Negotiating Identity, Inclusion, and Political Belonging:Filipino-Chinese Students’ Experiences in Policy-Driven Multicultural Schooling

Negotiating Identity, Inclusion, and Political Belonging:Filipino-Chinese Students’ Experiences in Policy-Driven Multicultural Schooling | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Negotiating Identity, Inclusion, and Political Belonging:Filipino-Chinese Students’ Experiences in Policy-Driven Multicultural Schooling Joshua Agpaoa This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8828660/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Education policies promoting multicultural inclusion increasingly reshape minority schooling across Asia, yet their implications for children’s identity development and well-being remain underexplored. This qualitative study examines how Filipino-Chinese students experience identity negotiation, belonging, and participation within Chinese schools in the Philippines that have transitioned to coeducational and multicultural models under national education reforms. Drawing on in-depth interviews with twenty-two students and thematic analysis supported by NVivo, the study explores how language policy, curriculum restructuring, and school culture intersect with adolescent developmental processes. Findings indicate that while inclusion-oriented reforms expand civic identification and intercultural interaction, they simultaneously reduce the visibility of heritage language and cultural practices, producing identity ambivalence. Students respond through adaptive strategies that distinguish cultural affiliation from political belonging. The study contributes child-centered evidence to education policy debates on multicultural inclusion, minority schooling, and youth well-being. Educational Philosophy and Theory Educational Psychology Other Public Policy Other Political Science School Counseling Multicultural Education Filipino-Chinese Students Identity Development Education Policy Child Well-being Figures Figure 1 Introduction The increasing diversity in global education systems has led to widespread implementation of multicultural policies, intended to foster equity and inclusion among students from varied cultural backgrounds (Celeste et al., 2019 ; Froehlich et al., 2023 ). These policies aim to recognize diverse identities and promote democratic participation, yet their practical implications for ethnic minority students, particularly concerning identity development and belonging, remain a critical area of ongoing research (Abacioglu et al., 2023 ). Studies emphasize that schools play a pivotal role in shaping how young people perceive themselves and their sense of affiliation, with environments that affirm diversity contributing positively to identity formation and well-being (Gharaei et al., 2024 ; Graham et al., 2022 ). However, despite these inclusive intentions, minority students often navigate complex dynamics where their cultural resources may not fully align with institutional norms (Allen, 2018; Yang et al., 2025 ). This can lead to a nuanced process of identity negotiation and, at times, a sense of "conditional belonging" within educational settings, where acceptance is contingent upon conformity to certain dominant expectations (Chiu et al., 2025 ; Yodovich, 2020 ). While research explores bicultural identity formation and the challenges faced by diaspora students in various contexts (Purpuri et al., 2024 ; Rapimán et al., 2023 ; Xu, 2019 ), a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of specific ethnic groups within policy-driven multicultural schooling is crucial. Such investigations are vital for informing more culturally responsive and developmentally sensitive educational approaches that genuinely support the holistic well-being and equitable integration of all students. Despite these general benefits, the implementation of multicultural education policies, particularly in diverse regions like Southeast Asia, often presents complexities. Studies indicate that while these policies aim for inclusion, they can inadvertently reproduce cultural hierarchies or lead to a selective representation of minority cultures, potentially marginalizing certain heritage practices (Patras et al., 2022 ; Yang et al., 2025 ). There remains a significant gap in understanding the lived experiences of ethnic minority youth within these policy-driven school environments, especially concerning how they negotiate their identities and sense of belonging (Afifuddin et al., 2025 ; Gharaei et al., 2024 ). Literature review This section lays the groundwork for the study by exploring established literature on multicultural education, identity development among minority youth, and the concept of belonging within educational settings. It concludes by proposing an integrated theoretical framework to guide the research. Multicultural Education Policies and Their Impact Multicultural education policies are crucial for fostering equality and inclusivity in increasingly diverse classrooms globally. These policies are designed to promote cultural awareness, respect for diversity, and equal opportunities for all students. However, the implementation of multicultural education comes with its own set of challenges and benefits (Naz et al., 2023 ). Critical perspectives on multicultural education highlight that despite intentions to celebrate diversity, these policies can often fall short of addressing structural inequalities and institutional racism (Parameswaran et al., 2023 ; Kavanagh & Dupont, 2021 ). Some approaches have been critiqued for overemphasizing identity affirmation and multicultural content without sufficiently tackling the systemic forces that perpetuate inequities (Kavanagh & Dupont, 2021 ). Critics argue that multicultural education can sometimes reduce culture to a monolithic and static entity, rather than recognizing its dynamic and fluid nature. Furthermore, an overemphasis on multiculturalism in schools can lead to identity politics, where students may prioritize their cultural or ethnic group identity over a national identity (Mazibuko & Ngidi, 2024 ). This calls for more critical and transformative approaches that integrate a deeper understanding of oppression and power relations in education (Dimofte, 2023 ; Parameswaran et al., 2023 ; Spaas, 2024 ; Kavanagh & Dupont, 2021 ). Some scholars suggest that multicultural education policies, particularly in Europe, are explicitly framed within national contexts, focusing on justice for minority groups within the nation-state, often through curriculum changes or teacher attitudes, rather than addressing broader structural inequalities (Osler, 2015 ). Identity Development and Negotiation in Bicultural Youth Identity formation during adolescence is a complex process influenced by various factors such as family, peers, education, and social culture (Ye, 2024 ). For ethnoracially minoritized and immigrant youth, identity formation involves integrating social identities derived from their ethnic-racial group memberships and their connection to the country in which they reside (Safa et al., 2023 ). This process is often described by models of bicultural identity integration, which assess how individuals subjectively perceive the integration of their multiple cultures and cultural identities (Huynh et al., 2011 ; Schmidt et al., 2023 ; Schwartz et al., 2019 ). High bicultural identity integration can lead to better psychological and sociocultural adaptation (Chen et al., 2022 ; Grigoryev et al., 2023 ). Acculturation theories explain how individuals adapt to dominant cultural contexts. Berry's bidimensional model suggests various acculturation strategies, including integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization, based on the degree of heritage culture maintenance and adoption of the destination culture (Crocetti et al., 2023; Grigoryev et al., 2023 )). Integration, where individuals maintain their own culture while being open to others, is often seen as beneficial (Grigoryev et al., 2023 ). However, students may also employ strategies like code-switching, buffering, bridging, or passing to negotiate their identity and communication in intergroup contexts (Purpuri et al., 2024 ). These strategies allow bicultural individuals to manage their identity display in response to cultural contexts (Purpuri et al., 2024 ; Safa et al., 2023 ). Conflicts between ethnic and ideal selves can also impede academic success for ethnic minority students (Debrosse et al., 2018 ). Students from minority groups may struggle with establishing a healthy personal concept when faced with expectations derived from the majority culture, leading to a sense of alienation if they conform, or exposure to prejudice if they resist. The Concept of Belonging in Educational Contexts A strong sense of school belonging is defined as the extent to which students feel personally accepted, respected, included, and supported by others in the school social environment (Chen et al., 2022 ; Gharaei et al., 2024 ). This feeling is closely related to bicultural identity integration and academic resilience (Chen et al., 2022 ). Factors influencing students’ sense of belonging include individual characteristics, peer relations, teacher-student relationships, and the overall school climate (Baek, 2023 ; Gharaei et al., 2024 ; Graham et al., 2022 ). Research indicates that positive school climate and positive interpersonal relations with teachers and peers are key predictors of belonging (Gharaei et al., 2024 ). However, social exclusion can significantly impact adolescents' well-being and school adjustment (Juvonen et al., 2019 ; Plenty et al., 2023). Minority students, in particular, may experience perceived inequality and exclusion, leading to negative consequences such as declining academic self-concept and psychological problems. Explicit ethnic bias, subtle forms of exclusion, and discrimination can threaten ethnic-racial identity and compromise specific social identity needs like belongingness and esteem (Plenty et al., 2023; Verkuyten et al., 2019 ). This suggests that inclusion is often experienced conditionally, where acceptance depends on conformity to dominant norms. Schools play a critical role in structuring social hierarchies and determining which identities are recognized and rewarded, impacting how minority youth develop. Theoretical Foundations This study will adopt an integrated theoretical framework, building upon insights from: Multicultural Education Theories This lens critically examines how policies and practices in schools, including language policies and curriculum, shape the experiences of bicultural students and contribute to both inclusion and potential marginalization (Osler, 2015 ; Parameswaran et al., 2023 ; Kavanagh, 2021 ). Identity Development Theories This includes frameworks of bicultural identity integration and acculturation, which elucidate how adolescents negotiate multiple cultural identities, manage cultural dissonance, and employ adaptive strategies for psychosocial adjustment (Crocetti et al., 2023; Grigoryev et al., 2023 ; Huynh et al., 2011 ; Safa et al., 2023 ; Schmidt et al., 2023 ). Social Belonging Theories This perspective helps to understand the fundamental need for social connection and how school environments, peer dynamics, and perceived inclusion or exclusion impact students' sense of belonging and emotional safety (Gharaei et al., 2024 ; Juvonen et al., 2019 ; Plenty et al., 2023). Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework, depicted in Fig. 1 , posits that the experiences of Filipino-Chinese students are shaped by a hierarchical yet interconnected system, moving from broad governmental mandates to individual outcomes. This model integrates insights from multicultural education, identity development, and social belonging theories to understand how students negotiate their identities and sense of inclusion within policy-driven educational environments. The framework is structured as follows: State Policy & Sociopolitical Context This top layer acknowledges the overarching external forces that influence the educational landscape. It encompasses government directives, such as DepEd Orders, national inclusion policies, and "Filipinization" initiatives aimed at fostering a national identity. The prevailing geopolitical climate also contributes to this context, potentially affecting perceptions and treatments of specific ethnic groups within the nation (Patras et al., 2022 ; Yang et al., 2025 ). These macro-level policies set the stage for how diversity and national identity are conceptualized and managed within the educational system (Afifuddin et al., 2025 ). School-Level Transformation Directly influenced by state policies, this layer represents the operational changes within Chinese schools. This includes shifts towards coeducation, the integration of multicultural curricula, modifications in language policies (e.g., emphasis on Filipino and English alongside Mandarin), and the evolving school culture that reflects these transformations (Abacioglu et al., 2023 ; Naz et al., 2023 ; Parameswaran et al., 2023 ). These school-level adaptations are the direct mechanisms through which state policies are enacted and experienced by students, shaping their daily educational environment (Naz et al., 2023 ). Student Lived Experiences This central layer captures the subjective realities of Filipino-Chinese students as they navigate the transformed school environment. It focuses on their active processes of Identity Negotiation—how they integrate their Filipino and Chinese cultural identities (Safa et al., 2023 ). It also encompasses their sense of Belonging within the school community, ranging from full inclusion to feelings of exclusion or conditional acceptance (Gharaei et al., 2024 ; Graham et al., 2022 ). These lived experiences are dynamic and influenced by both the explicit and implicit signals from the school context (Baek, 2023 ). Outcomes The final layer details the various potential outcomes for students arising from their lived experiences. These include the development of Intercultural Competence, an ability to navigate and interact effectively across different cultural contexts. It also involves degrees of Civic Integration, reflecting their identification with the broader national society. Furthermore, students may experience Identity Ambivalence, grappling with conflicting cultural loyalties or expectations, or develop strategies of Adaptive Hybridity, where they creatively blend aspects of their multiple cultural identities to thrive within their environment (Huynh et al., 2011 ; Schmidt et al., 2023 ). Methodology This section delineates the research design, participant selection, data collection procedures, and data analysis strategies employed in this study. It outlines the ethical considerations that guided the research process to ensure the well-being and rights of the participants. Research Design This study adopted a qualitative phenomenological research design to explore the lived experiences of Filipino-Chinese students regarding identity negotiation, inclusion, and political belonging within policy-driven multicultural schooling. A phenomenological approach aims to understand the meaning and essence of individuals' subjective experiences through in-depth inquiry (Gagura, 2024 ). This design is particularly suited for topics that are not fully understood, allowing researchers to delve into personal perceptions and the meanings individuals attribute to events (ÖTELEŞ et al., 2024 ; Yüksel & Yıldırım, 2015 ). By focusing on detailed narratives, phenomenology provides rich insights into complex social situations and the perspectives of participants (Robinson, 2007 ). Participants and Sampling The study involved a small number of participants to facilitate extensive and prolonged engagement, which is characteristic of phenomenological inquiry (Creswell & Poth, 2017 ; Megheirkouni & Moir, 2023 ). Employing purposive sampling, a common method in phenomenological studies, participants were selected based on specific criteria relevant to the research questions (Campbell et al., 2020 ). This approach allowed for the recruitment of students who could offer rich descriptions of their experiences as Filipino-Chinese individuals within multicultural school contexts. Participants were drawn from Chinese schools in the Philippines that have implemented multicultural and coeducational reforms. A total of twenty-two (N = 22) junior high school students, aged between 12 and 16 years, participated in the study. The sample included both male and female students from full Filipino-Chinese and mixed Filipino-Chinese heritage backgrounds. Table 1 Profile of Study Participants (N = 22) Characteristic Description Age range 12–18 years Educational level Junior and Senior high school Gender Male and female students Heritage background Full Filipino-Chinese and mixed Filipino-Chinese School type Chinese schools undergoing multicultural and coeducational reform Primary languages used English, Filipino; varying exposure to Mandarin and Hokkien Cultural engagement Ranging from high to limited participation in Chinese cultural practices Note : All participants were anonymized, and no identifying personal or school-specific information is reported to protect confidentiality. Data Collection Data were primarily collected through semi-structured, in-depth interviews. This method allowed participants to articulate their experiences in their own words while ensuring coverage of key thematic areas relevant to identity, belonging, and inclusion (Gürhan & Çiftçi, 2023; Herman, 2023 ). This approach aligns with best practices for qualitative data collection with adolescents (Meherali & Louie-Poon, 2021 ). The interview protocol consisted of open-ended questions designed to explore: Self-identification and perceptions of ethnic and national identity. Language use at school and at home. Experiences of inclusion and exclusion within school settings. Emotional responses to academic and cultural expectations. Perceptions of school policies and multicultural practices. Interviews, lasting approximately 20–60 minutes each, were conducted in English or Filipino, based on participant preference, with contextual references to other languages where relevant. All interviews were audio-recorded with explicit consent and subsequently transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were reviewed for accuracy and anonymized using pseudonyms to protect participant identities. Data Analysis Thematic analysis was employed to systematically identify, analyze, and report patterns (themes) within the qualitative data collected from the interviews (Kiger & Varpio, 2020 ; Lochmiller, 2021 ). This method, suitable for educational research (Kushnir, 2025 ), allows for the exploration of both explicit content (semantic level) and underlying meanings (latent level) related to identity, belonging, and adaptation (Wæraas, 2022 ). The data analysis process involved several iterative phases: Familiarization Researchers immersed themselves in the data by reading and re-reading the transcribed interviews to gain a comprehensive understanding of the participants' narratives. Initial Coding Data were coded by identifying significant statements and phrases, which were then grouped into preliminary categories (Creswell & Poth, 2017 ). Theme Development Codes were organized and synthesized into broader themes that captured recurrent patterns and meanings across the participant accounts (Wæraas, 2022 ). NVivo qualitative data analysis software was utilized to organize codes, manage case-based analysis, and examine patterns across participants (Allsop et al., 2022 ; Zhang et al., 2024 ). Refinement of Themes Themes were reviewed and refined through constant comparison across cases to ensure coherence, distinctiveness, and analytic rigor. Reflexive memos were maintained throughout the process to document emerging interpretations and analytical decisions, enhancing the trustworthiness of the study (Robinson & Williams, 2024 ). Emphasis was placed on the frequency with which participants expressed a given theme, rather than merely counting references, to preserve the depth of individual narratives while indicating the prevalence of experiences. Ethical Considerations Given the involvement of minor participants, ethical considerations were paramount. Ethical approval was secured from the relevant institutional review board prior to data collection. Key ethical measures included: Informed Consent and Assent : Parental consent was obtained for all participants, and student assent was secured directly from the adolescents themselves. Participants were fully informed about the study's purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits (Mathews, 2022 ; Weisleder, 2020 ). Right to Withdraw Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty or adverse consequences (Mathews, 2022 ). Confidentiality and Anonymity All data were stored securely, and strict measures were taken to protect participant confidentiality. Identifying information was removed from transcripts, and pseudonyms were used in all reports to ensure anonymity (Lumby et al., 2018 ). Sensitivity and Safety Interviews were conducted with sensitivity to participants' emotional well-being. Questions were framed to avoid distress, and participants were not obliged to disclose information they found uncomfortable. Researchers ensured a safe and comfortable environment for all interactions (Lenton-Maughan et al., 2021 ; Meherali & Louie-Poon, 2021 ). These protocols align with ethical guidelines for conducting qualitative research with young people, prioritizing their safety, dignity, and autonomy (Eldén & Valizadeh, 2025 ). Results This section presents the findings of the qualitative analysis based on interviews with twenty-two (N = 22) Filipino-Chinese students enrolled in Chinese schools undergoing policy-driven multicultural and coeducational reform. Using NVivo-supported thematic analysis, five interrelated themes were identified that illuminate how students experience identity negotiation, language expectations, cultural participation, inclusion, and emotional well-being within restructured school environments. To enhance transparency, frequencies reported in this section indicate the number of participants expressing a theme, consistent with qualitative case-based reporting conventions. An overview of the major themes is presented in Table 2 . Table 2 Overview of Major Themes and Case Frequencies (N = 22) Theme Description Cases (n) Identity negotiation Contextual and situational identity formation 22 Language as resource and burden Heritage and dominant language dynamics 21 Cultural practice Symbolic versus lived cultural engagement 20 Inclusion and belonging Conditional peer and school acceptance 19 Emotional impact and adaptation Emotional responses and coping strategies 17 Identity as Contextual and Negotiated All participants described identity as fluid and context-dependent, rather than fixed or singular. Students rarely identified as exclusively “Chinese” or “Filipino.” Instead, identity shifted across family, school, and peer contexts, reflecting situational adaptation rather than confusion. Within family settings, students were more likely to emphasize Chinese heritage, ancestry, or cultural expectations. In contrast, within school and peer interactions shaped by national curricula and multicultural norms, students more frequently identified as Filipino or Filipino-Chinese. Several participants expressed discomfort when asked to choose a single identity label, noting that identity “changes depending on the situation.” As shown in Table 3 , a substantial proportion of students articulated mixed or ambiguous identity positions. Table 3 Patterns of Ethnic Self-Identification Identity orientation Cases (n) Chinese 9 Filipino 7 Filipino-Chinese / mixed 6 Identity ambiguity 8 Identity negotiation intensified in institutional contexts that implicitly demanded cultural clarity, such as Chinese language classes or cultural performances. In these moments, students reported heightened self-consciousness and concern about being perceived as “not Chinese enough.” Importantly, identity fluidity itself was not experienced as problematic; tension arose primarily when institutional expectations conflicted with students’ lived realities. Language as Both Resource and Burden Language emerged as one of the most emotionally salient aspects of students’ school experiences. Mandarin and, to a lesser extent, Hokkien were widely perceived as markers of cultural authenticity, while English and Filipino functioned as languages of social integration and academic ease. Table 4 summarizes students’ reported language experiences. Table 4 Language Use and Perceived Impact Language experience Cases (n) Exposure to Mandarin 16 Exposure to Hokkien 13 Dominant use of English/Filipino 18 Perceived language difficulty or loss 11 Students with higher proficiency in Mandarin reported greater confidence during language classes and cultural activities. Conversely, those with limited proficiency—particularly students from mixed-heritage households—described anxiety, embarrassment, and academic pressure. Mandatory Chinese language classes were frequently associated with fear of public mistakes and comparison with peers. At the same time, English and Filipino facilitated peer interaction and classroom participation, reinforcing a linguistic hierarchy in which heritage languages were symbolically valued but practically challenging. This duality positioned language as both a cultural resource and a source of emotional strain. Cultural Practice as Symbolic Rather Than Lived Most participants reported engaging in Chinese cultural practices, but engagement was largely event-based and symbolic rather than embedded in daily school life. Major festivals such as Chinese New Year and Mid-Autumn Festival were widely celebrated and viewed positively, providing moments of collective participation and visibility. However, students frequently noted that cultural activities were confined to specific occasions and did not significantly shape everyday interactions or learning experiences. Cultural engagement was often described as performative, emphasizing costumes and performances rather than sustained cultural understanding. Table 5 Engagement in Cultural Practices Cultural practice Cases (n) Festival participation 19 Food-related practices 15 Ancestral rituals 10 Selective or declining practice 12 Food emerged as the most accessible and emotionally neutral cultural marker. In contrast, ancestral rituals were less frequently practiced and more common among students from full-heritage Chinese families. Several participants observed a gradual decline in such practices across generations, attributing this shift to changing family dynamics and reduced institutional emphasis. Conditional Inclusion and Peer Belonging Nineteen students reported experiencing inclusion within school, primarily through friendships and extracurricular activities. However, inclusion was often described as conditional, shaped by students’ ability to align with dominant linguistic and cultural norms. Table 6 Experiences of Inclusion and Exclusion Experience Cases (n) Feeling included 19 Experiencing exclusion 15 Racialized jokes or stereotypes 10 Political stereotyping 8 Students fluent in Filipino or English and familiar with mainstream cultural norms reported smoother social integration. Those perceived as more visibly Chinese reported greater social distance. Experiences of exclusion were often subtle and framed as humor, yet they contributed to discomfort, self-monitoring, and reluctance to challenge peers. Emotional Impact of Dual Expectations Students described a complex emotional landscape shaped by cultural and academic expectations. Pride in heritage coexisted with confusion, fatigue, and pressure. Table 7 Emotional Responses to School Experiences Emotional response Cases (n) Pride 14 Confusion 9 Isolation 7 Burnout or exhaustion 5 Emotional strain was particularly evident among students enrolled in demanding Chinese language tracks. Despite these challenges, students rarely framed their experiences as rejection; instead, they emphasized adjustment and endurance. Adaptive Strategies and Identity Management To navigate competing expectations, students employed a range of adaptive strategies, including code-switching, selective cultural participation, and identity compartmentalization. Table 8 Adaptive Strategies Employed by Students Strategy Cases (n) Code-switching 14 Selective cultural engagement 12 Cultural masking 9 Separation of cultural and political identity 16 A particularly salient strategy involved distinguishing cultural affiliation from political belonging. Many students expressed strong identification as Filipino citizens while maintaining symbolic ties to Chinese heritage. These strategies supported emotional well-being but also reinforced the symbolic nature of cultural engagement within school contexts. Summary of Findings In summary, the findings indicate that Filipino-Chinese students experience policy-driven multicultural schooling as both enabling and constraining. Identity is actively negotiated, language functions as both asset and burden, cultural practice is often symbolic, and inclusion remains conditional. Students respond through adaptive strategies that balance heritage affiliation with civic belonging, enabling them to navigate complex institutional environments during a critical developmental period Discussion The findings show that identity development among these students is neither fixed nor inherently conflicted but is actively managed in response to institutional expectations, peer norms, and linguistic hierarchies. From an educational perspective, the results highlight how schooling contexts shape students’ identity work, sense of inclusion, and learning experiences. Identity as Contextual and Educationally Mediated Consistent with theories of bicultural identity integration, students described identity as fluid and context-dependent rather than singular (Chen et al., 2022 ; Huynh et al., 2011 ). Shifts in identity expression across home, school, and peer contexts were framed as pragmatic adaptation rather than confusion. As one student explained, ‘If I’m at home, I feel more Chinese. In school, I act more Filipino because that’s what people understand’ (R1). This finding aligns with educational research showing that bicultural individuals often engage in "code-switching," "buffering," or "alternating" their identities based on contextual cues to navigate intergroup and intercultural communication (Purpuri et al., 2024 ; Stuart & Ward, 2011 ; Toomey et al., 2013 ). This "fluid identity play" demonstrates that identities are not static but are dynamic and constructed in relation to interactions with others, constantly "in motion" (Cho & Wang, 2020 ; Cummins, 2015 ). However, identity negotiation became emotionally salient when schools implicitly demanded cultural clarity. Chinese language classes and school-based cultural activities emerged as contexts where students felt judged against idealized notions of “authentic” Chineseness. One participant noted, ‘Everyone expects you to already know it. When you don’t, it feels embarrassing’ (R4). While intended to support cultural maintenance, such practices may unintentionally place pressure on students whose lived experiences do not align with institutional expectations, highlighting how educational settings can shape bicultural identity development (Meca et al., 2019 ). Language Learning as Opportunity and Stressor Language played a central role in shaping students’ school experiences. Mandarin and Hokkien were widely regarded as important markers of cultural heritage, yet they also generated anxiety in formal learning contexts. Students with limited proficiency—particularly those from mixed-heritage households—reported stress, fear of making mistakes, and feelings of inadequacy during Chinese language instruction (Driver, 2024 ; Ergüt & Baş, 2021; Sevinç & Dewaele, 2016 ). This emotional burden in heritage language learning contexts, often termed "heritage language anxiety," can stem from a sense of duty or perceived inadequacy when not meeting idealized proficiency levels (Zhou & Liu, 2024 ). As one student shared, ‘Chinese class is the only time I feel left out, because I don’t practice it at home’ (R2). In contrast, English and Filipino functioned as the primary languages of social integration and academic success. Students frequently code-switched to manage peer relationships and classroom participation. Code-switching is recognized as a strategic communication tool that can help students understand complex material and strengthen their social identity, reinforcing inclusivity (Al-musthofa & D’Angelo, 2024 ; Jusuf & Jusuf, 2024 ). This highlights a common tension in multilingual education: heritage languages are culturally valued but structurally marginal in daily schooling due to monolingual ideologies and educational policies that prioritize dominant languages (Burns & Quan, 2025 ; Formosinho et al., 2016 ; Gorp & Verheyen, 2024 ). For educators, this underscores the importance of differentiated heritage language instruction and emotionally supportive learning environments that acknowledge varied linguistic trajectories. Cultural Practice and Symbolic Multiculturalism Most students reported engaging in Chinese cultural practices, but participation was largely event-based and symbolic rather than embedded in everyday school life. Festivals such as Chinese New Year were described as enjoyable and affirming but disconnected from routine learning. As one student observed, ‘We wear costumes and dance, but after that, it’s back to normal school life’ (R5). Food emerged as the most accessible cultural marker, while ancestral rituals were less common and increasingly confined to home contexts. This pattern reflects critiques of multicultural education that prioritize visibility over sustained cultural engagement. Scholars argue that such "superficial multicultural teaching approaches" that focus on holidays and "single-group studies" do not lead to authentic multicultural education and may overshadow structural injustices (Burner et al., 2018 ; Dewilde & Skrefsrud, 2021 ; Freire & Valdez, 2021 ; Gorski, 2006 ). When cultural practices are limited to celebratory moments, students may feel recognized without feeling fully included or understood. More integrated cultural pedagogies, such as culturally responsive and culturally sustaining approaches, are necessary to foster deeper belonging by embedding cultural practices meaningfully into daily school life (Anyichie & Butler, 2023 ; McMahon & Pileggi-Proud, 2022 ). Conditional Inclusion and Peer Belonging Most participants reported feeling generally included in school through friendships and extracurricular activities. However, inclusion was often conditional (Chiu et al., 2025 ; Russell & Mantilla-Blanco, 2022 ). Students who spoke Filipino or English fluently and conformed to dominant social norms described smoother peer interactions, while those perceived as more visibly Chinese experienced greater social distance. Experiences of exclusion were typically subtle and framed as humor or political commentary. One participant recalled, ‘Sometimes they joke about China, and they ask me which side I’m on. It makes me uncomfortable’ (R4). Although rarely described as overt discrimination, such moments align with the concept of "microaggressions"—brief, everyday indignities that communicate hostile or derogatory messages towards marginalized groups (Kwong, 2020 ; Ogunyemi et al., 2019 ; Robinson et al., 2018). These subtle forms of discrimination can produce "identity threat responses" and undermine students’ psychological safety, sense of belonging, and engagement (Oyserman, 2009 ; Robinson et al., 2018; Verkuyten et al., 2019 ). Repeated low-level exclusion, even when polite, can create a sense of being "the Other" and reinforce feelings of non-belonging (Penuel et al., 2023 ; Wiltgren, 2023 ). Emotional Labour, Resilience and Adaptive Strategies Students described a complex emotional landscape characterized by pride in heritage alongside confusion, fatigue, and academic pressure. Emotional strain was particularly evident among those balancing demanding academic tracks with expectations of cultural competence. As one student explained, ‘You’re trying to do well in school and still be Chinese enough. It gets tiring’ (R1). This reflects the "emotional labor" involved in managing dual cultural expectations, where bicultural individuals may strategically switch or compartmentalize their identities to cope with conflicting demands (Espinoza, 2010 ; Grozev & Easterbrook, 2022 ). Despite these pressures, students rarely framed their experiences as rejection. Instead, they emphasized adjustment and endurance, demonstrating resilience and agency. Adaptive strategies included code-switching, selective cultural participation, and cultural masking. A notable strategy was the separation of cultural heritage from political identity. Many students strongly identified as Filipino citizens while maintaining symbolic ties to Chinese culture, allowing them to navigate politicized environments without abandoning cultural affiliation. This capacity to navigate and bridge different cultural worlds is characteristic of bicultural individuals, who often develop enhanced coping strategies and resources from both cultures (Gonzales et al., 2018; Gusman et al., 2023 ; Motti-Stefanidi, 2023 ). Educational Implications The findings suggest that Filipino-Chinese students experience multicultural schooling as both enabling and constraining. Identity is actively negotiated, language learning can be both enriching and stressful, and inclusion is often conditional rather than unconditional. Students rely on adaptive strategies to sustain well-being and participation, revealing the hidden labor involved in navigating dual cultural expectations. For educators and school leaders, these findings highlight the need for more nuanced multicultural and language policies that recognize diverse identity pathways, differentiate heritage language instruction, and foster inclusive peer environments. Supporting students’ learning and well-being requires moving beyond symbolic multiculturalism towards educational practices that acknowledge and reduce the emotional and social costs of identity negotiation. Knowledge Contribution This research offers several significant knowledge contributions. Firstly, it provides a nuanced, empirically-grounded understanding of bicultural identity negotiation among Filipino-Chinese students within the specific context of policy-driven multicultural schooling. By foregrounding the "actual voice" of respondents and utilizing NVivo-supported thematic analysis, this study illuminates the lived complexities of navigating dual cultural heritage in an educational setting, offering rich qualitative data that complements existing quantitative studies on biculturalism and acculturation. The identification of conditional inclusion and symbolic cultural engagement as key themes provides critical insights into the limitations of current multicultural policies. This suggests that such approaches may inadvertently create subtle forms of exclusion and emotional burdens on students, thus highlighting the gap between policy intent and lived experience, particularly for minority students whose sense of belonging and academic adjustment are deeply influenced by how their ethnic and national identities are recognized and supported in school (Baumert et al., 2023 ; Ordóñez-Carabaño et al., 2025 ). Finally, the documentation of students' adaptive strategies offers valuable practical implications for educators and policymakers seeking to foster genuinely inclusive and culturally sustaining school environments, emphasizing the importance of moving beyond superficial diversity celebrations to cultivate deeper, more integrated approaches that support the holistic development of bicultural youth. This work recognizes that a strong ethnic identity is linked to better academic and psychosocial adjustment (Arel, 2014 ; Camacho, 2017 ; Toala, 2021). Recommendation Policy Implications Educational policymakers should undertake a comprehensive review of existing multicultural education policies to ensure they explicitly address the nuances of bicultural identity and move beyond a "one-size-fits-all" approach. Policies should aim to validate diverse identities rather than implicitly demand assimilation (Baysu et al., 2020 ; Prehn et al., 2024 ). Integrated heritage language programs should be prioritized and adequately funded as enriching resources, not burdens, fostering multilingualism and intercultural interaction. This includes supporting teachers and developing curricula that value students' multilingual assets, as bilingual intercultural education can significantly promote effective intercultural interaction and a sense of self-worth (Castro & Mohedano, 2023 ; Pesner & Auld, 1980 ; Probert, 2024 ). Policies should encourage and incentivize the adoption of culturally sustaining pedagogies that embed cultural practices meaningfully into daily school life and across the curriculum, moving beyond tokenistic or event-based celebrations to foster deeper understanding (Paris, 2021 ; Son, 2024 ; Subagyo, 2023 ). Furthermore, policies should actively cultivate environments of unconditional belonging, ensuring all students feel valued and accepted regardless of their linguistic proficiency or cultural background. This includes anti-discrimination frameworks and unconscious bias training for all school staff, recognizing the crucial role of school leaders in fostering multicultural teacher culture and integrating intercultural education (Ezzani & Brooks, 2019 ; Musadad & Adha, 2022 ; Samıer & ElKaleh, 2019 ). Future Research Future research could conduct longitudinal studies to track the long-term impact of multicultural schooling experiences on Filipino-Chinese students' identity development, academic achievement, and mental well-being into young adulthood, providing insights into the lasting effects of current policies, especially concerning the adaptive advantages of dual identities for school adjustment (Chen et al., 2022 ; Spiegler et al., 2021 ). Comparative studies across different multicultural schooling contexts within the Philippines or other countries with similar bicultural populations could identify best practices and context-specific challenges, leading to a broader understanding of effective multicultural education models (Aydın, 2012 ; Muhibbullah et al., 2025 ; Özenç, 2024 ). Investigating the perspectives of parents, teachers, and school leaders would offer a more comprehensive understanding of the ecosystem influencing these students and identify potential areas of misalignment between stakeholders (Ezzani & Brooks, 2019 ; Musadad & Adha, 2022 ; Samıer & ElKaleh, 2019 ). Finally, research should focus on the impact and effectiveness of specific interventions designed to foster bicultural competence, reduce acculturative stress, and enhance social inclusion in multicultural school settings, potentially involving the development and testing of new pedagogical approaches or support programs aimed at promoting positive bicultural identity development (Benbow & Rutland, 2017 ; Gusman et al., 2023 ). Conclusion This study looked at how Filipino-Chinese students negotiate their identities, feel included, and find political belonging in Chinese schools in the Philippines that are experiencing policy-driven multicultural and coeducational reform. The findings show that, while multicultural education programs are intended to foster inclusion and civic integration, they produce complex and sometimes contradictory results for minority adolescents. Rather than simply achieving inclusion, these reforms alter the conditions under which identity, language, culture, and belonging are experienced in everyday school life. The study found that Filipino-Chinese students see identity as fluid, situational, and actively negotiated across family, school, and peer contexts. Identity ambivalence does not arise from uncertainty or deficit, but rather from institutional demands of cultural authenticity that do not correspond to students' lived experiences. Language policies and practices, particularly those related to Mandarin instruction, serve as both cultural resources and emotional stressors, perpetuating inequalities between heritage and dominant languages. Similarly, cultural activities are frequently reduced to symbols and events, which limits their ability to promote long-term cultural recognition or deeper belonging. Importantly, participation in school communities is frequently perceived as conditional, influenced by linguistic proficiency, cultural visibility, and larger sociopolitical narratives. In response, students show resilience and agency by employing adaptive techniques such as code-switching, selective cultural involvement, and the deliberate separation of cultural affiliation from political allegiance. These tactics promote involvement and emotional regulation while also exposing the hidden labor necessary to negotiate intercultural schooling. Overall, the study adds child-centered data to discussions on multicultural education by emphasizing the gap between policy aims and actual experiences. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8828660","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":588146190,"identity":"493d8274-cbed-4b0c-8b3a-f69363c73c13","order_by":0,"name":"Joshua Agpaoa","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA9UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYGNgTvAxCzsZOihXEGSAszYYsQWph5wCQB9czt7c8e89TY2W1nP3zws82vbfJ8zAyMHz7m4HFYzxlzY55jyck7e9KSpXP7bhu2MTMwS87chkfLjBw2aR425mSDAzkG0rk9txmBWtiYefFqSX8mzfOvPtng/Bvj35Y9t+2J0JJgJs3bdtjO4EaOmTTDj9uJhLX0nDGTnNt3PMFyxrM0y96G28ltzIzNeP1iCAwxiTffqu3N+ZMP3/jx57bt/Pbmgx8+4tPSAKETN4DtbAOTDbjVA4E8lLY3AFN/8CoeBaNgFIyCEQoAv+5PJTPGEr0AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7615-8263","institution":"Jinan University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joshua","middleName":"","lastName":"Agpaoa","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-09 09:42:55","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8828660/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8828660/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102316222,"identity":"b01e929d-4018-4c16-96cc-9dfbb7eb915d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 12:43:04","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":63777,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual framework of Filipino-Chinese students’ lived experiences in policy-driven multicultural schooling\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8828660/v1/6519173334a9dc6b1477f160.png"},{"id":102316284,"identity":"fca99e06-17ec-4693-b1a3-3ae2e4f82cd9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 12:43:30","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1267459,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8828660/v1/f5d49e62-1566-44a6-ab49-607597d2aa99.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNegotiating Identity, Inclusion, and Political Belonging:Filipino-Chinese Students’ Experiences in Policy-Driven Multicultural Schooling\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe increasing diversity in global education systems has led to widespread implementation of multicultural policies, intended to foster equity and inclusion among students from varied cultural backgrounds (Celeste et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Froehlich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These policies aim to recognize diverse identities and promote democratic participation, yet their practical implications for ethnic minority students, particularly concerning identity development and belonging, remain a critical area of ongoing research (Abacioglu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Studies emphasize that schools play a pivotal role in shaping how young people perceive themselves and their sense of affiliation, with environments that affirm diversity contributing positively to identity formation and well-being (Gharaei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Graham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, despite these inclusive intentions, minority students often navigate complex dynamics where their cultural resources may not fully align with institutional norms (Allen, 2018; Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). This can lead to a nuanced process of identity negotiation and, at times, a sense of \"conditional belonging\" within educational settings, where acceptance is contingent upon conformity to certain dominant expectations (Chiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Yodovich, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). While research explores bicultural identity formation and the challenges faced by diaspora students in various contexts (Purpuri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Rapimán et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of specific ethnic groups within policy-driven multicultural schooling is crucial. Such investigations are vital for informing more culturally responsive and developmentally sensitive educational approaches that genuinely support the holistic well-being and equitable integration of all students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these general benefits, the implementation of multicultural education policies, particularly in diverse regions like Southeast Asia, often presents complexities. Studies indicate that while these policies aim for inclusion, they can inadvertently reproduce cultural hierarchies or lead to a selective representation of minority cultures, potentially marginalizing certain heritage practices (Patras et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). There remains a significant gap in understanding the lived experiences of ethnic minority youth within these policy-driven school environments, especially concerning how they negotiate their identities and sense of belonging (Afifuddin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Gharaei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLiterature review\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis section lays the groundwork for the study by exploring established literature on multicultural education, identity development among minority youth, and the concept of belonging within educational settings. It concludes by proposing an integrated theoretical framework to guide the research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMulticultural Education Policies and Their Impact\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMulticultural education policies are crucial for fostering equality and inclusivity in increasingly diverse classrooms globally. These policies are designed to promote cultural awareness, respect for diversity, and equal opportunities for all students. However, the implementation of multicultural education comes with its own set of challenges and benefits (Naz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical perspectives on multicultural education highlight that despite intentions to celebrate diversity, these policies can often fall short of addressing structural inequalities and institutional racism (Parameswaran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kavanagh \u0026amp; Dupont, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Some approaches have been critiqued for overemphasizing identity affirmation and multicultural content without sufficiently tackling the systemic forces that perpetuate inequities (Kavanagh \u0026amp; Dupont, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Critics argue that multicultural education can sometimes reduce culture to a monolithic and static entity, rather than recognizing its dynamic and fluid nature. Furthermore, an overemphasis on multiculturalism in schools can lead to identity politics, where students may prioritize their cultural or ethnic group identity over a national identity (Mazibuko \u0026amp; Ngidi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This calls for more critical and transformative approaches that integrate a deeper understanding of oppression and power relations in education (Dimofte, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Parameswaran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Spaas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Kavanagh \u0026amp; Dupont, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Some scholars suggest that multicultural education policies, particularly in Europe, are explicitly framed within national contexts, focusing on justice for minority groups within the nation-state, often through curriculum changes or teacher attitudes, rather than addressing broader structural inequalities (Osler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIdentity Development and Negotiation in Bicultural Youth\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIdentity formation during adolescence is a complex process influenced by various factors such as family, peers, education, and social culture (Ye, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). For ethnoracially minoritized and immigrant youth, identity formation involves integrating social identities derived from their ethnic-racial group memberships and their connection to the country in which they reside (Safa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This process is often described by models of bicultural identity integration, which assess how individuals subjectively perceive the integration of their multiple cultures and cultural identities (Huynh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Schmidt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Schwartz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). High bicultural identity integration can lead to better psychological and sociocultural adaptation (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Grigoryev et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcculturation theories explain how individuals adapt to dominant cultural contexts. Berry's bidimensional model suggests various acculturation strategies, including integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization, based on the degree of heritage culture maintenance and adoption of the destination culture (Crocetti et al., 2023; Grigoryev et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)). Integration, where individuals maintain their own culture while being open to others, is often seen as beneficial (Grigoryev et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, students may also employ strategies like code-switching, buffering, bridging, or passing to negotiate their identity and communication in intergroup contexts (Purpuri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). These strategies allow bicultural individuals to manage their identity display in response to cultural contexts (Purpuri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Safa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Conflicts between ethnic and ideal selves can also impede academic success for ethnic minority students (Debrosse et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Students from minority groups may struggle with establishing a healthy personal concept when faced with expectations derived from the majority culture, leading to a sense of alienation if they conform, or exposure to prejudice if they resist.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Concept of Belonging in Educational Contexts\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA strong sense of school belonging is defined as the extent to which students feel personally accepted, respected, included, and supported by others in the school social environment (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Gharaei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This feeling is closely related to bicultural identity integration and academic resilience (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Factors influencing students’ sense of belonging include individual characteristics, peer relations, teacher-student relationships, and the overall school climate (Baek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Gharaei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Graham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Research indicates that positive school climate and positive interpersonal relations with teachers and peers are key predictors of belonging (Gharaei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, social exclusion can significantly impact adolescents' well-being and school adjustment (Juvonen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Plenty et al., 2023). Minority students, in particular, may experience perceived inequality and exclusion, leading to negative consequences such as declining academic self-concept and psychological problems. Explicit ethnic bias, subtle forms of exclusion, and discrimination can threaten ethnic-racial identity and compromise specific social identity needs like belongingness and esteem (Plenty et al., 2023; Verkuyten et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that inclusion is often experienced conditionally, where acceptance depends on conformity to dominant norms. Schools play a critical role in structuring social hierarchies and determining which identities are recognized and rewarded, impacting how minority youth develop.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheoretical Foundations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study will adopt an integrated theoretical framework, building upon insights from:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eMulticultural Education Theories\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis lens critically examines how policies and practices in schools, including language policies and curriculum, shape the experiences of bicultural students and contribute to both inclusion and potential marginalization (Osler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Parameswaran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kavanagh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eIdentity Development Theories\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis includes frameworks of bicultural identity integration and acculturation, which elucidate how adolescents negotiate multiple cultural identities, manage cultural dissonance, and employ adaptive strategies for psychosocial adjustment (Crocetti et al., 2023; Grigoryev et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Huynh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Safa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Schmidt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSocial Belonging Theories\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis perspective helps to understand the fundamental need for social connection and how school environments, peer dynamics, and perceived inclusion or exclusion impact students' sense of belonging and emotional safety (Gharaei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Juvonen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Plenty et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eConceptual Framework\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe conceptual framework, depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, posits that the experiences of Filipino-Chinese students are shaped by a hierarchical yet interconnected system, moving from broad governmental mandates to individual outcomes. This model integrates insights from multicultural education, identity development, and social belonging theories to understand how students negotiate their identities and sense of inclusion within policy-driven educational environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe framework is structured as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eState Policy \u0026amp; Sociopolitical Context\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis top layer acknowledges the overarching external forces that influence the educational landscape. It encompasses government directives, such as DepEd Orders, national inclusion policies, and \"Filipinization\" initiatives aimed at fostering a national identity. The prevailing geopolitical climate also contributes to this context, potentially affecting perceptions and treatments of specific ethnic groups within the nation (Patras et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These macro-level policies set the stage for how diversity and national identity are conceptualized and managed within the educational system (Afifuddin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSchool-Level Transformation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDirectly influenced by state policies, this layer represents the operational changes within Chinese schools. This includes shifts towards coeducation, the integration of multicultural curricula, modifications in language policies (e.g., emphasis on Filipino and English alongside Mandarin), and the evolving school culture that reflects these transformations (Abacioglu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Naz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Parameswaran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These school-level adaptations are the direct mechanisms through which state policies are enacted and experienced by students, shaping their daily educational environment (Naz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudent Lived Experiences\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis central layer captures the subjective realities of Filipino-Chinese students as they navigate the transformed school environment. It focuses on their active processes of Identity Negotiation—how they integrate their Filipino and Chinese cultural identities (Safa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It also encompasses their sense of Belonging within the school community, ranging from full inclusion to feelings of exclusion or conditional acceptance (Gharaei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Graham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These lived experiences are dynamic and influenced by both the explicit and implicit signals from the school context (Baek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOutcomes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe final layer details the various potential outcomes for students arising from their lived experiences. These include the development of Intercultural Competence, an ability to navigate and interact effectively across different cultural contexts. It also involves degrees of Civic Integration, reflecting their identification with the broader national society. Furthermore, students may experience Identity Ambivalence, grappling with conflicting cultural loyalties or expectations, or develop strategies of Adaptive Hybridity, where they creatively blend aspects of their multiple cultural identities to thrive within their environment (Huynh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Schmidt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section delineates the research design, participant selection, data collection procedures, and data analysis strategies employed in this study. It outlines the ethical considerations that guided the research process to ensure the well-being and rights of the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResearch Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study adopted a qualitative phenomenological research design to explore the lived experiences of Filipino-Chinese students regarding identity negotiation, inclusion, and political belonging within policy-driven multicultural schooling. A phenomenological approach aims to understand the meaning and essence of individuals' subjective experiences through in-depth inquiry (Gagura, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This design is particularly suited for topics that are not fully understood, allowing researchers to delve into personal perceptions and the meanings individuals attribute to events (ÖTELEŞ et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yüksel \u0026amp; Yıldırım, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). By focusing on detailed narratives, phenomenology provides rich insights into complex social situations and the perspectives of participants (Robinson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParticipants and Sampling\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study involved a small number of participants to facilitate extensive and prolonged engagement, which is characteristic of phenomenological inquiry (Creswell \u0026amp; Poth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Megheirkouni \u0026amp; Moir, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Employing purposive sampling, a common method in phenomenological studies, participants were selected based on specific criteria relevant to the research questions (Campbell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This approach allowed for the recruitment of students who could offer rich descriptions of their experiences as Filipino-Chinese individuals within multicultural school contexts. Participants were drawn from Chinese schools in the Philippines that have implemented multicultural and coeducational reforms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of twenty-two (N = 22) junior high school students, aged between 12 and 16 years, participated in the study. The sample included both male and female students from full Filipino-Chinese and mixed Filipino-Chinese heritage backgrounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfile of Study Participants (N = 22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12–18 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducational level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJunior and Senior high school\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale and female students\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeritage background\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFull Filipino-Chinese and mixed Filipino-Chinese\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChinese schools undergoing multicultural and coeducational reform\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary languages used\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnglish, Filipino; varying exposure to Mandarin and Hokkien\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRanging from high to limited participation in Chinese cultural practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote\u003c/b\u003e: All participants were anonymized, and no identifying personal or school-specific information is reported to protect confidentiality.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were primarily collected through semi-structured, in-depth interviews. This method allowed participants to articulate their experiences in their own words while ensuring coverage of key thematic areas relevant to identity, belonging, and inclusion (Gürhan \u0026amp; Çiftçi, 2023; Herman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This approach aligns with best practices for qualitative data collection with adolescents (Meherali \u0026amp; Louie-Poon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe interview protocol consisted of open-ended questions designed to explore:\u003c/p\u003e\u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-identification and perceptions of ethnic and national identity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLanguage use at school and at home.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperiences of inclusion and exclusion within school settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional responses to academic and cultural expectations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceptions of school policies and multicultural practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e\u003cp\u003e Interviews, lasting approximately 20–60 minutes each, were conducted in English or Filipino, based on participant preference, with contextual references to other languages where relevant. All interviews were audio-recorded with explicit consent and subsequently transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were reviewed for accuracy and anonymized using pseudonyms to protect participant identities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThematic analysis was employed to systematically identify, analyze, and report patterns (themes) within the qualitative data collected from the interviews (Kiger \u0026amp; Varpio, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Lochmiller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This method, suitable for educational research (Kushnir, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), allows for the exploration of both explicit content (semantic level) and underlying meanings (latent level) related to identity, belonging, and adaptation (Wæraas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data analysis process involved several iterative phases:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eFamiliarization\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Researchers immersed themselves in the data by reading and re-reading the transcribed interviews to gain a comprehensive understanding of the participants' narratives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInitial Coding\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were coded by identifying significant statements and phrases, which were then grouped into preliminary categories (Creswell \u0026amp; Poth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eTheme Development\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCodes were organized and synthesized into broader themes that captured recurrent patterns and meanings across the participant accounts (Wæraas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). NVivo qualitative data analysis software was utilized to organize codes, manage case-based analysis, and examine patterns across participants (Allsop et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eRefinement of Themes\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThemes were reviewed and refined through constant comparison across cases to ensure coherence, distinctiveness, and analytic rigor. Reflexive memos were maintained throughout the process to document emerging interpretations and analytical decisions, enhancing the trustworthiness of the study (Robinson \u0026amp; Williams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Emphasis was placed on the frequency with which participants expressed a given theme, rather than merely counting references, to preserve the depth of individual narratives while indicating the prevalence of experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the involvement of minor participants, ethical considerations were paramount. Ethical approval was secured from the relevant institutional review board prior to data collection. Key ethical measures included:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eand Assent\u003c/em\u003e: Parental consent was obtained for all participants, and student assent was secured directly from the adolescents themselves. Participants were fully informed about the study's purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits (Mathews, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Weisleder, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eRight to Withdraw\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty or adverse consequences (Mathews, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConfidentiality and Anonymity\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll data were stored securely, and strict measures were taken to protect participant confidentiality. Identifying information was removed from transcripts, and pseudonyms were used in all reports to ensure anonymity (Lumby et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSensitivity and Safety\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Interviews were conducted with sensitivity to participants' emotional well-being. Questions were framed to avoid distress, and participants were not obliged to disclose information they found uncomfortable. Researchers ensured a safe and comfortable environment for all interactions (Lenton-Maughan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Meherali \u0026amp; Louie-Poon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese protocols align with ethical guidelines for conducting qualitative research with young people, prioritizing their safety, dignity, and autonomy (Eldén \u0026amp; Valizadeh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section presents the findings of the qualitative analysis based on interviews with twenty-two (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22) Filipino-Chinese students enrolled in Chinese schools undergoing policy-driven multicultural and coeducational reform. Using NVivo-supported thematic analysis, five interrelated themes were identified that illuminate how students experience identity negotiation, language expectations, cultural participation, inclusion, and emotional well-being within restructured school environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo enhance transparency, frequencies reported in this section indicate the number of participants expressing a theme, consistent with qualitative case-based reporting conventions. An overview of the major themes is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverview of Major Themes and Case Frequencies (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheme\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentity negotiation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContextual and situational identity formation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLanguage as resource and burden\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeritage and dominant language dynamics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural practice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSymbolic versus lived cultural engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInclusion and belonging\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConditional peer and school acceptance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional impact and adaptation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional responses and coping strategies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eIdentity as Contextual and Negotiated\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll participants described identity as fluid and context-dependent, rather than fixed or singular. Students rarely identified as exclusively \u0026ldquo;Chinese\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;Filipino.\u0026rdquo; Instead, identity shifted across family, school, and peer contexts, reflecting situational adaptation rather than confusion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin family settings, students were more likely to emphasize Chinese heritage, ancestry, or cultural expectations. In contrast, within school and peer interactions shaped by national curricula and multicultural norms, students more frequently identified as Filipino or Filipino-Chinese. Several participants expressed discomfort when asked to choose a single identity label, noting that identity \u0026ldquo;changes depending on the situation.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, a substantial proportion of students articulated mixed or ambiguous identity positions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePatterns of Ethnic Self-Identification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentity orientation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChinese\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilipino\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilipino-Chinese / mixed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentity ambiguity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentity negotiation intensified in institutional contexts that implicitly demanded cultural clarity, such as Chinese language classes or cultural performances. In these moments, students reported heightened self-consciousness and concern about being perceived as \u0026ldquo;not Chinese enough.\u0026rdquo; Importantly, identity fluidity itself was not experienced as problematic; tension arose primarily when institutional expectations conflicted with students\u0026rsquo; lived realities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLanguage as Both Resource and Burden\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLanguage emerged as one of the most emotionally salient aspects of students\u0026rsquo; school experiences. Mandarin and, to a lesser extent, Hokkien were widely perceived as markers of cultural authenticity, while English and Filipino functioned as languages of social integration and academic ease.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e summarizes students\u0026rsquo; reported language experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLanguage Use and Perceived Impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLanguage experience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExposure to Mandarin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExposure to Hokkien\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDominant use of English/Filipino\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived language difficulty or loss\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents with higher proficiency in Mandarin reported greater confidence during language classes and cultural activities. Conversely, those with limited proficiency\u0026mdash;particularly students from mixed-heritage households\u0026mdash;described anxiety, embarrassment, and academic pressure. Mandatory Chinese language classes were frequently associated with fear of public mistakes and comparison with peers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e At the same time, English and Filipino facilitated peer interaction and classroom participation, reinforcing a linguistic hierarchy in which heritage languages were symbolically valued but practically challenging. This duality positioned language as both a cultural resource and a source of emotional strain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCultural Practice as Symbolic Rather Than Lived\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost participants reported engaging in Chinese cultural practices, but engagement was largely event-based and symbolic rather than embedded in daily school life. Major festivals such as Chinese New Year and Mid-Autumn Festival were widely celebrated and viewed positively, providing moments of collective participation and visibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, students frequently noted that cultural activities were confined to specific occasions and did not significantly shape everyday interactions or learning experiences. Cultural engagement was often described as performative, emphasizing costumes and performances rather than sustained cultural understanding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngagement in Cultural Practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural practice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFestival participation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood-related practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAncestral rituals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelective or declining practice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood emerged as the most accessible and emotionally neutral cultural marker. In contrast, ancestral rituals were less frequently practiced and more common among students from full-heritage Chinese families. Several participants observed a gradual decline in such practices across generations, attributing this shift to changing family dynamics and reduced institutional emphasis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConditional Inclusion and Peer Belonging\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNineteen students reported experiencing inclusion within school, primarily through friendships and extracurricular activities. However, inclusion was often described as conditional, shaped by students\u0026rsquo; ability to align with dominant linguistic and cultural norms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperiences of Inclusion and Exclusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeeling included\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperiencing exclusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRacialized jokes or stereotypes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolitical stereotyping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents fluent in Filipino or English and familiar with mainstream cultural norms reported smoother social integration. Those perceived as more visibly Chinese reported greater social distance. Experiences of exclusion were often subtle and framed as humor, yet they contributed to discomfort, self-monitoring, and reluctance to challenge peers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEmotional Impact of Dual Expectations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents described a complex emotional landscape shaped by cultural and academic expectations. Pride in heritage coexisted with confusion, fatigue, and pressure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional Responses to School Experiences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional response\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePride\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIsolation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurnout or exhaustion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional strain was particularly evident among students enrolled in demanding Chinese language tracks. Despite these challenges, students rarely framed their experiences as rejection; instead, they emphasized adjustment and endurance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAdaptive Strategies and Identity Management\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo navigate competing expectations, students employed a range of adaptive strategies, including code-switching, selective cultural participation, and identity compartmentalization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdaptive Strategies Employed by Students\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrategy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCode-switching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelective cultural engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural masking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeparation of cultural and political identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA particularly salient strategy involved distinguishing cultural affiliation from political belonging. Many students expressed strong identification as Filipino citizens while maintaining symbolic ties to Chinese heritage. These strategies supported emotional well-being but also reinforced the symbolic nature of cultural engagement within school contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSummary of Findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, the findings indicate that Filipino-Chinese students experience policy-driven multicultural schooling as both enabling and constraining. Identity is actively negotiated, language functions as both asset and burden, cultural practice is often symbolic, and inclusion remains conditional. Students respond through adaptive strategies that balance heritage affiliation with civic belonging, enabling them to navigate complex institutional environments during a critical developmental period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings show that identity development among these students is neither fixed nor inherently conflicted but is actively managed in response to institutional expectations, peer norms, and linguistic hierarchies. From an educational perspective, the results highlight how schooling contexts shape students\u0026rsquo; identity work, sense of inclusion, and learning experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eIdentity as Contextual and Educationally Mediated\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistent with theories of bicultural identity integration, students described identity as fluid and context-dependent rather than singular (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Huynh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Shifts in identity expression across home, school, and peer contexts were framed as pragmatic adaptation rather than confusion. As one student explained, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;If I\u0026rsquo;m at home, I feel more Chinese. In school, I act more Filipino because that\u0026rsquo;s what people understand\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e (R1). This finding aligns with educational research showing that bicultural individuals often engage in \"code-switching,\" \"buffering,\" or \"alternating\" their identities based on contextual cues to navigate intergroup and intercultural communication (Purpuri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Stuart \u0026amp; Ward, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Toomey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). This \"fluid identity play\" demonstrates that identities are not static but are dynamic and constructed in relation to interactions with others, constantly \"in motion\" (Cho \u0026amp; Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Cummins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, identity negotiation became emotionally salient when schools implicitly demanded cultural clarity. Chinese language classes and school-based cultural activities emerged as contexts where students felt judged against idealized notions of \u0026ldquo;authentic\u0026rdquo; Chineseness. One participant noted, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Everyone expects you to already know it. When you don\u0026rsquo;t, it feels embarrassing\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e (R4). While intended to support cultural maintenance, such practices may unintentionally place pressure on students whose lived experiences do not align with institutional expectations, highlighting how educational settings can shape bicultural identity development (Meca et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLanguage Learning as Opportunity and Stressor\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLanguage played a central role in shaping students\u0026rsquo; school experiences. Mandarin and Hokkien were widely regarded as important markers of cultural heritage, yet they also generated anxiety in formal learning contexts. Students with limited proficiency\u0026mdash;particularly those from mixed-heritage households\u0026mdash;reported stress, fear of making mistakes, and feelings of inadequacy during Chinese language instruction (Driver, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Erg\u0026uuml;t \u0026amp; Baş, 2021; Sevin\u0026ccedil; \u0026amp; Dewaele, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This emotional burden in heritage language learning contexts, often termed \"heritage language anxiety,\" can stem from a sense of duty or perceived inadequacy when not meeting idealized proficiency levels (Zhou \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). As one student shared, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Chinese class is the only time I feel left out, because I don\u0026rsquo;t practice it at home\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e (R2).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, English and Filipino functioned as the primary languages of social integration and academic success. Students frequently code-switched to manage peer relationships and classroom participation. Code-switching is recognized as a strategic communication tool that can help students understand complex material and strengthen their social identity, reinforcing inclusivity (Al-musthofa \u0026amp; D\u0026rsquo;Angelo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Jusuf \u0026amp; Jusuf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This highlights a common tension in multilingual education: heritage languages are culturally valued but structurally marginal in daily schooling due to monolingual ideologies and educational policies that prioritize dominant languages (Burns \u0026amp; Quan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Formosinho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Gorp \u0026amp; Verheyen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). For educators, this underscores the importance of differentiated heritage language instruction and emotionally supportive learning environments that acknowledge varied linguistic trajectories.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCultural Practice and Symbolic Multiculturalism\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost students reported engaging in Chinese cultural practices, but participation was largely event-based and symbolic rather than embedded in everyday school life. Festivals such as Chinese New Year were described as enjoyable and affirming but disconnected from routine learning. As one student observed, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;We wear costumes and dance, but after that, it\u0026rsquo;s back to normal school life\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e (R5).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood emerged as the most accessible cultural marker, while ancestral rituals were less common and increasingly confined to home contexts. This pattern reflects critiques of multicultural education that prioritize visibility over sustained cultural engagement. Scholars argue that such \"superficial multicultural teaching approaches\" that focus on holidays and \"single-group studies\" do not lead to authentic multicultural education and may overshadow structural injustices (Burner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Dewilde \u0026amp; Skrefsrud, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Freire \u0026amp; Valdez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Gorski, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). When cultural practices are limited to celebratory moments, students may feel recognized without feeling fully included or understood. More integrated cultural pedagogies, such as culturally responsive and culturally sustaining approaches, are necessary to foster deeper belonging by embedding cultural practices meaningfully into daily school life (Anyichie \u0026amp; Butler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; McMahon \u0026amp; Pileggi-Proud, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eConditional Inclusion and Peer Belonging\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e Most participants reported feeling generally included in school through friendships and extracurricular activities. However, inclusion was often conditional (Chiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Russell \u0026amp; Mantilla-Blanco, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Students who spoke Filipino or English fluently and conformed to dominant social norms described smoother peer interactions, while those perceived as more visibly Chinese experienced greater social distance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperiences of exclusion were typically subtle and framed as humor or political commentary. One participant recalled, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Sometimes they joke about China, and they ask me which side I\u0026rsquo;m on. It makes me uncomfortable\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e (R4). Although rarely described as overt discrimination, such moments align with the concept of \"microaggressions\"\u0026mdash;brief, everyday indignities that communicate hostile or derogatory messages towards marginalized groups (Kwong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ogunyemi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Robinson et al., 2018). These subtle forms of discrimination can produce \"identity threat responses\" and undermine students\u0026rsquo; psychological safety, sense of belonging, and engagement (Oyserman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Robinson et al., 2018; Verkuyten et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Repeated low-level exclusion, even when polite, can create a sense of being \"the Other\" and reinforce feelings of non-belonging (Penuel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Wiltgren, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEmotional Labour, Resilience and Adaptive Strategies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents described a complex emotional landscape characterized by pride in heritage alongside confusion, fatigue, and academic pressure. Emotional strain was particularly evident among those balancing demanding academic tracks with expectations of cultural competence. As one student explained, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;You\u0026rsquo;re trying to do well in school and still be Chinese enough. It gets tiring\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e (R1). This reflects the \"emotional labor\" involved in managing dual cultural expectations, where bicultural individuals may strategically switch or compartmentalize their identities to cope with conflicting demands (Espinoza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Grozev \u0026amp; Easterbrook, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these pressures, students rarely framed their experiences as rejection. Instead, they emphasized adjustment and endurance, demonstrating resilience and agency. Adaptive strategies included code-switching, selective cultural participation, and cultural masking. A notable strategy was the separation of cultural heritage from political identity. Many students strongly identified as Filipino citizens while maintaining symbolic ties to Chinese culture, allowing them to navigate politicized environments without abandoning cultural affiliation. This capacity to navigate and bridge different cultural worlds is characteristic of bicultural individuals, who often develop enhanced coping strategies and resources from both cultures (Gonzales et al., 2018; Gusman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Motti-Stefanidi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec32\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEducational Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings suggest that Filipino-Chinese students experience multicultural schooling as both enabling and constraining. Identity is actively negotiated, language learning can be both enriching and stressful, and inclusion is often conditional rather than unconditional. Students rely on adaptive strategies to sustain well-being and participation, revealing the hidden labor involved in navigating dual cultural expectations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor educators and school leaders, these findings highlight the need for more nuanced multicultural and language policies that recognize diverse identity pathways, differentiate heritage language instruction, and foster inclusive peer environments. Supporting students\u0026rsquo; learning and well-being requires moving beyond symbolic multiculturalism towards educational practices that acknowledge and reduce the emotional and social costs of identity negotiation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec33\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eKnowledge Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research offers several significant knowledge contributions. Firstly, it provides a nuanced, empirically-grounded understanding of bicultural identity negotiation among Filipino-Chinese students within the specific context of policy-driven multicultural schooling. By foregrounding the \"actual voice\" of respondents and utilizing NVivo-supported thematic analysis, this study illuminates the lived complexities of navigating dual cultural heritage in an educational setting, offering rich qualitative data that complements existing quantitative studies on biculturalism and acculturation. The identification of conditional inclusion and symbolic cultural engagement as key themes provides critical insights into the limitations of current multicultural policies. This suggests that such approaches may inadvertently create subtle forms of exclusion and emotional burdens on students, thus highlighting the gap between policy intent and lived experience, particularly for minority students whose sense of belonging and academic adjustment are deeply influenced by how their ethnic and national identities are recognized and supported in school (Baumert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ord\u0026oacute;\u0026ntilde;ez-Caraba\u0026ntilde;o et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, the documentation of students' adaptive strategies offers valuable practical implications for educators and policymakers seeking to foster genuinely inclusive and culturally sustaining school environments, emphasizing the importance of moving beyond superficial diversity celebrations to cultivate deeper, more integrated approaches that support the holistic development of bicultural youth. This work recognizes that a strong ethnic identity is linked to better academic and psychosocial adjustment (Arel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Camacho, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Toala, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec34\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRecommendation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec35\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePolicy Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducational policymakers should undertake a comprehensive review of existing multicultural education policies to ensure they explicitly address the nuances of bicultural identity and move beyond a \"one-size-fits-all\" approach. Policies should aim to validate diverse identities rather than implicitly demand assimilation (Baysu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Prehn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Integrated heritage language programs should be prioritized and adequately funded as enriching resources, not burdens, fostering multilingualism and intercultural interaction. This includes supporting teachers and developing curricula that value students' multilingual assets, as bilingual intercultural education can significantly promote effective intercultural interaction and a sense of self-worth (Castro \u0026amp; Mohedano, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Pesner \u0026amp; Auld, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Probert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Policies should encourage and incentivize the adoption of culturally sustaining pedagogies that embed cultural practices meaningfully into daily school life and across the curriculum, moving beyond tokenistic or event-based celebrations to foster deeper understanding (Paris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Son, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Subagyo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, policies should actively cultivate environments of unconditional belonging, ensuring all students feel valued and accepted regardless of their linguistic proficiency or cultural background. This includes anti-discrimination frameworks and unconscious bias training for all school staff, recognizing the crucial role of school leaders in fostering multicultural teacher culture and integrating intercultural education (Ezzani \u0026amp; Brooks, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Musadad \u0026amp; Adha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Samıer \u0026amp; ElKaleh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFuture Research\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuture research could conduct longitudinal studies to track the long-term impact of multicultural schooling experiences on Filipino-Chinese students' identity development, academic achievement, and mental well-being into young adulthood, providing insights into the lasting effects of current policies, especially concerning the adaptive advantages of dual identities for school adjustment (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Spiegler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Comparative studies across different multicultural schooling contexts within the Philippines or other countries with similar bicultural populations could identify best practices and context-specific challenges, leading to a broader understanding of effective multicultural education models (Aydın, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Muhibbullah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; \u0026Ouml;zen\u0026ccedil;, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Investigating the perspectives of parents, teachers, and school leaders would offer a more comprehensive understanding of the ecosystem influencing these students and identify potential areas of misalignment between stakeholders (Ezzani \u0026amp; Brooks, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Musadad \u0026amp; Adha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Samıer \u0026amp; ElKaleh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, research should focus on the impact and effectiveness of specific interventions designed to foster bicultural competence, reduce acculturative stress, and enhance social inclusion in multicultural school settings, potentially involving the development and testing of new pedagogical approaches or support programs aimed at promoting positive bicultural identity development (Benbow \u0026amp; Rutland, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Gusman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study looked at how Filipino-Chinese students negotiate their identities, feel included, and find political belonging in Chinese schools in the Philippines that are experiencing policy-driven multicultural and coeducational reform. The findings show that, while multicultural education programs are intended to foster inclusion and civic integration, they produce complex and sometimes contradictory results for minority adolescents. Rather than simply achieving inclusion, these reforms alter the conditions under which identity, language, culture, and belonging are experienced in everyday school life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study found that Filipino-Chinese students see identity as fluid, situational, and actively negotiated across family, school, and peer contexts. Identity ambivalence does not arise from uncertainty or deficit, but rather from institutional demands of cultural authenticity that do not correspond to students' lived experiences. Language policies and practices, particularly those related to Mandarin instruction, serve as both cultural resources and emotional stressors, perpetuating inequalities between heritage and dominant languages. Similarly, cultural activities are frequently reduced to symbols and events, which limits their ability to promote long-term cultural recognition or deeper belonging.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportantly, participation in school communities is frequently perceived as conditional, influenced by linguistic proficiency, cultural visibility, and larger sociopolitical narratives. In response, students show resilience and agency by employing adaptive techniques such as code-switching, selective cultural involvement, and the deliberate separation of cultural affiliation from political allegiance. These tactics promote involvement and emotional regulation while also exposing the hidden labor necessary to negotiate intercultural schooling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the study adds child-centered data to discussions on multicultural education by emphasizing the gap between policy aims and actual experiences. It emphasizes the importance of educational approaches that go beyond symbolic multiculturalism and focus on culturally sustaining, emotionally supportive, and developmentally sensitive practices that accept multiple identity pathways while building true, unconditional belonging for minority youth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEndnotes\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data analyzed in this article form part of the author\u0026rsquo;s doctoral dissertation research. In accordance with ethical research practices, the dataset is not publicly archived but may be made available by the author upon reasonable request. The author declares no conflict of interest. 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Int J Bilingual Educ Biling 28(2):237\u0026ndash;256. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2024.2419428\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/13670050.2024.2419428\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Multicultural Education, Filipino-Chinese Students, Identity Development, Education Policy, Child Well-being","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8828660/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8828660/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eEducation policies promoting multicultural inclusion increasingly reshape minority schooling across Asia, yet their implications for children\u0026rsquo;s identity development and well-being remain underexplored. This qualitative study examines how Filipino-Chinese students experience identity negotiation, belonging, and participation within Chinese schools in the Philippines that have transitioned to coeducational and multicultural models under national education reforms. Drawing on in-depth interviews with twenty-two students and thematic analysis supported by NVivo, the study explores how language policy, curriculum restructuring, and school culture intersect with adolescent developmental processes. Findings indicate that while inclusion-oriented reforms expand civic identification and intercultural interaction, they simultaneously reduce the visibility of heritage language and cultural practices, producing identity ambivalence. Students respond through adaptive strategies that distinguish cultural affiliation from political belonging. The study contributes child-centered evidence to education policy debates on multicultural inclusion, minority schooling, and youth well-being.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Negotiating Identity, Inclusion, and Political Belonging:Filipino-Chinese Students’ Experiences in Policy-Driven Multicultural Schooling","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-10 12:41:01","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8828660/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"06b747aa-0952-4993-9c4e-f1b77e26fce4","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 10th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":62565031,"name":"Educational Philosophy and Theory"},{"id":62565032,"name":"Educational Psychology"},{"id":62565033,"name":"Other Public Policy"},{"id":62565034,"name":"Other Political Science"},{"id":62565035,"name":"School Counseling"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-10T12:41:01+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-10 12:41:01","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8828660","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8828660","identity":"rs-8828660","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}