendly advisory tools (Tall et al., 2014). Such efforts not only validate indigenous knowledge but also build trust and promote inclusive climate governance. 4. Policy, Community, and Research Pathways To effectively address the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change in Northern Ghana, a combination of policy interventions, community-led solutions, and robust research and monitoring mechanisms is essential. These strategies aim to enhance resilience, promote sustainable livelihoods, and ensure inclusive development for farming and pastoralist communities. 4.1 Policy Interventions 4.1.1 Addressing Water Scarcity through Rainwater Harvesting Infrastructure Water scarcity remains a significant and persistent challenge in Northern Ghana, largely driven by erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and increased evapotranspiration rates due to rising temperatures (Amisigo et al., 2015 ; Nyadzi et al., 2021). This growing water insecurity poses severe risks to both agricultural productivity and household well-being in the region’s predominantly rural communities. To mitigate these impacts, there is a pressing need for systematic investment in decentralized water harvesting infrastructure. The Water Resources Commission of Ghana, in collaboration with development partners such as WaterAid, World Vision, and UNICEF, should prioritize the scaling up of cost-effective and community-based water harvesting technologies. Specifically, sand dams, subsurface dams, and rooftop rainwater catchment systems have demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing water availability during dry periods. These systems offer multiple benefits: they are relatively low-cost, environmentally sustainable, and capable of storing water for both agricultural irrigation and domestic consumption (Keraita et al., 2020; WaterAid Ghana, 2022). The Ghana National Water Policy (GNWP) explicitly recognizes rainwater harvesting (RWH) as a viable climate adaptation measure. The policy advocates for its integration into building codes, rural development strategies, and community-level planning frameworks (Government of Ghana, 2007 ). However, implementation has been limited due to inadequate funding, low awareness, and technical capacity gaps at the district and community levels. To address these challenges, the government should implement targeted subsidies for household- and community-level RWH systems, while also investing in training programs to build local capacity for system maintenance. Additionally, the incorporation of rainwater harvesting into school infrastructure, health facilities, and agricultural cooperatives would significantly enhance water resilience in vulnerable areas. These interventions align with broader national and regional climate adaptation goals and should be prioritized in forthcoming climate-resilient development plans. 4.1.2 Facilitating Climate-Smart Financing for Adaptation Access to affordable and accessible financing mechanisms is essential for enabling smallholder farmers and pastoralists in Northern Ghana to adopt climate-resilient practices. Climate adaptation often requires upfront investment in improved technologies, diversified livelihoods, and sustainable land management practices resources that many rural households lack (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2018 ). Without targeted financial support, the adoption of interventions such as agroforestry, drip irrigation, drought-tolerant seed varieties, and small livestock rearing remains out of reach for many vulnerable households. To bridge this gap, the establishment of climate-smart credit facilities in partnership with commercial banks, microfinance institutions, and development partners is imperative. These facilities should provide low-interest, flexible loans that are tailored to the unique cash flow cycles of agricultural livelihoods. Additionally, repayment structures should reflect the seasonal nature of farming and pastoralism, allowing for grace periods and group lending models to reduce default risk (IFAD, 2020 ). One promising initiative in this regard is the “Ghana CARES Obaatan Pa” program, a post-COVID-19 economic revitalization effort that includes targeted support for agribusinesses through interest rate subsidies, guarantee schemes, and public-private partnerships (Ministry of Finance, 2021). By reducing the cost of borrowing, such programs encourage investment in sustainable agricultural practices, promote income diversification, and contribute to rural resilience in the face of climate shocks. Moreover, there is growing recognition of the need to integrate financial literacy and climate risk assessment into loan design to ensure that financing mechanisms are both accessible and effective. Bundling credit with technical assistance, particularly in climate-smart agriculture, increases the likelihood of successful outcomes (World Bank, 2021 ). This holistic approach not only empowers communities but also reduces the long-term vulnerability of rural economies to climate variability. 4.2 Community-Led Solutions 4.2.1 Integrating Indigenous Knowledge with Modern Climate Information Systems Local communities in Northern Ghana possess a rich repository of indigenous knowledge, particularly in areas such as weather forecasting, seasonal planning, and soil conservation. For generations, farmers and pastoralists have relied on environmental cues—such as the behavior of animals, flowering of specific tree species, wind direction, and cloud formations—to anticipate climatic conditions and make agricultural decisions (Gyampoh et al., 2009 ; Boafo et al., 2016 ). These traditional forecasting methods have historically supported adaptive land use practices and fostered resilience in the face of climatic uncertainty. However, the growing variability and unpredictability of climate patterns due to global warming have reduced the reliability of some traditional indicators (Adiku et al., 2020 ). This calls for the integration of indigenous forecasting with modern meteorological tools to create hybrid climate information systems that are not only scientifically robust but also socially and culturally relevant. One promising approach involves combining indigenous knowledge with ICT-based platforms, such as SMS weather alerts, community radio, and mobile advisory apps. For instance, the integration of local forecasting insights into SMS-based early warning systems can enhance the uptake of climate information among farmers, improve the timing of planting and harvesting, and support proactive risk management (Tall et al., 2014). These systems are particularly valuable in regions with low literacy rates, where traditional communication channels remain trusted and widely used. The co-production of knowledge where scientists, extension agents, and local communities collaborate to develop and validate forecasting tools, fostering mutual trust and improves the usability of climate services. When communities see their knowledge being valued and incorporated, they are more likely to engage with and act upon the information provided (Ofoegbu et al., 2016). This participatory approach not only enhances adaptive capacity but also strengthens social cohesion and knowledge sharing within and between communities. 4.2.2 Strengthening Community Dialogue to Address Farmer–Pastoralist Conflicts Climate-induced resource scarcity has significantly intensified conflicts between pastoralists and farmers in Northern Ghana, particularly over access to land, water points, and grazing corridors. As rainfall becomes more erratic and grazing lands degrade, pastoralists are compelled to move more frequently in search of fodder and water, often encroaching on farmlands. This overlap of land use has led to frequent disputes, sometimes escalating into violence, and disrupting community stability (Tonah, 2006; Bukari & Schareika, 2015 ). Addressing these tensions requires inclusive, community-based conflict resolution mechanisms. One proven approach is the establishment of structured dialogue platforms mediated by respected local authorities such as chiefs, religious leaders, women’s groups, and youth representatives. These forums provide a culturally grounded space for dialogue where both parties can negotiate land-use plans, seasonal mobility agreements, and rules for shared resource management (Abbass et al., 2018 ). Such local mechanisms often carry more legitimacy than top-down interventions and are better aligned with traditional governance structures. In addition to resolving disputes, these platforms can promote collaborative environmental stewardship. Joint efforts between farmers and pastoralists, such as the maintenance of buffer zones, rotational grazing schemes, and water-point rehabilitation, have proven effective in reducing pressure on natural resources (Yiridomoh et al., 2021). These community-led initiatives contribute to social cohesion, reduce the recurrence of conflict, and enhance the collective capacity to adapt to climate change. For long-term effectiveness, such dialogue platforms should be institutionalized and supported by local government and civil society organizations, ensuring continuity, neutrality, and capacity building. Integration of conflict resolution into broader land-use policy and climate adaptation planning is essential for ensuring sustainable and peaceful coexistence. 4.3 Research & Monitoring 4.3.1 Strengthening MERL Systems through Digital Tools and Local Integration Continuous monitoring and evaluation (M&E) are essential for assessing the performance and impact of climate adaptation strategies in Northern Ghana. Without systematic feedback loops, interventions risk becoming misaligned with evolving climatic realities and community needs. Robust MERL systems, that is, Monitoring, Evaluation, Reporting, and Learning—enable evidence-based policy formulation and adaptive management, which are vital in dynamic climate-vulnerable environments (UNDP, 2019). The increasing availability of digital technologies presents new opportunities to strengthen MERL systems at the local level. Mobile applications such as FarmFit, AgriTrack, and Sensenova have proven effective in facilitating real-time data collection on climate impacts, crop performance, and livelihood trends (CGAP, 2021 ). These tools enhance data accuracy, reduce the cost of field monitoring, and allow stakeholders from farmers to district assemblies to track key indicators related to resilience-building activities. Moreover, digital platforms can be configured to support feedback mechanisms, enabling communities to report challenges, share local insights, and co-create solutions. This participatory approach helps ensure that interventions remain context-sensitive and community-driven, which are key determinants of long-term sustainability (Wiggins & Keats, 2014). To maximize impact, MERL systems should be embedded within local governance frameworks and supported by capacity-building efforts for district-level planners, agricultural extension officers, and community-based organizations. By institutionalizing learning and accountability, local governments can adjust adaptation programs in real time, allocate resources more efficiently, and scale successful innovations. 4.3.2 Promoting Gender Inclusion and Integrated Climate Resilience Strategies Women play a pivotal role in agriculture and natural resource management across Northern Ghana, often constituting the majority of the rural labor force in crop cultivation, food processing, and water collection. Despite their centrality to rural livelihoods, women frequently encounter systemic barriers including limited land tenure rights, restricted access to credit, exclusion from agricultural extension services, and underrepresentation in community decision-making platforms (Doss et al., 2018 ; UN Women, 2022). Addressing these disparities is essential for building inclusive and effective climate adaptation frameworks. Gender-responsive programs that prioritize women-led cooperatives, training in climate-smart agriculture, and targeted access to finance and land can substantially enhance women’s adaptive capacity. For example, tailored microfinance schemes and group-based extension models have shown promise in increasing women's access to resources and strengthening their leadership in adaptation efforts (World Bank, 2021 ). UN Women (2022) underscores that empowering women through deliberate, context-specific interventions not only promotes equity but also leads to more resilient and productive farming systems. Incorporating gender-disaggregated data in planning and monitoring can further ensure that interventions address differentiated vulnerabilities and capacities. 5. Conclusion The escalating climate crisis in Northern Ghana demands urgent and coordinated action from policymakers, researchers, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector. To safeguard livelihoods and ensure long-term sustainability, stakeholders must prioritize scaling up evidence-based adaptation strategies, investing in localized research and real-time monitoring systems, and embedding gender and social inclusion at the core of all interventions. Effective climate resilience is not achievable through isolated efforts; it requires robust collaboration that bridges national policies with grassroots realities. While communities in Northern Ghana have exhibited remarkable ingenuity and resilience in adapting to climate variability, their efforts alone are insufficient to confront the growing magnitude of the crisis. Systemic support in the form of enabling policies, climate-smart financing, and targeted technical assistance is essential to amplify local innovations and ensure long-term success. Key priorities must include: Enhancing water security through decentralized harvesting infrastructure, Promoting diversified and climate-resilient livelihoods, particularly in agroforestry and small livestock, integrating indigenous knowledge systems with modern technologies, and fostering inclusive governance platforms to mediate conflicts and build social cohesion. Therefore building climate-resilient communities in Northern Ghana is both a moral and developmental imperative. With decisive, inclusive, and sustained action, it is possible to transform vulnerability into resilience, and climate risk into opportunity. Declarations Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, A-W.T, L.A ; methodology, S.U.T and A-W.T; validation, all authors, writing original draft preparation, A-W.T; writing review and editing, S.J.C, A-W.T, S.U.T and A.W; visualisation, A-W.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding. Data Availability Statement : The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Ethics approval and consent to participate : Not applicable. Clinical trial : Not applicable. Consent for publications: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests. References Agyeman, K. O., Braimah, I., & Teye, J. K. (2022). 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Digital tools for agriculture: Opportunities for scaling smallholder impact . Consultative Group to Assist the Poor. https://www.cgap.org/research/publication/digital-tools-agriculture Codjoe, S. N. A., Atidoh, L. K., & Burkett, V. R. (2014). Indigenous knowledge and climate change adaptation in Northern Ghana. Climate and Development, 6 (3), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2013.812557 Doss, C., Meinzen-Dick, R., Quisumbing, A., & Theis, S. (2018). Women in agriculture: Four myths. Global Food Security, 16 , 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.10.001 EPA Ghana. (2020). National Action Programme to Combat Desertification in Ghana . Environmental Protection Agency. FAO. (2020). Small-scale rabbit production . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org FAO. (2021). Impact of climate change on food security in the Sahel region . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org Garrity, D. P., Akinnifesi, F. 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The superior effect of nature-based solutions in land management for enhancing ecosystem services. Science of the Total Environment, 610–611 , 997–1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.077 Kerr, R. B., Shumba, L., Dakishoni, L., & Msachi, R. (2019). Participatory agroecological research on climate change adaptation improves smallholder farmer household food security and dietary diversity in Malawi. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 279 , 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.03.005 Kristjanson, P., Neufeldt, H., Gassner, A., Mango, J., Kyazze, F. B., Desta, S., Sayula, G., Thiede, B., Förch, W., Thornton, P. K., Coe, R., & Jones, P. (2012). Are food insecure smallholder households making changes in their farming practices? Evidence from East Africa. Food Security, 4 , 381–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-012-0194-z Kuria, D. N., & Macharia, J. M. (2017). Climate change adaptation and mitigation measures in Kenya: A case study of Makueni County. Climate, 5 (1), 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli5010012 Lamptey, B. L., Barron, J., & Zougmore, R. (2020). The contribution of rainwater harvesting technologies to sustainable agricultural intensification in sub-Saharan Africa. Water, 12 (1), 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010027 Leal Filho, W., Nagy, G. J., Bardsley, D. K., & Özuyar, P. G. (2021). Climate change, adaptation, and resilience: Science and practice . Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3- 030-73556-5 Nyantakyi-Frimpong, H., & Bezner-Kerr, R. (2015). The relative importance of climate change in the context of multiple stressors in semi-arid Ghana. Global Environmental Change, 32 , 40–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.03.003 Owusu, K., & Waylen, P. R. (2009). Trends in spatio-temporal variability in annual rainfall in Ghana (1951–2000). Weather, 64 (5), 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1002/wea.255 Quaye, W., Adofo, K., Madode, Y., & Abizari, A. R. (2009). Exploring the food security situation in Northern Ghana. American Journal of Food Technology, 4 (3), 110–120. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajft.2009.110.120 Rademacher-Schulz, C., Schraven, B., & Mahama, E. S. (2014). Time matters: Shifting seasonal migration in Northern Ghana in response to rainfall variability and food insecurity. Climate and Development, 6 (1), 46–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2013.830955 Sarku, R., Nartey, E. K., & Codjoe, S. N. A. (2020). Farmers’ perception and adaptation strategies to climate change and variability in Ghana. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22 (3), 2233–2251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0285-9 Schlenker, W., & Lobell, D. B. (2010). Robust negative impacts of climate change on African agriculture. Environmental Research Letters, 5 (1), 014010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748- 9326/5/1/014010 Sova, C., Grosjean, G., Baedeker, T., & Helfgott, A. (2018). Bringing the concept of climate- smart agriculture to life: Insights from CSA country profiles across Africa, Asia, and Latin America. World Bank and CIAT . https://hdl.handle.net/10568/96298 Tahiru, A. W., Takal, S. U., Sunkari, E. D., & Ampofo, S . (2023). A review on renewable energy scenario in Ethiopia. Iranica Journal of Energy & Environment, 14(4), 372-384. Tahiru, A., Cobbina, S.J., & Asare, W. (2024). Public Perceptions of Waste-to-Energy Technology in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Tamale, Ghana. Cleaner Waste Systems . Tahiru, A. W., Cobbina, S. J., Asare, W., & Takal, S. U . (2024). Unlocking energy from waste: a comprehensive analysis of municipal solid waste recovery potential in Ghana. World , 5 (2), 192-218. Takal, S. U., Tahiru, A. W., Fattah, I. R., Cobbina, S. J., Asare, W., & Abanyie, S. K. (2025).Enhancing resilience to climate change: A comprehensive PRISMA review of agricultural and non-agricultural adaptation strategies for Ghana. Cogent Social Sciences, 11 (1), 2453905. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2024.2453905 Tankari, M. R., Diogo, R. V. C., & Arndt, C. (2022). Economic impact of climate change on agriculture in West Africa: A CGE approach. Environmental and Resource Economics, 81 , 345–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10640-021-00608-7 Tschakert, P., & Dietrich, K. A. (2010). Anticipatory learning for climate change adaptation and resilience. Ecology and Society, 15 (2), 11. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-03335-150211 UNDP Ghana. (2020). Ghana’s climate adaptation strategy and action plan . United Nations Development Programme. https://www.gh.undp.org World Bank. (2021). Climate risk profile: Ghana . The World Bank Group. https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org Yaro, J. A. (2013). The perception of and adaptation to climate variability/change in Ghana by small-scale and commercial farmers. Regional Environmental Change, 13 (6), 1259–1272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-013-0443-5 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7115204","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Systematic Review","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":488627142,"identity":"e1f03d93-6bcd-40cc-97f3-efb546ed59c2","order_by":0,"name":"Abdul-Wahab Tahiru","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University for Development Studies","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdul-Wahab","middleName":"","lastName":"Tahiru","suffix":""},{"id":488627143,"identity":"fbf3877e-409a-49b2-875a-8f75f2361d4e","order_by":1,"name":"Silas Uwumborge Takal","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University for Development Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Silas","middleName":"Uwumborge","lastName":"Takal","suffix":""},{"id":488627144,"identity":"1bd025b5-91de-4320-b8c2-14a852d71b6f","order_by":2,"name":"Samuel Jerry Cobbina","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University for Development Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samuel","middleName":"Jerry","lastName":"Cobbina","suffix":""},{"id":488627145,"identity":"a15869e9-2edd-4c66-b5fe-c31979c50228","order_by":3,"name":"Wilhemina Asare","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University for Development Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wilhemina","middleName":"","lastName":"Asare","suffix":""},{"id":488627146,"identity":"19093cd1-b4f8-486f-9caf-dbbbe1e5a158","order_by":4,"name":"Adam Lamnatu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Songtaba Ghana","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adam","middleName":"","lastName":"Lamnatu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-13 19:38:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7115204/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7115204/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-026-02972-w","type":"published","date":"2026-03-19T15:59:19+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":87262453,"identity":"6cdfb841-74d2-4073-8e94-2557c69c6940","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-22 07:23:57","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":30494,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eData screening process using the PRISMA flow diagram (Takal et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7115204/v1/60ba0c3a7922b313e3ef83a5.png"},{"id":105223786,"identity":"babcc0f6-4fc4-4c87-a177-712fc33935b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-23 16:10:57","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1872249,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7115204/v1/dd5160f3-f80d-482b-afae-d88b919f633b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Building Climate Resilience: A Review of the Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Pastoralist and Farming Communities in Northern Ghana","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eNorthern Ghana, comprising the Upper East, Upper West, and the Northern Regions is increasingly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change. Characterized by a semi-arid climate and a heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture, this region faces compounding challenges stemming from rising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, and ongoing land degradation (Owusu \u0026amp; Waylen, 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOver the past several decades, northern Ghana has experienced a significant rise in average temperatures. Climate projections suggest that, under high-emission scenarios, temperatures in this area could increase by up to 2.5°C by 2080 (Sylla et al., 2016; Tahiru et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This warming trend has contributed to increased evapotranspiration, reducing soil moisture and placing greater stress on water resources critical for both farming and livestock rearing (Bawakyillenuo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRainfall patterns have also become markedly unpredictable. Traditionally, the region experiences a unimodal rainy season from May to September. However, recent years have seen increasing variability in both the onset and quantity of rainfall, undermining the reliability of seasonal weather patterns (Antwi-Agyei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Tahiru et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Tahiru et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This inconsistency disrupts agricultural planning, with many farmers facing difficulties in aligning planting and harvesting cycles with the altered precipitation regime.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLand degradation, particularly desertification, poses an additional existential threat. Approximately 35% of Ghana's total land area is at risk of desertification, with the northern savannah zones being the most affected (EPA Ghana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The drivers of land degradation include both climatic and anthropogenic factors such as deforestation, overgrazing, bush burning, and unsustainable farming practices leading to the loss of fertile land and biodiversity. This not only diminishes agricultural output but also threatens food security and the socio-economic stability of farming and pastoralist communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe socio-economic ramifications of these climatic stresses are far-reaching. Agriculture, which employs over 60% of the population in Northern Ghana, is particularly sensitive to climate variability (GSS, 2021). Declining crop yields, livestock morbidity, and increasing water scarcity have led to food insecurity, reduced household incomes, and migration. Moreover, competition over dwindling natural resources especially water and arable land has intensified conflicts between farmers and herders, exacerbating regional instability (Nyantakyi-Frimpong \u0026amp; Bezner Kerr, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.1 Objectives\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe overarching aim of this study is to explore and address the multifaceted impacts of climate change on the agro-pastoral communities of Northern Ghana. Given the region's heightened vulnerability due to its climatic conditions and socio-economic dynamics, the study seeks to achieve the following specific objectives:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAssess Climate Impacts on Farming and Pastoralist Communities.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEvaluate Current Adaptation Strategies\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRecommend Scalable Solutions\u003c/em\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eHere is the methodology that was utilized to gather the articles about the climate change adaptation initiatives that farmers in Ghana have used. Following the PRISMA technique, which includes processes such as finding relevant studies, screening them to see whether they are eligible, and lastly abstracting and interpreting the data, this systematic review was conducted. For this review, the databases that were searched were ProQuest and Web of Science.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Prisma\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe standards for this evaluation were established by the PRISMA Statement, a popular instrument in environmental management. According to Sierra-Correa and Cantera Kintz (2015), PRISMA has three primary advantages: (1) It creates a structure for reviewing a lot of scientific literature in a certain amount of time; (2) It helps to develop clear research questions that make systematic investigation easier; and (3) It makes it very clear which studies can be included and which ones cannot. We may undertake extensive searches for ideas relating to how Ghanaian farmers are reducing the impact of climate change and utilize PRISMA to organize data for use in future evaluations of environmental management. This approach allows us to monitor the ways in which Ghanaian farmers are coping with the evolving climate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Resources\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study made extensive use of the databases ProQuest and Web of Science. Web of Science indexes over 33,000 articles covering a wide range of subjects, including but not limited to the social sciences, environmental studies, development planning, and other interdisciplinary fields. Through ProQuest Central, a well-known full-text multidisciplinary resource, you can access 47 databases from ProQuest, covering 175 topic categories and a diverse range of content types. From the natural and physical sciences to agriculture and the social sciences, it covers a lot of ground. Thanks to its cutting-edge architecture, ProQuest Central enables several database access and use scenarios, both independently and in tandem.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Eligibility and exclusion criteria\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn order to determine what could and could not be included, we employed specified criteria. Review articles, books, chapters, series, and conference proceedings were not included in the literature review; it only encompassed publications that published empirical research. Additionally, we only evaluated articles written in English to avoid any issues with translation or interpretation. Research and related publications will be tracked throughout a 15-year period from 2010 to 2025. The review limited its reach to social science databases, excluding publications from the Science Citation Index Expanded. According to Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the research could only include papers that dealt with climate change, adaptation, and practices in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Systematic review process\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe systematic review approach, which consists of four stages, was initiated in May 2024. As a first step, we retrieved key terms that might be applied to further searches. We gathered the terms related to climate change, adaptation, and the agricultural sector from a thesaurus and previous studies, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Four duplicate articles were removed as a consequence of a thorough review. The screening technique rejected 259 out of 336 articles (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) because they did not match the preset eligibility standards. At last, we took the time to read each of the 75 items. Ultimately, sixty articles were disregarded due to the following reasons: they did not concern inland agricultural communities, did not contain any empirical data, did not address adaptation measures, or were not about Ghana. For this review, we settled on fifteen separate investigations. The publications' names, aims, methods, study sites, publication years, and writers are detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe exclusion and inclusion standards.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCriterion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEligibility\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExclusion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiterature type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJournal (research/original articles)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJournals (reviews), chapters in book, conference proceedings and book series,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLanguage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-English\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTimeline indexes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2010\u003c/b\u003e–\u003cb\u003e2025\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt; 2010\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndexes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial Science Citation index, Art and Humanities Index,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScience Citation Indexed Expanded\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCountries\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGhana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe exploring strings used for the process in the systematic review.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDatabases\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKeywords used\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProQuest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTITLE-ABS-KEY ((\"Climate* change*\" OR \"Climate* risk* OR \" climate* AND variability \" OR \" climate* AND extreme* \" OR \" climate AND variability* OR \"climate* uncertain*\" OR \"global warming*\" OR \"temperature risk\" OR \"sea level risk\" AND (\"Adapt* ability\" OR \"adapt* strategy*\" OR \"adapt* capacity*\" OR \"adapt* capability*\" OR \"adapt* strength*\" OR \"adapt* potential*\" OR \"adopt* ability*\" OR \"adopt* capacity*\" OR \"adopt* capability*\" OR \"Adopt* potential*\" OR adopt* AND strategy*)) AND (farmer*)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeb of Science\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTS = ((\"Climate-change*\" OR \"Climate-risk*\" OR \"climate-variability*\" OR \"climate- extreme*\" OR \"climate- variability*\" OR \"climate-uncertainty*\" OR \"global-warming*\" OR \"temperature-risk*\" OR \"sea-level- risk*\") AND (\"Adaptation ability*\" OR \"adaptation-strategy*\" OR \"adaptation- capacity*\" OR \"adaptation- capability*\" OR \"adaptation- strength*\" OR \"adaptation -potential*\" OR \"adoption- ability*\" OR \"adoption-capacity*\" OR \"adoption- capability*\" OR \"Adoption- potential*\" OR \"adoption -strategy*\") AND (farmer*)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Climate Change Impacts on Communities\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ramifications of climate change in Northern Ghana are multifaceted, profoundly affecting both farming and pastoralist communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Farming Communities\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFarmers in Northern Ghana are increasingly grappling with declining crop yields, largely attributable to erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and rising temperatures. Staple crops such as maize, millet, and sorghum have recorded yield reductions ranging from 15\u0026ndash;30% in recent years, significantly undermining food security in the region (Antwi-Agyei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The unreliability of rainfall disrupts planting and harvesting schedules, resulting in failed crops or suboptimal yields.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, decreased soil moisture driven by higher evapotranspiration rates accelerates soil degradation and nutrient loss. These biophysical stressors not only reduce soil fertility but also intensify land degradation processes such as crusting, erosion, and desertification (Bawakyillenuo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Without timely and adequate soil management interventions, these impacts are projected to worsen with future climatic changes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rising temperatures have also contributed to a surge in pest and disease outbreaks. One particularly devastating example is the increased prevalence of the fall armyworm (\u003cem\u003eSpodoptera frugiperda\u003c/em\u003e), which has caused extensive damage to maize and other cereals across the region (Goergen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). These pests thrive under warm and dry conditions, expanding their geographical range and life cycles due to the changing climate. Farmers frequently report severe infestations, leading to total crop losses in some cases.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompounding these issues are systemic challenges such as limited access to effective pest control measures, including biological and chemical treatments, and inadequate agricultural extension services. Many smallholder farmers lack timely information on pest outbreaks or guidance on integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, leaving them ill-equipped to address these emerging threats (Issahaku \u0026amp; Abdulai, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.2 Pastoralist Communities\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePastoralist communities in Northern Ghana face acute and intensifying challenges due to the effects of climate change, particularly in the form of water scarcity and the degradation of grazing lands. It is estimated that approximately 60% of boreholes in some districts dry up annually, severely constraining access to water for both livestock and human populations (GSS, 2021; Yaro et al., 2016). These shortages become especially critical during the dry season, when alternative water sources are virtually non-existent.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimultaneously, the availability of natural pastures is rapidly declining due to desertification, bush fires, land degradation, and agricultural encroachment. The expansion of croplands into traditional grazing corridors, combined with the loss of vegetative cover, has significantly reduced the spatial and nutritional quality of rangelands (EPA Ghana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These ecological stressors have intensified competition over remaining natural resources, often resulting in violent conflicts between pastoralists and sedentary farming communities. Such resource-based disputes not only disrupt economic activity but also undermine local peace and regional stability (Nyantakyi-Frimpong \u0026amp; Bezner Kerr, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, livestock mortality rates have risen markedly in recent years due to heat stress, inadequate pasture, and increased disease prevalence. Cattle, goats, and sheep which are cornerstones of the pastoral economy are now more vulnerable to climate-sensitive diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, and parasitic infestations (ILRI, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The combination of poor nutrition and limited veterinary services has led to decreased milk yields, lower calving rates, and significant losses in meat production, ultimately threatening food security and income for pastoral households.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe International Livestock Research Institute (2020) notes that these dynamics severely undermine the economic sustainability of pastoralism across the West African Sahel, with Northern Ghana facing some of the most acute vulnerabilities. Climate change has thus amplified pre-existing pressures within the pastoral system, deepening cycles of poverty, displacement, and vulnerability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese intertwined challenges: environmental degradation, resource scarcity, conflict, and socio-economic marginalization underscore the urgent need for comprehensive, multi-stakeholder strategies to enhance resilience. Recommended measures include the development of climate-resilient water infrastructure, land-use planning that safeguards transhumance corridors, improved veterinary and extension services, and inclusive governance mechanisms to mediate farmer-herder conflicts. Such holistic interventions are vital to sustaining pastoral livelihoods and promoting long-term socio-ecological stability in Northern Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Adaptation Strategies.\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn response to the escalating challenges posed by climate change, communities in Northern Ghana have adopted various adaptation strategies to safeguard their livelihoods (Takal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These strategies encompass water harvesting techniques, diversification of livelihoods, and the integration of indigenous knowledge systems. Each approach offers unique benefits and faces distinct challenges, influencing their overall effectiveness and scalability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of the papers used for the review.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTitle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eObjective\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethodology\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudy location\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClimate and Food Insecurity Risks: Identifying Exposure and Vulnerabilities in the Post-Food Production System of Northern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecomprehensively analyze how climate change and weather variabilities affect post-production activities in n\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eused questionnaires, which likely gather quantitative and qualitative information\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNorthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBalikisu Osman\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClimate change and variability awareness and livelihood adaptive strategies among smallholder farmers in semi-arid northern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eexamined smallholder farmers' observation of climate change and variability\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emixed methodological approach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esemi-arid northern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFelix Asante,\u0026nbsp;Lawrence Guodaar,\u0026nbsp;Saasi Arimiyaw\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdapting to climate change: Perspectives from smallholder farmers in North-western Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eexamine how smallholder farmers in north-western Ghana have been adapting to climate change\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003equalitative research design\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003enorth-western Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDramani J.M. File,\u0026nbsp;Francis Xavier Jarawura,\u0026nbsp;Emmanuel Kanchebe Derbile\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndigenous adaptation to climate change risks in northern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt examined these strategies in response to climate change risks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emixed-methods approach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003enorthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLawrence Guodaar,\u0026nbsp;Douglas K. Bardsley,\u0026nbsp;Jungho Suh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVulnerabilities of Smallholder Farmers' Livelihoods and Adaptations to Climate Change and Variability in Semi-Arid Northwestern Ghana: Observations and Perspectives\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo analyze the collected data and assess vulnerability\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emixed-methods approach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNandom District\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIshmael Lente,\u0026nbsp;William K. Heve,\u0026nbsp;Maxwell Yeboah Owusu-Twum\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe impact of climate variability on agricultural food crop production and output: the case of some selected communities in Offinso South District of Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo investigate the influence of climate change variables on food crop production\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eemployed a descriptive cross-sectional survey\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOffinso South District\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBonsu Philip Osei,\u0026nbsp;Mensah Ronald Osei,\u0026nbsp;Frimpong Agyemang\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFactors Influencing the Adoption of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies by Smallholder Farmers in East Mamprusi District of Northern Region, Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo identify the primary adaptation strategies adopted by farmers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emixed-methods approach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEast Mamprusi District\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF. K. Obeng,\u0026nbsp;R. A. Awasina,\u0026nbsp;S. N. Ayambila\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClimate change extremes and barriers to successful adaptation outcomes: Disentangling a paradox in the semi-arid savanna zone of northern Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003einvestigate the connections between climate change and agricultural adaptation strategies among smallholder farmers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003equalitative approach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003enorthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrederick Dapilah,\u0026nbsp;Jonas \u0026Oslash;stergaard Nielsen\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvidence of Climate Change Coping and Adaptation Practices by Smallholder Farmers in Northern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eto identify the coping practices employed by smallholder farmers in northeast Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emixed-methods approach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003enortheast Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhilip Antwi-Agyei,\u0026nbsp;Hanson Nyantakyi-Frimpong\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClimate Change Adaptation Strategies and Constraints in Northern Ghana: Evidence of Farmers in Sissala West District\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eto determine the factors influencing farmers\u0026rsquo; adaptation to climate change in the Sissala West District,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003elogistic regression model\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSissala West District\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClifford James Fagariba,\u0026nbsp;Shaoxian Song,\u0026nbsp;Serge Kevin Gildas Soule Baoro\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Implications of Climate Change on Food Security and Rural Livelihoods: Experiences from Northern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eto examine the implications of climate change on food security and rural livelihoods specifically in northern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eparticipant observation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003enorthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMamudu Abunga Akudugu,\u0026nbsp;Saa Dittoh,\u0026nbsp;Edward Salifu Mahama\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClimate Change and Rural Female Farmers in Ghana: A Study of the Wenchi Municipality\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eto assess the level of knowledge and awareness of climate change among rural female farmers in Wurompo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn-depth interviews\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWenchi Municipality\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYarney L,\u0026nbsp;Sakyi Ek,\u0026nbsp;Achamwie Pk\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModelling the determinants of adoption of multiple climate change coping and adaptation strategies. a micro analysis of smallholder farmers in northern ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eto model the determinants of adoption of multiple climate change coping and adaptation (CCCA) strategies by smallholder farmers in northern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eendogenous switch Poisson and generalized Poisson regression\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003enorthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShaibu Baanni Azumah\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRainwater Harvesting - A Potential Safety Net for Water Security in Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eto inform policy makers, stakeholders, and institutions responsible for water resources management\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eextensive review of literature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNorthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmankwah Emmanuel,\u0026nbsp;Mensah Jackson Napoleon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommunity Based Initiatives and Strategies for Adapting to Annual Floods along The Black and White and Volta Rivers in the Central Gonja District of Northern Region, Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eto investigate how communities along the Black and White Volta Rivers in the Central Gonja District of Northern Ghana adapt to climate change-induced floods\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esimple random sampling\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentral Gonja District\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2015\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJudith A.K Bawa,\u0026nbsp;Seidu Al-hassan,\u0026nbsp;Wumbei Abukari\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Water Harvesting and Irrigation Adaptation Strategies\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater scarcity, intensified by erratic rainfall patterns and prolonged droughts has compelled farmers in Northern Ghana to adopt water harvesting techniques as a critical adaptation strategy. These measures are aimed at enhancing soil moisture retention, improving water use efficiency, and ensuring crop survival, particularly during periods of rainfall deficit.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn-situ water harvesting techniques, such as contour bunds and Zai pits, have gained traction among smallholder farmers. These methods are designed to capture and retain rainwater directly in the soil, thereby reducing surface runoff, curbing soil erosion, and improving moisture availability for crops. Empirical studies show that such interventions can increase soil moisture retention by up to 59%, resulting in notable improvements in crop yield and land productivity (Nyamangara et al., 2013; Agyeman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Zai pits, for instance, have proven especially effective in degraded lands by concentrating water and nutrients around plant roots, facilitating soil regeneration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeyond field-level practices, community-based water infrastructure, particularly the construction of small-scale dams\u0026mdash;has emerged as a vital component in supporting dry-season irrigation. The Bongo District in the Upper East Region exemplifies this approach, hosting several micro-dams, including the Vea Dam, which have transformed dry-season agriculture in surrounding communities (GSS, 2021). These dams serve as reliable water sources for irrigation, livestock, and domestic use, enabling farmers to engage in multiple cropping cycles and mitigate the risks associated with seasonal rainfall variability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite their documented benefits, the widespread adoption and sustainability of water harvesting and small dam infrastructure face notable constraints. High upfront investment costs, particularly for earthworks and construction materials, often exceed the capacity of individual farmers. Additionally, limited technical expertise in the design, implementation, and maintenance of water harvesting systems impedes their scalability (Abdul-Ganiyu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the maintenance of small dams requires sustained community mobilization and institutional support, both of which are frequently undermined by financial constraints, governance challenges, and lack of ownership frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo enhance the impact of these adaptation strategies, there is a need for targeted policy interventions, including public-private investment partnerships, capacity-building for local water user associations, and the promotion of indigenous water management knowledge. Scaling up these efforts will require coordinated support from governmental agencies, NGOs, and research institutions to ensure technical assistance, financial inclusion, and sustainable governance mechanisms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Livelihood Diversification as a Climate Adaptation Strategy\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo mitigate the vulnerabilities associated with climate-dependent agriculture, rural communities in Northern Ghana have increasingly turned to livelihood diversification as a key adaptation strategy. By integrating practices that are less sensitive to climatic fluctuations, households aim to reduce their dependence on rain-fed farming and improve their socio-economic resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne prominent diversification strategy is agroforestry (Takal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), particularly the cultivation of drought-tolerant and economically valuable tree species such as shea (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e) and cashew (\u003cem\u003eAnacardium occidentale\u003c/em\u003e). These trees contribute to household income through the sale of products like shea butter and cashew nuts, which are in high demand in both local and international markets. Beyond their economic value, these trees provide significant ecological benefits: they stabilize soils, reduce erosion, enhance water retention, and regulate microclimates, thereby supporting broader land restoration and climate adaptation efforts (Garrity et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Agyeman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to agroforestry, small livestock rearing has become an increasingly popular alternative livelihood, especially among women and youth. The rearing of poultry, goats, and particularly rabbits has gained traction due to their relatively low input requirements in terms of water, feed, and housing. Rabbit farming, for instance, has shown strong potential for improving household nutrition and income, as rabbits reproduce quickly and their meat is a high-protein, culturally accepted food source (Teye et al., 2018; FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Such small-scale animal husbandry systems are well-suited to arid environments and offer a buffer during periods of agricultural shortfall.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the promise of these alternative livelihoods, several structural barriers hinder their widespread adoption and long-term sustainability. Chief among these are limited access to microfinance, which restricts the ability of farmers to invest in inputs, housing, and veterinary care, and inadequate training and extension services, which limits knowledge of best practices in animal husbandry and agroforestry techniques (Yaro et al., 2016). Moreover, weak market linkages and limited value addition further constrain the profitability of diversified activities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAddressing these barriers requires targeted policy and institutional support, including the expansion of rural credit facilities, capacity-building programs tailored to climate-resilient livelihoods, and investments in value chains to enhance market access. By enabling community members to adopt and sustain diversified livelihood strategies, these interventions can significantly enhance adaptive capacity and reduce poverty in climate-vulnerable areas of Northern Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.3 Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Hybrid Climate Adaptation Approaches\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndigenous knowledge systems (IKS) have long shaped agricultural and environmental management practices in Northern Ghana, providing time-tested frameworks for coping with climatic variability. Local farmers often rely on environmental cues, such as the migration patterns of birds, flowering of specific trees (e.g., \u003cem\u003eButyrospermum parkii\u003c/em\u003e), and insect activity, to forecast rainfall and determine optimal planting periods (Codjoe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Nyadzi et al., 2021). These ethno-meteorological indicators form the basis of a culturally embedded climate knowledge system, transmitted orally across generations and refined through community experience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to forecasting, traditional agronomic practices such as intercropping\u0026mdash;particularly maize with legumes like cowpea or groundnut\u0026mdash;have played a pivotal role in enhancing food security and environmental sustainability. These techniques improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, reduce pest incidence by disrupting pest life cycles, and buffer households against total crop failure during erratic seasons (Agyeman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zakaria et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, the increasing unpredictability of climate patterns poses new challenges to the reliability of IKS. Disruptions in ecological signals caused by shifting rainfall regimes, higher temperatures, and biodiversity loss have diminished the accuracy of traditional forecasting methods (Adams et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This has led to a critical need for the integration of indigenous and scientific climate knowledge into hybrid information systems that enhance decision-making at the farm level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollaborative approaches involving local communities, meteorological services, and extension officers are essential for co-producing context-specific climate services. Projects such as Participatory Scenario Planning (PSP) in parts of West Africa have shown promise in bridging this gap, combining seasonal forecasts with local insights to create user-friendly advisory tools (Tall et al., 2014). Such efforts not only validate indigenous knowledge but also build trust and promote inclusive climate governance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Policy, Community, and Research Pathways","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo effectively address the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change in Northern Ghana, a combination of policy interventions, community-led solutions, and robust research and monitoring mechanisms is essential. These strategies aim to enhance resilience, promote sustainable livelihoods, and ensure inclusive development for farming and pastoralist communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Policy Interventions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1.1 Addressing Water Scarcity through Rainwater Harvesting Infrastructure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater scarcity remains a significant and persistent challenge in Northern Ghana, largely driven by erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and increased evapotranspiration rates due to rising temperatures (Amisigo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Nyadzi et al., 2021). This growing water insecurity poses severe risks to both agricultural productivity and household well-being in the region\u0026rsquo;s predominantly rural communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo mitigate these impacts, there is a pressing need for systematic investment in decentralized water harvesting infrastructure. The Water Resources Commission of Ghana, in collaboration with development partners such as WaterAid, World Vision, and UNICEF, should prioritize the scaling up of cost-effective and community-based water harvesting technologies. Specifically, sand dams, subsurface dams, and rooftop rainwater catchment systems have demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing water availability during dry periods. These systems offer multiple benefits: they are relatively low-cost, environmentally sustainable, and capable of storing water for both agricultural irrigation and domestic consumption (Keraita et al., 2020; WaterAid Ghana, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Ghana National Water Policy (GNWP) explicitly recognizes rainwater harvesting (RWH) as a viable climate adaptation measure. The policy advocates for its integration into building codes, rural development strategies, and community-level planning frameworks (Government of Ghana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). However, implementation has been limited due to inadequate funding, low awareness, and technical capacity gaps at the district and community levels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo address these challenges, the government should implement targeted subsidies for household- and community-level RWH systems, while also investing in training programs to build local capacity for system maintenance. Additionally, the incorporation of rainwater harvesting into school infrastructure, health facilities, and agricultural cooperatives would significantly enhance water resilience in vulnerable areas. These interventions align with broader national and regional climate adaptation goals and should be prioritized in forthcoming climate-resilient development plans.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1.2 Facilitating Climate-Smart Financing for Adaptation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccess to affordable and accessible financing mechanisms is essential for enabling smallholder farmers and pastoralists in Northern Ghana to adopt climate-resilient practices. Climate adaptation often requires upfront investment in improved technologies, diversified livelihoods, and sustainable land management practices resources that many rural households lack (Antwi-Agyei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Without targeted financial support, the adoption of interventions such as agroforestry, drip irrigation, drought-tolerant seed varieties, and small livestock rearing remains out of reach for many vulnerable households.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo bridge this gap, the establishment of climate-smart credit facilities in partnership with commercial banks, microfinance institutions, and development partners is imperative. These facilities should provide low-interest, flexible loans that are tailored to the unique cash flow cycles of agricultural livelihoods. Additionally, repayment structures should reflect the seasonal nature of farming and pastoralism, allowing for grace periods and group lending models to reduce default risk (IFAD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne promising initiative in this regard is the \u0026ldquo;Ghana CARES Obaatan Pa\u0026rdquo; program, a post-COVID-19 economic revitalization effort that includes targeted support for agribusinesses through interest rate subsidies, guarantee schemes, and public-private partnerships (Ministry of Finance, 2021). By reducing the cost of borrowing, such programs encourage investment in sustainable agricultural practices, promote income diversification, and contribute to rural resilience in the face of climate shocks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, there is growing recognition of the need to integrate financial literacy and climate risk assessment into loan design to ensure that financing mechanisms are both accessible and effective. Bundling credit with technical assistance, particularly in climate-smart agriculture, increases the likelihood of successful outcomes (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This holistic approach not only empowers communities but also reduces the long-term vulnerability of rural economies to climate variability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Community-Led Solutions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2.1 Integrating Indigenous Knowledge with Modern Climate Information Systems\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocal communities in Northern Ghana possess a rich repository of indigenous knowledge, particularly in areas such as weather forecasting, seasonal planning, and soil conservation. For generations, farmers and pastoralists have relied on environmental cues\u0026mdash;such as the behavior of animals, flowering of specific tree species, wind direction, and cloud formations\u0026mdash;to anticipate climatic conditions and make agricultural decisions (Gyampoh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Boafo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). These traditional forecasting methods have historically supported adaptive land use practices and fostered resilience in the face of climatic uncertainty.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, the growing variability and unpredictability of climate patterns due to global warming have reduced the reliability of some traditional indicators (Adiku et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This calls for the integration of indigenous forecasting with modern meteorological tools to create hybrid climate information systems that are not only scientifically robust but also socially and culturally relevant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne promising approach involves combining indigenous knowledge with ICT-based platforms, such as SMS weather alerts, community radio, and mobile advisory apps. For instance, the integration of local forecasting insights into SMS-based early warning systems can enhance the uptake of climate information among farmers, improve the timing of planting and harvesting, and support proactive risk management (Tall et al., 2014). These systems are particularly valuable in regions with low literacy rates, where traditional communication channels remain trusted and widely used.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe co-production of knowledge where scientists, extension agents, and local communities collaborate to develop and validate forecasting tools, fostering mutual trust and improves the usability of climate services. When communities see their knowledge being valued and incorporated, they are more likely to engage with and act upon the information provided (Ofoegbu et al., 2016). This participatory approach not only enhances adaptive capacity but also strengthens social cohesion and knowledge sharing within and between communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2.2 Strengthening Community Dialogue to Address Farmer\u0026ndash;Pastoralist Conflicts\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eClimate-induced resource scarcity has significantly intensified conflicts between pastoralists and farmers in Northern Ghana, particularly over access to land, water points, and grazing corridors. As rainfall becomes more erratic and grazing lands degrade, pastoralists are compelled to move more frequently in search of fodder and water, often encroaching on farmlands. This overlap of land use has led to frequent disputes, sometimes escalating into violence, and disrupting community stability (Tonah, 2006; Bukari \u0026amp; Schareika, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAddressing these tensions requires inclusive, community-based conflict resolution mechanisms. One proven approach is the establishment of structured dialogue platforms mediated by respected local authorities such as chiefs, religious leaders, women\u0026rsquo;s groups, and youth representatives. These forums provide a culturally grounded space for dialogue where both parties can negotiate land-use plans, seasonal mobility agreements, and rules for shared resource management (Abbass et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Such local mechanisms often carry more legitimacy than top-down interventions and are better aligned with traditional governance structures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to resolving disputes, these platforms can promote collaborative environmental stewardship. Joint efforts between farmers and pastoralists, such as the maintenance of buffer zones, rotational grazing schemes, and water-point rehabilitation, have proven effective in reducing pressure on natural resources (Yiridomoh et al., 2021). These community-led initiatives contribute to social cohesion, reduce the recurrence of conflict, and enhance the collective capacity to adapt to climate change.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor long-term effectiveness, such dialogue platforms should be institutionalized and supported by local government and civil society organizations, ensuring continuity, neutrality, and capacity building. Integration of conflict resolution into broader land-use policy and climate adaptation planning is essential for ensuring sustainable and peaceful coexistence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Research \u0026amp; Monitoring\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3.1 Strengthening MERL Systems through Digital Tools and Local Integration\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinuous monitoring and evaluation (M\u0026amp;E) are essential for assessing the performance and impact of climate adaptation strategies in Northern Ghana. Without systematic feedback loops, interventions risk becoming misaligned with evolving climatic realities and community needs. Robust MERL systems, that is, Monitoring, Evaluation, Reporting, and Learning\u0026mdash;enable evidence-based policy formulation and adaptive management, which are vital in dynamic climate-vulnerable environments (UNDP, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe increasing availability of digital technologies presents new opportunities to strengthen MERL systems at the local level. Mobile applications such as FarmFit, AgriTrack, and Sensenova have proven effective in facilitating real-time data collection on climate impacts, crop performance, and livelihood trends (CGAP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These tools enhance data accuracy, reduce the cost of field monitoring, and allow stakeholders from farmers to district assemblies to track key indicators related to resilience-building activities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, digital platforms can be configured to support feedback mechanisms, enabling communities to report challenges, share local insights, and co-create solutions. This participatory approach helps ensure that interventions remain context-sensitive and community-driven, which are key determinants of long-term sustainability (Wiggins \u0026amp; Keats, 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo maximize impact, MERL systems should be embedded within local governance frameworks and supported by capacity-building efforts for district-level planners, agricultural extension officers, and community-based organizations. By institutionalizing learning and accountability, local governments can adjust adaptation programs in real time, allocate resources more efficiently, and scale successful innovations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3.2 Promoting Gender Inclusion and Integrated Climate Resilience Strategies\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWomen play a pivotal role in agriculture and natural resource management across Northern Ghana, often constituting the majority of the rural labor force in crop cultivation, food processing, and water collection. Despite their centrality to rural livelihoods, women frequently encounter systemic barriers including limited land tenure rights, restricted access to credit, exclusion from agricultural extension services, and underrepresentation in community decision-making platforms (Doss et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; UN Women, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAddressing these disparities is essential for building inclusive and effective climate adaptation frameworks. Gender-responsive programs that prioritize women-led cooperatives, training in climate-smart agriculture, and targeted access to finance and land can substantially enhance women\u0026rsquo;s adaptive capacity. For example, tailored microfinance schemes and group-based extension models have shown promise in increasing women's access to resources and strengthening their leadership in adaptation efforts (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUN Women (2022) underscores that empowering women through deliberate, context-specific interventions not only promotes equity but also leads to more resilient and productive farming systems. Incorporating gender-disaggregated data in planning and monitoring can further ensure that interventions address differentiated vulnerabilities and capacities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe escalating climate crisis in Northern Ghana demands urgent and coordinated action from policymakers, researchers, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector. To safeguard livelihoods and ensure long-term sustainability, stakeholders must prioritize scaling up evidence-based adaptation strategies, investing in localized research and real-time monitoring systems, and embedding gender and social inclusion at the core of all interventions. Effective climate resilience is not achievable through isolated efforts; it requires robust collaboration that bridges national policies with grassroots realities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile communities in Northern Ghana have exhibited remarkable ingenuity and resilience in adapting to climate variability, their efforts alone are insufficient to confront the growing magnitude of the crisis. Systemic support in the form of enabling policies, climate-smart financing, and targeted technical assistance is essential to amplify local innovations and ensure long-term success. Key priorities must include: Enhancing water security through decentralized harvesting infrastructure, Promoting diversified and climate-resilient livelihoods, particularly in agroforestry and small livestock, integrating indigenous knowledge systems with modern technologies, and fostering inclusive governance platforms to mediate conflicts and build social cohesion. Therefore building climate-resilient communities in Northern Ghana is both a moral and developmental imperative. With decisive, inclusive, and sustained action, it is possible to transform vulnerability into resilience, and climate risk into opportunity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eConceptualisation, A-W.T, L.A ; methodology, S.U.T and A-W.T; validation, all authors, writing original draft preparation, A-W.T; writing review and editing, S.J.C, A-W.T, S.U.T and A.W; visualisation, A-W.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e This research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publications:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAgyeman, K. 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C., \u0026amp; Arndt, C.\u003c/strong\u003e (2022). Economic impact of climate change on agriculture in West Africa: A CGE approach. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental and Resource Economics, 81\u003c/em\u003e, 345\u0026ndash;372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10640-021-00608-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTschakert, P., \u0026amp; Dietrich, K. A.\u003c/strong\u003e (2010). Anticipatory learning for climate change adaptation and resilience. \u003cem\u003eEcology and Society, 15\u003c/em\u003e(2), 11. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-03335-150211\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUNDP Ghana.\u003c/strong\u003e (2020). \u003cem\u003eGhana\u0026rsquo;s climate adaptation strategy and action plan\u003c/em\u003e. United Nations Development Programme. https://www.gh.undp.org\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWorld Bank.\u003c/strong\u003e (2021). \u003cem\u003eClimate risk profile: Ghana\u003c/em\u003e. The World Bank Group. https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYaro, J. A.\u003c/strong\u003e (2013). The perception of and adaptation to climate variability/change in Ghana by small-scale and commercial farmers. \u003cem\u003eRegional Environmental Change, 13\u003c/em\u003e(6), 1259\u0026ndash;1272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-013-0443-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Agriculture, Adaptation Strategies, Climate change, PRISMA Statement","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7115204/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7115204/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eNorthern Ghana is increasingly vulnerable to the multifaceted impacts of climate change, including rising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, and prolonged droughts. These climatic stressors significantly disrupt the livelihoods of farming and pastoralist communities, exacerbating existing challenges such as land degradation, dwindling natural resources, and natural resource-based conflicts. This study presents a systematic review of both observed and projected climate change impacts in Northern Ghana, critically assessing current adaptation strategies. Following the PRISMA methodology, the review involved the identification, screening, and analysis of relevant literature sourced from Web of Science and ProQuest databases. Eligible studies were rigorously evaluated to extract data on adaptation practices, community responses, and policy interventions. Key findings highlight the prevalence and effectiveness of strategies such as rainwater harvesting, livelihood diversification, and the application of indigenous knowledge systems in enhancing community resilience. However, the review also identifies critical gaps in resource access, institutional support, and knowledge integration that hinder broader impact. Recommendations include scaling up water security infrastructure, improving access to climate-smart financing mechanisms, and promoting hybrid knowledge systems that integrate traditional ecological knowledge with modern technologies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Building Climate Resilience: A Review of the Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Pastoralist and Farming Communities in Northern Ghana","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-22 07:23:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7115204/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-08-27T05:20:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-08-21T08:57:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-08-20T10:32:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"321956539158063842513393076804544127822","date":"2025-08-20T08:17:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"336274885088222498070881569787111837015","date":"2025-08-17T12:49:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"272001271936196407240905545853319234423","date":"2025-08-14T12:49:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"311457397435456165530113342949255010285","date":"2025-08-12T14:41:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-08-06T18:50:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"193234406892336276081134696413339762980","date":"2025-07-23T10:52:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"138202602554627359818330864090217677101","date":"2025-07-21T05:47:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"232144006396720420425772971222172746645","date":"2025-07-18T07:33:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"56542482285038313119417920516606372792","date":"2025-07-17T23:08:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-17T21:58:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-16T11:21:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-07-16T11:19:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Sustainability","date":"2025-07-13T19:27:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e5d306c9-9337-4afb-b539-156c80a354cc","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-23T16:07:58+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7115204","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-026-02972-w","journal":{"identity":"discover-sustainability","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Discover Sustainability"},"publishedOn":"2026-03-19 15:59:19","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 19th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-22 07:23:36","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s43621-026-02972-w","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-026-02972-w","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7115204","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7115204","identity":"rs-7115204","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}