Nano-Biofungicides and Bio-Nanofungicides: State of the Art of Innovative Tools for Controlling Resistant Phytopathogens

Fungal diseases pose a significant threat to global agriculture, leading to substantial crop losses and endangering food security worldwide. Conventional chemical fungicides, while effective, are increasingly criticized for their detrimental environmental impacts, including soil degradation, water contamination, and the disruption of non-target organisms. Additionally, the overuse of these fungicides has accelerated the emergence of resistant fungal strains, further challenging disease management strategies. In response to these issues, bio-nanofungicides and nano-biofungicides have emerged as a cutting-edge solution, combining biocompatibility, environmental safety, and enhanced efficacy. These advanced formulations integrate bio-based agents, such as microbial metabolites or plant extracts, with nanotechnology to improve their stability, controlled release, and targeted delivery. Nanoparticles such as chitosan, silica, and silver have been extensively studied for their ability to encapsulate bioactive compounds, enhancing their antifungal activity while minimizing environmental residues. Recent studies have demonstrated nano-based fungicides' potential to address critical gaps in sustainable agriculture, with promising applications in integrated pest management systems. Here, we summarize the las advances in the development of bio-nanofungicides and nano-biofungicides and analyzed the main differences between them. I addition, challenges such as large-scale production, regulatory approval, and comprehensive risk assessments remain are discussed.