The relationship between breakfast consumption and academic performance among junior secondary school students A case study of Megan college ota Ogun state Nigeria

The relationship between breakfast consumption and academic performance among junior secondary school students A case study of Megan college ota Ogun state Nigeria | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Case Report The relationship between breakfast consumption and academic performance among junior secondary school students A case study of Megan college ota Ogun state Nigeria Ufondu Emmanuel This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8258261/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Eating breakfast is linked to improved cognitive performance, including better concentration, memory, and attention, because it supplies the brain with necessary glucose after an overnight fast. Studies show a positive correlation between breakfast consumption and academic performance, as skipping it can lower efficiency and attentiveness. This cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between breakfast consumption patterns, meal type, and academic outcomes among 150 Junior Secondary School (JSS) students at Megan College, Ijaba-Osuke Road, Iyana-Iyesi, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. Data were collected via a structured questionnaire and first-term examination scores (2024/2025 session). Results revealed that 68% of students skipped breakfast at least three days per week, with regular breakfast consumers scoring significantly higher in Mathematics (mean = 72.4 vs. 59.1, p < 0.001) and English Language (mean = 69.8 vs. 56.3, p = 0.002). Protein-rich breakfasts (e.g., beans, eggs) were associated with better performance than carbohydrate-heavy meals (p = 0.038). Logistic regression confirmed breakfast consumption as an independent predictor of above-average performance (OR = 3.87, 95% CI: 1.94–7.71). These findings support school-based breakfast interventions to enhance academic outcomes in Nigerian secondary schools. Nutrition & Dietetics breakfast skipping academic performance cognitive function nutrition secondary education Nigeria Introduction Breakfast is widely regarded as the most important meal of the day, particularly for growing children and adolescents whose brains require consistent energy to support learning (Adolphus et al., 2016 ). After an overnight fast of 8–12 hours, blood glucose levels drop, impairing cognitive processes such as memory consolidation, problem-solving, and sustained attention (Benton & Parker, 1998 ). Global evidence consistently links regular breakfast intake with improved academic achievement. A meta-analysis of 45 studies found that breakfast consumption was associated with a 0.15–0.25 standard deviation increases in scholastic performance (Adolphus et al., 2013 ). However, breakfast-skipping rates remain high among adolescents, ranging from 20–60% across low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), often due to time constraints, food insecurity, or cultural habits (Rampersaud et al., 2005 ). In Nigeria, limited local data exist on breakfast habits among secondary school students. Urbanization, long commutes, and economic pressures contribute to meal skipping, particularly in peri-urban areas like Ota, Ogun State. This study addresses this gap by examining: The prevalence of breakfast consumption among JSS students at Megan College. The association between breakfast intake, meal composition, and academic performance in core subjects. Implications for school feeding policies. Research Questions : What proportion of JSS students consume breakfast before school? Is there a significant difference in academic performance between breakfast consumers and skippers? Does the nutritional quality of breakfast influence academic outcomes? Materials and Methods Study Design and Setting A cross-sectional analytical study was conducted in October 2024 at Megan College, a co-educational private secondary school located in Iyana-Iyesi, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. The school serves a mixed socioeconomic population, with students primarily from middle- and low-income families. Participants All JSS1–JSS3 students (N = 180) were invited to participate. Inclusion criteria: - Enrolled full-time - Parental consent and student assent obtained - No diagnosed chronic illness affecting diet or cognition Final sample: 150 students (83.3% response rate). Data Collection 1. Breakfast Habits (Questionnaire) A validated 12-item questionnaire adapted from the School Breakfast Program Survey (USDA, 2019) was administered during homeroom. Items included: - Frequency of breakfast consumption (daily, 4–6 days, 1–3 days, never) - Time of consumption (<30 min before leaving vs. earlier) - Typical meal composition (categorized as: - Protein-rich: beans, eggs, fish, milk - Carbohydrate-heavy: pap, bread, garri, rice - Mixed/balanced - None) 2. Academic Performance First-term examination scores (2024/2025) in Mathematics and English Language were obtained from school records (out of 100 marks each). These subjects were selected as core indicators of cognitive function. Data Analysis - Descriptive statistics: frequencies, means ± SD - Inferential: - Independent t-tests to compare mean scores by breakfast status - ANOVA for meal type differences - Binary logistic regression (outcome: above-average performance ≥60/100) - Significance level: p < 0.05 - Software: SPSS version 26 Results Participant Characteristics Variable n (%) or Mean ± SD Age 13.1 ± 1.4 years Gender (Female) 82 (54.7%) Class: JSS1 / JSS2 /JSS3 50 / 52 / 48 Lives with both parents 118 (78.7%) Breakfast Consumption Patterns Frequency n (%) Daily 48 (32.0%) 4–6 days/week 35 (23.3%) 1–3 days/week 52 (34.7%) Never 15 (10.0%) 68% skipped breakfast ≥ 3 days/week. Most common reasons: “No time” (61%), “Not hungry” (22%), “No food at home” (17%). Meal Composition (Among Consumers, n = 83) Type n (%) Protein-rich 28 (33.7%) Carbohydrate-heavy 45 (54.2%) Balanced 10 (12.0%) Academic Performance by Breakfast Status Subject Breakfast (n = 83) No Breakfast (n = 67) t p-value Mathematics 72.4 ± 14.2 59.1 ± 16.8 5.21 < 0.001 English 69.8 ± 13.9 56.3 ± 17.4 3.18 0.002 Performance by Meal Type (ANOVA) Meal Type Math Score English Score Protein-rich 76.8 ± 12.1 73.2 ± 11.5 Carb-heavy 69.3 ± 14.8 67.1 ± 14.2 Balanced 74.1 ± 13.0 70.9 ± 12.8 F-statistic 3.41 2.89 p-value 0.038 0.061 Logistic Regression: Predictors of Above-Average Performance Predictor OR 95% CI p-value Breakfast (yes vs. no) 3.87 1.94–7.71 < 0.001 Female gender 1.42 0.79–2.56 0.241 JSS3 (vs. JSS1) 1.68 0.87–3.24 0.121 Lives with both parents 1.31 0.66–2.60 0.439 Model: Nagelkerke R² = 0.29 Discussion This study confirms a strong, independent association between breakfast consumption and academic performance among Nigerian JSS students, consistent with global literature (Adolphus et al., 2016 ). Students who ate breakfast scored 13–14 points higher in core subjects—equivalent to moving from a C to a B grade. The nutritional quality of breakfast mattered: protein-rich meals (common in traditional Nigerian diets—moin-moin, eggs, beans) outperformed carbohydrate-heavy ones (pap, bread). This aligns with evidence that protein enhances satiety and sustains attention longer than simple sugars (Leidy et al., 2015 ). 68% breakfast-skipping rate is alarming and higher than urban Lagos estimates (~ 50%; Ojofeitimi et al., 2004 ). Time poverty and food access are key barriers—issues addressable via on-site school breakfast programs, as piloted in Osun and Kaduna States. Limitations Cross-sectional design limits causality. Self-reported breakfast data (recall bias). Single-school sample reduces generalizability. No objective cognitive tests (e.g., Stroop, digit span). Future Research Longitudinal studies with biochemical markers (e.g., fasting glucose) and randomized breakfast interventions. Conclusion Regular breakfast consumption—especially protein-rich meals—is significantly associated with better academic performance among junior secondary students in Ota, Nigeria. Schools, parents, and policymakers should prioritize affordable, timely breakfast access to optimize learning outcomes. Implementing a pilot school breakfast scheme at Megan College could serve as a model for Ogun State. Abbreviations JSS Junior Secondary School GPA Grade Point Average IRB Institutional Review Board LMICs Low- and Middle-Income Countries USDA United States Department of Agriculture SD Standard Deviation OR Odds Ratio CI Confidence Interval ANOVA Analysis of Variance Declarations Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate Ethical approval was obtained from the Ogun State Ministry of Education Research Ethics Committee (Ref: OG/MOE/REC/2024/087). Informed consent was obtained from parents/guardians, and assent from students. Participation was voluntary, and data were anonymized. Consent for Publication Not applicable. Availability of Data and Materials The dataset supporting this study is available in figshare: [DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.XXXXXXX] (to be uploaded post-publication). Competing Interests The author declares that they have no competing interests. Funding The author declares that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Authors' Contributions Ufondu Emmanuel conceptualized the study, collected and analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements I thank the staff of Megan College for logistical support, and students for their participation. This study received no external funding. Authors' Information Ufondu Emmanuel is a Principal/Independent Researcher at Megan College, Ota, Nigeria, with interests in nutrition and education. References Adolphus K, Lawton CL, Dye L (2013) The effects of breakfast on behavior and academic performance in children and adolescents. Front Hum Neurosci 7:425. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00425 Adolphus K, Lawton CL, Champ CL, Dye L (2016) The relationship between habitual breakfast consumption frequency and academic performance in British adolescents. Appetite 103:147–157 Benton D, Parker PY (1998) Breakfast, blood glucose, and cognition. Am J Clin Nutr 67(4):772S–778S Leidy HJ et al (2015) The role of protein in weight loss and maintenance. Am J Clin Nutr 101(6):1320S–1329S Ojofeitimi EO et al (2004) Food habits of Nigerian school children. Nutr Health 17(3):219–228 Rampersaud GC et al (2005) Breakfast habits, nutritional status, body weight, and academic performance in children and adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc 105(5):743–760 USDA. (2019) School Breakfast Program Toolkit. U.S. Department of Agriculture Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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After an overnight fast of 8\u0026ndash;12 hours, blood glucose levels drop, impairing cognitive processes such as memory consolidation, problem-solving, and sustained attention (Benton \u0026amp; Parker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal evidence consistently links regular breakfast intake with improved academic achievement. A meta-analysis of 45 studies found that breakfast consumption was associated with a 0.15\u0026ndash;0.25 standard deviation increases in scholastic performance (Adolphus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). However, breakfast-skipping rates remain high among adolescents, ranging from 20\u0026ndash;60% across low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), often due to time constraints, food insecurity, or cultural habits (Rampersaud et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Nigeria, limited local data exist on breakfast habits among secondary school students. Urbanization, long commutes, and economic pressures contribute to meal skipping, particularly in peri-urban areas like Ota, Ogun State. This study addresses this gap by examining:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe prevalence of breakfast consumption among JSS students at Megan College.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe association between breakfast intake, meal composition, and academic performance in core subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eImplications for school feeding policies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResearch Questions\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat proportion of JSS students consume breakfast before school?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eIs there a significant difference in academic performance between breakfast consumers and skippers?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eDoes the nutritional quality of breakfast influence academic outcomes?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Design and Setting \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional analytical study was conducted in October 2024 at Megan College, a co-educational private secondary school located in Iyana-Iyesi, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. The school serves a mixed socioeconomic population, with students primarily from middle- and low-income families.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll JSS1\u0026ndash;JSS3 students (N = 180) were invited to participate. Inclusion criteria: \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Enrolled full-time \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Parental consent and student assent obtained \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- No diagnosed chronic illness affecting diet or cognition \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinal sample: 150 students (83.3% response rate). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Data Collection \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;1. Breakfast Habits (Questionnaire) \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA validated 12-item questionnaire adapted from the School Breakfast Program Survey (USDA, 2019) was administered during homeroom. Items included: \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Frequency of breakfast consumption (daily, 4\u0026ndash;6 days, 1\u0026ndash;3 days, never) \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Time of consumption (\u0026lt;30 min before leaving vs. earlier) \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Typical meal composition (categorized as: \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;- Protein-rich: beans, eggs, fish, milk \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;- Carbohydrate-heavy: pap, bread, garri, rice \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;- Mixed/balanced \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;- None) \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;2. Academic Performance \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst-term examination scores (2024/2025) in Mathematics and English Language were obtained from school records (out of 100 marks each). These subjects were selected as core indicators of cognitive function.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Analysis \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Descriptive statistics: frequencies, means \u0026plusmn; SD \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Inferential: \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;- Independent t-tests to compare mean scores by breakfast status \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;- ANOVA for meal type differences \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;- Binary logistic regression (outcome: above-average performance \u0026ge;60/100) \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Significance level: p \u0026lt; 0.05 \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Software: SPSS version 26 \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParticipant Characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en (%) or Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender (Female)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82 (54.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClass: JSS1 / JSS2 /JSS3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50 / 52 / 48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLives with both parents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e118 (78.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBreakfast Consumption Patterns\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaily\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48 (32.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u0026ndash;6 days/week\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35 (23.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;3 days/week\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52 (34.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 (10.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e68% skipped breakfast\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;3 days/week.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost common reasons: \u0026ldquo;No time\u0026rdquo; (61%), \u0026ldquo;Not hungry\u0026rdquo; (22%), \u0026ldquo;No food at home\u0026rdquo; (17%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMeal Composition (Among Consumers, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;83)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eType\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProtein-rich\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28 (33.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarbohydrate-heavy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45 (54.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBalanced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 (12.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAcademic Performance by Breakfast Status\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabd\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubject\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBreakfast (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;83)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo Breakfast (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;67)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMathematics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePerformance by Meal Type (ANOVA)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabe\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeal Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMath Score\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish Score\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProtein-rich\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarb-heavy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBalanced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF-statistic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.061\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLogistic Regression: Predictors of Above-Average Performance\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabf\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePredictor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBreakfast (yes vs. no)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.94\u0026ndash;7.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale gender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.79\u0026ndash;2.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.241\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJSS3 (vs. JSS1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u0026ndash;3.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.121\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLives with both parents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u0026ndash;2.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.439\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eModel: Nagelkerke R\u0026sup2; = 0.29\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study confirms a strong, independent association between breakfast consumption and academic performance among Nigerian JSS students, consistent with global literature (Adolphus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Students who ate breakfast scored 13\u0026ndash;14 points higher in core subjects\u0026mdash;equivalent to moving from a C to a B grade.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe nutritional quality of breakfast mattered: protein-rich meals (common in traditional Nigerian diets\u0026mdash;moin-moin, eggs, beans) outperformed carbohydrate-heavy ones (pap, bread). This aligns with evidence that protein enhances satiety and sustains attention longer than simple sugars (Leidy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e68% breakfast-skipping rate is alarming and higher than urban Lagos estimates (~\u0026thinsp;50%; Ojofeitimi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Time poverty and food access are key barriers\u0026mdash;issues addressable via on-site school breakfast programs, as piloted in Osun and Kaduna States.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLimitations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eCross-sectional design limits causality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelf-reported breakfast data (recall bias).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eSingle-school sample reduces generalizability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo objective cognitive tests (e.g., Stroop, digit span).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFuture Research\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eLongitudinal studies with biochemical markers (e.g., fasting glucose) and randomized breakfast interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eRegular breakfast consumption\u0026mdash;especially protein-rich meals\u0026mdash;is significantly associated with better academic performance among junior secondary students in Ota, Nigeria. Schools, parents, and policymakers should prioritize affordable, timely breakfast access to optimize learning outcomes. Implementing a pilot school breakfast scheme at Megan College could serve as a model for Ogun State.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eJSS\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJunior Secondary School\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eGPA\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrade Point Average\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eIRB\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstitutional Review Board\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLMICs\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow- and Middle-Income Countries\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eUSDA\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnited States Department of Agriculture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSD\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStandard Deviation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eOR\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOdds Ratio\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCI\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfidence Interval\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eANOVA\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of Variance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval and Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was obtained from the Ogun State Ministry of Education Research Ethics Committee (Ref: OG/MOE/REC/2024/087). Informed consent was obtained from parents/guardians, and assent from students. Participation was voluntary, and data were anonymized.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data and Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dataset supporting this study is available in figshare: [DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.XXXXXXX] (to be uploaded post-publication).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declares that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declares that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUfondu Emmanuel conceptualized the study, collected and analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI thank the staff of Megan College for logistical support, and students for their participation. This study received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; Information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUfondu Emmanuel is a Principal/Independent Researcher at Megan College, Ota, Nigeria, with interests in nutrition and education.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdolphus K, Lawton CL, Dye L (2013) The effects of breakfast on behavior and academic performance in children and adolescents. Front Hum Neurosci 7:425. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00425\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fnhum.2013.00425\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdolphus K, Lawton CL, Champ CL, Dye L (2016) The relationship between habitual breakfast consumption frequency and academic performance in British adolescents. Appetite 103:147\u0026ndash;157\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBenton D, Parker PY (1998) Breakfast, blood glucose, and cognition. Am J Clin Nutr 67(4):772S\u0026ndash;778S\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeidy HJ et al (2015) The role of protein in weight loss and maintenance. Am J Clin Nutr 101(6):1320S\u0026ndash;1329S\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOjofeitimi EO et al (2004) Food habits of Nigerian school children. Nutr Health 17(3):219\u0026ndash;228\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRampersaud GC et al (2005) Breakfast habits, nutritional status, body weight, and academic performance in children and adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc 105(5):743\u0026ndash;760\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUSDA. (2019) School Breakfast Program Toolkit. U.S. Department of Agriculture\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"independent researcher","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"breakfast skipping, academic performance, cognitive function, nutrition, secondary education, Nigeria","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8258261/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8258261/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eEating breakfast is linked to improved cognitive performance, including better concentration, memory, and attention, because it supplies the brain with necessary glucose after an overnight fast. Studies show a positive correlation between breakfast consumption and academic performance, as skipping it can lower efficiency and attentiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between breakfast consumption patterns, meal type, and academic outcomes among 150 Junior Secondary School (JSS) students at Megan College, Ijaba-Osuke Road, Iyana-Iyesi, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. Data were collected via a structured questionnaire and first-term examination scores (2024/2025 session). Results revealed that 68% of students skipped breakfast at least three days per week, with regular breakfast consumers scoring significantly higher in Mathematics (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;72.4 vs. 59.1, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and English Language (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;69.8 vs. 56.3, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002). Protein-rich breakfasts (e.g., beans, eggs) were associated with better performance than carbohydrate-heavy meals (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.038). Logistic regression confirmed breakfast consumption as an independent predictor of above-average performance (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.87, 95% CI: 1.94\u0026ndash;7.71). These findings support school-based breakfast interventions to enhance academic outcomes in Nigerian secondary schools.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The relationship between breakfast consumption and academic performance among junior secondary school students A case study of Megan college ota Ogun state Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-03 06:57:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8258261/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2991bf56-d5d8-4829-8450-5913775f5a84","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":58942792,"name":"Nutrition \u0026 Dietetics"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-03T06:57:59+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-03 06:57:59","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8258261","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8258261","identity":"rs-8258261","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}