Constraints and Opportunities in Cluster-Based Farming in Ethiopia

Constraints and Opportunities in Cluster-Based Farming in Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Constraints and Opportunities in Cluster-Based Farming in Ethiopia Endris Mamo Mulate, Muluken Gezahegn Wordofa This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8824156/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background In many developing nations, smallholders play a pivotal role in the agricultural sector, holding significant potential for sustained expansion. Agriculture, contributing 37.57% to Ethiopia's GDP, is vital for livelihoods. However, recent agricultural growth could not address efficiently and effectively food security, nutrition security, and poverty challenges of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. To enhance productivity agricultural transformation agency of Ethiopia started to mobilize the agriculture sector through a cluster-based farming approach is getting priority as an effort to change smallholder subsistence farming productivity to market-oriented farming. However, the expansion and adoption of cluster farming in Ethiopia are not widespread due to different constraints. The aim of this paper is to critically review research conducted on constraints and opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from a range of perspectives, including social, economic, ecological/environmental, institutional, and political. Methods A systematic literature review methodology was, where searched for relevant papers were through digital libraries, web sources, Ethiopian public university repositories, Sci-Hub, and ATA government website. The study performed a keyword-based search to identify relevant works mostly from 2015-2023; 14 studies were selected that were relevant to the objective of the review. Results The review result shows that the availability of highly social interaction, highly economic of scale, conductive/suitable agro ecology, strong institutions that have partnerships and networking with other institutions, and a stable political system, respectively were the main opportunities, whereas farmer’s resistance for accepting the idea, lack of economies of scale of smallholder farmers, unfavorable agro-ecological conditions, poor institutional coordination, and political instability respectively, were the main constraints of cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from social, economic, ecological, institutional, and political perspectives. Conclusions Ethiopia faces a poverty cycle despite progress in agriculture. The Agricultural Transformation Agency's focus on cluster-based farming aims to shift smallholder practices toward market-oriented models, offering benefits like cost reduction and innovation Recommendation Prioritize infrastructure to connect cluster farms, expand research, provide farmer training, secure funding for cooperatives, and promote pro-poor agriculture. Extend extension offices for better outreach, and conduct ongoing government monitoring and evaluation for sustained success. Cluster-based farming Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia Constraints in cluster based farming in Ethiopia Opportunities in cluster based farming in Ethiopia Smallholder farmers Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Smallholders still control much of the agricultural sector in many SSA nations, despite its enormous long-term growth potential. Ethiopia is one of the second populous country in Africa and 12 th in the world [1]. Agriculture is the main source of livelihoods of the country [2]. The sector playing crucial role in the country economy, contributed 37.57 percent of the GDP and 66.6 percent of employment [1]. The World Bank [1] in their report indicated the population is estimated that 120 million peoples where 78 percent lives in rural areas and 22 percent found in urban areas. Poverty, food insecurity, and nutrition insecurity are common livelihood challenges facing rural people. The recent agricultural growth couldn’t address efficiently and effectively food security, nutrition security, and poverty challenges of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. The government has given attention to improving production and productivity, thereby developing different initiatives. The establishment of varying crop commercial clusters, expansion of commercial farms, fruit, and green legacy development, and livestock enterprise development are practiced yet in the country. In 2019/2020, the growth rate of the agricultural sector achieved 4.1 percent, despite initiatives. For example, the production of cereals and livestock increased by 6.3 percent and 4.7 percent, respectively [3, 4]. Cluster farming initiative program is one of the main policy interventions in the agricultural sector in Ethiopia, thereby forming a group of members having adjacent lands to cover large areas with similar crops and practices. Ethiopia’s government has been working on cluster farming, intending to improve the production and productivity of smallholder farmers to transform from subsistence farming to a commercial farming system [5]. These clusters enable collective action, promoting horizontal coordination among producers to reduce costs and vertical coordination to link producers with markets and suppliers. Social networks play a crucial role, providing valuable exchanges for learning and knowledge acquisition, shaping risk perceptions within the community [6]. Promoting cluster-based farming development has been identified as a key development strategy in many SSA countries, including Ethiopia. As clusters expand, there is a growing need for public goods, such as marketplaces and product safety standards, which individual entrepreneurs may struggle to provide. The empirical analyses focus on identifying the stage of cluster formation and associated challenges, exploring measures and potential solutions, and emphasizing the roles of different stakeholders [7]. In Ethiopia, cluster-based farming is still in its pioneering stage, necessitating a closer look at participation decisions for continual implementation. Challenges identified include the lack of output markets for agro-processing enterprises, shortages of knapsack equipment, decision heterogeneity in crop selection, and insufficient training and market extension services. Awareness of cluster production significantly influences farmers' decisions, enhancing the likelihood of participation [2]. The transition from subsistence farming to commercial-oriented production is crucial for long-term growth and poverty reduction. Cluster farming is a recent initiative in agriculture work in smallholder farmers’ fields, thereby forming a group of members having adjacent lands to cover large areas with similar crops and practices. In Ethiopia, the government's cluster farming initiative focuses on facilitating this transition, emphasizing economies of scale, bargaining power, market linkages, and knowledge dissemination among cluster members [8]. Farmers can benefit from participating in farmer's cluster as it allows them to achieve scale economies and share costs related to training and information, improve land productivity while reducing degradation, improve access to the domestic and international market, increase agro-processing and value-added activities, and create off-farm employment opportunities and certification and technology application [2,9,10]. Moreover, the study by [5] discussed that cluster farming assist farmers to have access to agricultural input and services, such as agricultural mechanization, improved seed, fertilizer, and so on supply inputs collectively, and create output market linkage for their commercialized product. Within these initiatives, smallholder farmers gained a little bit of success in some locations of the Oromia and Amhara regions, which naturally have potential in agricultural production. Unlike the above benefits of cluster farming, it also has challenges and it must be careful during each step of implementation and proactive planning for environment-related risks like frost, emergencies of new diseases and pests, and ice rain which can damage the whole cluster farm, thereby a high economic and social crisis for smallholder farmers as well as the national economy [2, 5, 9, 10, 11]. Even though different cluster-based farming implemented so far still there is a gap in the expansion and adoption of cluster farming in Ethiopia that is not widespread due to varying factors like fragmented farmland system, fear of risk by farmers, and crop rotation. To enhance the impact of cluster farming, policymakers should prioritize infrastructure improvements, fostering connectivity between neighboring clusters. Integration with other development programs, such as agro-industrial parks, and alignment with environmentally-friendly practices are crucial. Cluster farming serves as an efficient mechanism for extension services, private companies, and governments to reach and interact with multiple farmers, providing support and information-sharing opportunities [8]. Currently cluster-based farming in Ethiopia presents both challenges and opportunities across various dimensions, including social, economic, ecological, institutional, and political factors. The dynamic nature of cluster development requires continuous adaptation and localized solutions to address emerging constraints. The purpose of this study is to critically review the constraints and opportunities of cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from a range of perspectives, including social, economic, ecological /environmental, institutional, and political. 2. Review Methodology A literature review is a thorough and structured examination of existing research and scholarly articles pertaining to a specific subject. It serves as a means to synthesizing evidence from various research findings, identifying research gaps, and identifying areas for further investigation. Researchers employ different types of review methodologies. In this particular review, the systematic literature review methodology is utilized. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach is adhered to by the review [12]. The research question, source selection, search terms, selection criteria, and PRISMA approach are all briefly explained in the following section. 2.1 Research Questions To identify the scope of the systematic literature review, two research questions have been formed, namely, RQ1 why cluster farming is needed in Ethiopia? , and RQ2 what are the constraints and opportunities of cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from a range of perspectives, including social, economic, ecological/environmental, institutional, and political?. 2.2 Source The author has identified some well-known digital libraries (Agriculture Science Database, Science Direct (Elsevier), Springer Link, IEEE Xplore Digital Library, Wiley Online Library), web sources (Research Get, Semantic Scholar, Google Scholar), Ethiopian Public University repositories , Sci-Hub, and ATA government website was used to extract the relevant works mostly from 2015-2023. 2.3 Search strings To obtain data for this systematic literature review, the author built several search strings. The search strings constructed by combining the keywords with the connectors “AND” and “OR” (Table 1) related to how cluster-based farming being applied in Ethiopia was used to retrieve materials from journals, conference proceedings, and repositories. Table 1. Search strings for extract papers Search strings Search Results "Cluster farming" 283 "Cluster-based farming" 135 "Challenges in cluster farming approach" 567 "Advantage of cluster farming approach" 960 "Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia" 110 "Constraints OR opportunities AND cluster-based farming" 1143 "Constraints OR opportunities AND cluster-based farming in Ethiopia" 72 "Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia AND Social constraints OR Social opportunities" 219 "Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia AND Economic constraints OR Economic opportunities" 66 "Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia AND Ecological OR "Environmental constraints OR Ecological OR Environmental opportunities" 39 "Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia AND Institutional constraints" OR Institutional opportunities 18 "Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia AND Political constraints OR Political opportunities " 29 3.4 Selection Criteria In this review, inclusion and exclusion criteria were used to filtered papers, and the author rejected papers directly that were not relevant to this systematic literature review. Table 2. Filtering Criteria Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria Studies published in English. Studies published in Agriculture-related journals, conference proceedings, and repositories. Studies that directly answer the research question. Abstracts that clearly stated cluster-based farming. Duplicate papers. Studies published before 2015. Studies only with the abstract but not the full text available. Studies that have poor research design. Studies with unclear findings and ambiguous. 2.5 Systematic review process After scrubbing duplicates, 70 studies were examined. The results of the searches compared to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. As depicted in Figure 1, after the identification, eligibility, and screening, a total of 14 papers were included for further analysis and discussion. Lastly, a conclusion and recommendation were made. 3. Results and Discussion Following the PRISMA process, 14 empirical sources were remained. The findings of this study are described in the section that follows. Cluster-based farming is a new agricultural production process that involves grouping neighboring smallholder farmers in a cluster that is important for smallholder farmers to have access to modern agricultural input, modern farm inputs such as chemical fertilizers, improved seeds, pesticides, and machinery (mechanization) along with crucial support services like extension, training, and market information, and create output market linkage, moreover has effects on some agricultural crop’s commercialization in terms of productivity [5, 11, 13, 14]. Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia has been identified as a potential institutional option to improve agricultural productivity, reduce poverty, and enhance food security [2, 5, 9, 10, 13, 14]. As, a systematic literature review results that there are several constraints and opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from social, economic, ecological, institutional, and political perspectives. Regarding social opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia, cluster-based farming creates a social relationship between smallholder framers (farmers learn from each other’s and share skills) this allows, to increase awareness and information on the importance of agricultural mechanization like tractor and combine harvester for productivity and quality improvement leads farmers to group themselves to buy these large production machines which were difficult to get it individually [15, 16] and rapid expansion of agro-processing industries in a different region of Ethiopia which require a huge amount of agricultural products as raw materials are social opportunities of cluster-based farming [ 11, 16, 17]. The interactions that take place among farmers and their peers in social networks are valuable for learning and gaining knowledge. Additionally, these social engagements play a crucial role in shaping perceptions of risk [6]. Moreover, the availability of NGO support, timely availability and reliable access of inputs, availability of support from agricultural research institutes, technical support from farm experts, availabilities of support from universities, access to supplementary irrigation, private sector investor in the agriculture sector, and electric city accessibility are social opportunities in cluster-based farming [13, 15]. Unlike the above social opportunities offered by cluster-based farming in Ethiopia, also has social constraints in cluster-based agriculture in Ethiopia and it must be careful during each step of implementation [11]. Farmer’s resistance to accepting the idea, competition for water irrigation, low working capital, and low sense of cooperative ownership are some of the social constraints of cluster-based farming [14]. Similarly, land tenure arrangements in Ethiopia are owned by the government (this undermining possibility to borrow, and expand); customary systems of land tenure moving into private property, and opportunistic behavior in the cluster are some constraints [11, 17]. Moreover, lack of trust among farmers in the same group, and other stakeholders working in the agricultural value chain, norms, and cultural beliefs [11, 15, 17] are social constraints in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia which can have a high economic and social crisis for smallholder farmers as well as the national economy. Concerning economic opportunities, cluster-based farming assists farmers in the cluster to obtain the latest technologies, increase economies scale by sharing risk, share costs related to training, and increase their crop productivity, which ultimately assist them in establishing food security. [16]. In cluster-based farming smallholder, farmers can achieve economies of scale and bargaining power to negotiate for better market conditions and prices through market their produce collectively, and certification of produced supply and distribution [2, 10, 18], external agencies, universities, Ministry of Agriculture, and agricultural research institutes to provide assistance and knowledge transfer to members via the farmer group rather than through individual farmers [15]. Also, individual smallholder farmers will have better access to finance for their annual cropping inputs as well as loans for immediate personal cash needs by approaching themselves as a member of a cluster [18]. In addition, the Ethiopian government changes its approach to empowering farmers by supplying them with agricultural input via credit or subsidies to raise agricultural productivity and ensure sustainable farming practices Farmers in the cluster have a chance to obtain this chance. Whereas, unexpected price failure on selected crops may lead to automatic rejection of the producers from their business, low marketing promotion for their produce, low market price for their produce, dependency on project support, lack of support from the government, lack of economies of scale of smallholder farmers, inefficient rural financial system, lack of access to inputs (high price of basic seed), lack of access to land, lack of access to credit service, lack of certificate their produce, and lack of well-functioned agricultural extension services are major economic constraints in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia [11 , 15]. Regarding ecological opportunities, cluster-based farming assists smallholder farmers within the cluster to put their resources together and work with the Ministry of Agriculture in collaboration on conservation activity (such as soil conservation, water conservation, and agroforestry conservation), resulting an agricultural production zone with favorable weather, soil, and water resources will have a comparative advantage (suitable agro-ecology/conducive ecology) for various crop production are some of the excellent ecological opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia [11,15,17]. Whereas, a mix of unfavorable agroecological conditions, climate change, water scarcity, erratic rainfalls, land scarcity (can lead to deforestation), and excessive use of pesticides and herbicides could harm the environment, such as soil quality degradation and water pollution, environmentally related risks like frost, ice rain and moisture stress can damage all farm crops grown in the cluster, and have a negative impact on producer farmers who have no alternative farm or means of income [11,19]. Moreover, the emergency of newly introduced rust diseases and pests may lead to crop failure of the whole, a major ecological constraint in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia, for small farmers working in clusters, it often leads to major problems of food insecurity and economic poverty [11, 20]. Institutions are defined as the rules of the game, which include both formal rules (laws, constitutions, property rights, etc.) and informal practices such as norms, conventions, and codes of conduct that provide structure for human interaction [17]. One of the institutional opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia allows smallholder farmers within the cluster to boost strong institutions which have strong social capital, partnerships and networking, leadership, and shared vision, strong entrepreneurial culture, competition, and specialties that influence economic performance, growth, and development [2]. Moreover, smallholder farmers working as clusters create institutional environments and institutional arrangements that are suitable for the collection as well as the whole agricultural system [18]. The agricultural cluster provides enormous benefits for forming strong institutions [9]. However, planned cluster-based agricultural interventions require a complex institutional environment to coordinate the involvement of foreign capital, development partners and the public sector [17]. Poor time management, lack of physical or social infrastructure, lack of money, lack of social interaction in the institution , lack of coordination, weak implementation capacity, high distance to the extension office, high distance to market, poorly designed legal frameworks, and distorted incentives among smallholder farmers in the cluster, lack of certificate of seed distribution, and poor institutional coordination are the major institutional constraints in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia [15, 16, 17]. Cluster-based farming was established to improve production and productivity of smallholder farmers to transform from subsistence farming to a commercial farming system, and fulfill national food demand [13]. Similarly, smallholder farmers in the cluster also benefited from it, such as monopolizing the extension services, they have better access to modern farm inputs, access to credit, benefited from lower taxes, and other similar advantages [17]. Concerning political opportunities in cluster-based farming, it helps as an instrument for the political system to engage in agreement with other countries abroad; they have more experience in the customization of agricultural technology, allowing the political system to attract investors' attention focused on the farming sector, allows the apolitical approach to get donation/supports from developed countries (like agrarian machinery, pesticides, fertilizers) [11]. Moreover, once the cluster system is sufficiently developed to achieve the expected productivity, the cluster can give the state/political system organizational capacity and further increase its power over non-cluster smallholder farmers, it allows the cluster to control the market [17]. Concerning political constraints, natural disasters affect agricultural production, ecosystems, and livelihoods, newly emerged diseases in the cluster, poor administration (because of corruption), and export restrictions on agricultural commodities by regional and federal governments are major political constraints in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia affecting the income of cluster farmers [16,17], this impact reduces the availability of food in local markets, leading to food price inflation. Most of the political instability and economic inflation was attributed because of the above-mentioned constraints [17]. 4. Conclusion Ethiopia is in a vicious circle of poverty with low productivity, low income, low export, low saving, and low investments, but progressive change is found in production, export, and irrigation utilization. Agriculture is taking the lion’s share in employment, GDP, and exports and with advanced GDP growth. The rate of malnutrition, hunger, poverty, and food insecurity is high and found under serious conditions. Increasing the productivity and commercialization of smallholder farmers is widely recognized as a key strategy for rural development, poverty reduction and food security. Recently, the agricultural transformation agency of Ethiopia started to mobilize the agriculture sector through different strategies such as the establishment of other crop commercial clusters, expansion of commercial farms, green legacy development, and livestock enterprise development practiced yet in the country. Commercialization of smallholder farming is getting priority in Ethiopia. Recently, agricultural cluster-based farming approaches have been practiced as an effort to change and improve smallholder subsistence farming productivity and income by transforming subsistence farming into market-oriented farming. The current agricultural cluster-based program focused on increasing agricultural productivity and income through a market-oriented approach. In addition to this, cluster-based farming had numerous advantages in reducing their costs and increasing productivity by sharing risk, encouraging innovation, quality improvement, grading, and transportation by linking agriculture with agro-processing industries. Moreover, cluster-based farming in Ethiopia has so many opportunities from social, economic, ecological, institutional, and political perspectives. It acts as the mechanism to build highly social interaction, highly economic of scale, conductive/suitable agroecology, strong institutions that have partnerships and networking with other institutions, and a stable political system. Therefore, the success of cluster-based farming in Ethiopia depends on how farmers in the cluster respond to social, economic, ecological, institutional, and political constraints (such as farmer’s resistance to accepting the idea, lack of economies of scale to smallholder farmers, unfavorable agro-ecological conditions, poor institutional coordination, and political instability), and ensuring that there is adequate support from the agricultural research institutes, NGOs, the Ministry of Agriculture, universities, government, and others working on agriculture. 5. Recommendation Based on the review result, the following recommendations were forwarded: This study's findings are based on a sample size of 14 scientific research’s conducted between 2015-2023 years and extracted from digital libraries (Agriculture Science Database, Science Direct (Elsevier),Springer Link, IEEE Xplore Digital Library, Wiley Online Library) and web sources (Research Get, Semantic Scholar, Google Scholar) and from Ethiopian public university repositories. It could be recommended that future work could replicate the study findings with a larger sample and different academic research databases like the directory of open access journals, and MSc thesis and Ph.D. dissertation repositories will allow adding more constraints and opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from diverse perspectives in addition to social, economic, ecological, institutional and political respective. It should be better if concerned governmental and non-governmental organizations provide training to farmers in the cluster to convince, and create awareness which in turn can help to minimize the farmer’s resistance to accepting the idea. There is a need to search for funding organizations and projects to address the lack of working capital of cluster-based farming cooperatives especially during cultivation, harvesting, distribution, and conservation activities (such as soil, water, and agroforestry). Both the Ministry of Agriculture and the government should focus on promoting the growth of pro-poor agriculture through clusters. As smallholders dominate and farm sizes continue to shrink in developing countries, smallholder farm productivity is critical to driving agricultural growth. Expanding access to finance, risk management strategies, inputs, services and advice for smallholder farmers and increasing investment in rural infrastructure is critical. The high distance of the extension office from the farmer's home is one of the institutional constraints in cluster-based farming. Therefore, both the Ministry of Agriculture and government should focus on expanding the extension office and outreach to farmers. Government should conduct monitoring and evaluation of the opportunities in cluster-based farming from poverty reduction, food security, employment, GDP, the formation of conductive agroecology, the formation of strong institutions, the formation of high social relationships, and the formation of stable political system perspective to identify areas of improvement. Policymakers should give priority to enhancing infrastructure to bolster connectivity among adjacent cluster farms. This initiative would not only foster increased interaction and learning but also contribute to sustained mutual economic benefits in the long run. Declarations Acknowledgements We are also grateful to all the anonymous reviewers for their useful comments. Authors’ contribution Endris collected the data and wrote the manuscript. Dr. Muluken revised the manuscript and conducted some additional analysis. Both authors read final manuscript before submitting to publisher for publication. Rights and permissions Open Access . Declaration We declare that this review article was composed by ourselves, that the work contained here is our and that this work has not been submitted for any other publisher. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Consent for publication Both authors agree and consent for the article to be published. Author information Endris Mamo Mulate, Ph.D. student in Knowledge Management and Capacity Development ,School of Rural development and Agricultural Innovation, College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Haramaya University Email: [email protected] Muluken Gezahegn Wordofa (Ph.D.), Associate Professor, School of Rural development and Agricultural Innovation, College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Haramaya University Email: - [email protected] Corresponding author Correspondence to Endris Mamo . Email: [email protected] References World Bank. Overview of Ethiopia Data. 2022, Accessed from https://data.worldbank.org /country/ET. Hussen CH, Geleta FT. Factors Affecting Smallholder Farmers Participations in Cluster Crop Production: Evidence from Selected Districts of West Shewa Zone, Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture. 2021 Sep 30; 37. CSA (Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia), "Agricultural Sample Survey 2020/21 (2013 E.C.). 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8824156","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Systematic Review","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":591900127,"identity":"7c52c2c9-eeaf-4fd0-bf5c-c96de2d8fc2d","order_by":0,"name":"Endris Mamo Mulate","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYPACZgY2BuaDDz5UgNjMDcRqYUs2nHEGxGYkUgsDA4+ZNG8biENAi2776cQHH3dY5/PxnzGTnDmvNpq/HajlR8U2nFrMzuRuNpx5Jt2yTSKt2OLjtuO5Mw4zNjD2nLmNW8uB3G1A9xw2YJNg3nhz5rZjuQ1ALcyMbXi0nH+7TfovSAv/AQNp3jnHcucT1HIDaAsjSAtDipE0b0NN7gbCWt5uNuxtSwc6LA0YyMcO5G4EajmI1y/nczc++NlmbSDffxgYlTV1ufPOAxk/KnBrQQeHweQBotUDQR0pikfBKBgFo2CEAAAlt1+FuME8sgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Endris","middleName":"Mamo","lastName":"Mulate","suffix":""},{"id":591900128,"identity":"51776d86-566d-4671-8862-433f400772f9","order_by":1,"name":"Muluken Gezahegn Wordofa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muluken","middleName":"Gezahegn","lastName":"Wordofa","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-08 21:08:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8824156/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8824156/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102849438,"identity":"099cc4d1-6b44-4b70-b53b-9aedef9fc9ac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 13:57:04","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25932,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8824156/v1/e46161a87f79426df38bc790.png"},{"id":102849468,"identity":"adfc4e44-0c6d-40af-ae2c-673687bdfa4c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 13:57:14","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":550875,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8824156/v1/f041a319-4f2f-4783-88b1-fb1762544a8c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Constraints and Opportunities in Cluster-Based Farming in Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"1.\tIntroduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSmallholders still control much of the agricultural sector in many SSA nations, despite its enormous long-term growth potential.\u0026nbsp;Ethiopia is one of the second populous country in Africa and 12\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e in the world [1]. Agriculture is the main source of livelihoods of the country [2]. The sector playing crucial role in the country economy, contributed 37.57 percent of the GDP and 66.6 percent of employment [1].\u0026nbsp;The World Bank [1] in their report\u0026nbsp;indicated the population is estimated that 120 million peoples where 78 percent lives in rural areas and 22 percent found in urban areas. Poverty, food insecurity, and nutrition insecurity are common livelihood challenges facing rural people. The recent agricultural growth couldn\u0026rsquo;t address efficiently and effectively food security, nutrition security, and poverty challenges of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe government has given attention to improving production and productivity, thereby developing different initiatives. The\u0026nbsp;establishment of varying crop commercial clusters, expansion of commercial farms, fruit, and green legacy development, and livestock enterprise development are practiced yet in the country. In 2019/2020, the growth rate of the agricultural sector achieved 4.1 percent, despite initiatives. For example, the production of cereals and livestock increased by 6.3 percent and 4.7 percent, respectively [3, 4].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCluster farming initiative program is one of the main policy interventions in the agricultural sector in Ethiopia, thereby forming a group of members having adjacent lands to cover large areas with similar crops and practices. Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s government has been working on cluster farming, intending to improve the production and productivity of smallholder farmers to transform from subsistence farming to a commercial farming system [5]. These clusters enable collective action, promoting horizontal coordination among producers to reduce costs and vertical coordination to link producers with markets and suppliers. Social networks play a crucial role, providing valuable exchanges for learning and knowledge acquisition, shaping risk perceptions within the community [6].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePromoting cluster-based farming development\u0026nbsp;has been identified as a key development strategy in many SSA countries, including Ethiopia. As clusters expand, there is a growing need for public goods, such as marketplaces and product safety standards, which individual entrepreneurs may struggle to provide. The empirical analyses focus on identifying the stage of cluster formation and associated challenges, exploring measures and potential solutions, and emphasizing the roles of different stakeholders [7].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Ethiopia, cluster-based farming is still in its pioneering stage, necessitating a closer look at participation decisions for continual implementation. Challenges identified include the lack of output markets for agro-processing enterprises, shortages of knapsack equipment, decision heterogeneity in crop selection, and insufficient training and market extension services. Awareness of cluster production significantly influences farmers\u0026apos; decisions, enhancing the likelihood of participation [2].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe transition from subsistence farming to commercial-oriented production is crucial for long-term growth and poverty reduction. Cluster farming is a recent initiative in agriculture work in smallholder farmers\u0026rsquo; fields, thereby forming a group of members having adjacent lands to cover large areas with similar crops and practices. In Ethiopia, the government\u0026apos;s cluster farming initiative focuses on facilitating this transition, emphasizing economies of scale, bargaining power, market linkages, and knowledge dissemination among cluster members [8].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFarmers can benefit from participating in farmer\u0026apos;s cluster as it allows them to achieve scale economies and share costs related to training and information, improve land productivity while reducing degradation, improve access to the domestic and international market, increase agro-processing and value-added activities, and create off-farm employment opportunities and certification and technology application [2,9,10]. Moreover, the study by [5] discussed that\u0026nbsp;cluster farming assist farmers to have access to agricultural input and services, such as agricultural mechanization, improved seed, fertilizer, and so on supply inputs collectively, and create output market linkage for their commercialized product.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithin these initiatives, smallholder farmers gained a little bit of success in some locations of the Oromia and Amhara regions, which naturally have potential in agricultural production.\u0026nbsp;Unlike the above benefits of cluster farming, it also has challenges and it must be careful during each step of implementation and proactive planning for environment-related risks like frost, emergencies of new diseases and pests, and ice rain which can damage the whole cluster farm, thereby a high economic and social crisis for smallholder farmers as well as the national economy [2, 5, 9, 10, 11]. Even though different cluster-based farming implemented so far still there is a gap in the expansion and adoption of cluster farming in Ethiopia that is not widespread due to varying factors like fragmented farmland system, fear of risk by farmers, and crop rotation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo enhance the impact of cluster farming, policymakers should prioritize infrastructure improvements, fostering connectivity between neighboring clusters. Integration with other development programs, such as agro-industrial parks, and alignment with environmentally-friendly practices are crucial. Cluster farming serves as an efficient mechanism for extension services, private companies, and governments to reach and interact with multiple farmers, providing support and information-sharing opportunities [8]. Currently cluster-based farming in Ethiopia presents both challenges and opportunities across various dimensions, including social, economic, ecological, institutional, and political factors. The dynamic nature of cluster development requires continuous adaptation and localized solutions to address emerging constraints. The purpose of this study is to critically review the constraints and opportunities of cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from a range of perspectives, including social, economic, ecological /environmental, institutional, and political.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Review Methodology ","content":"\u003cp\u003eA literature review is a thorough and structured examination of existing research and scholarly articles pertaining to a specific subject. It serves as a means to synthesizing evidence from various research findings, identifying research gaps, and identifying areas for further investigation. Researchers employ different types of review methodologies. In this particular review, the systematic literature review methodology is utilized. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach is adhered to by the review [12]. The research question, source selection, search terms, selection criteria, and PRISMA approach are all briefly explained in the following section.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1 Research Questions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo identify the scope of the systematic literature review, two research questions have been formed, namely, RQ1 why cluster farming is needed in Ethiopia? , and RQ2 what are the constraints\u0026nbsp;and opportunities of cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from a range of perspectives, including social, economic, ecological/environmental, institutional, and political?.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Source\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author has identified some well-known digital libraries (Agriculture Science Database, Science Direct (Elsevier), Springer Link, IEEE Xplore Digital Library, Wiley Online Library), web sources (Research Get, Semantic Scholar, Google Scholar), Ethiopian Public University repositories , Sci-Hub, and ATA government website was used to extract the relevant works mostly from 2015-2023.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Search strings\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo obtain data for this systematic literature review, the author built several search strings. The search strings\u0026nbsp;constructed\u0026nbsp;by combining the keywords with the connectors \u0026ldquo;AND\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;OR\u0026rdquo; (Table 1) related to how cluster-based farming being applied in Ethiopia was used to retrieve materials from journals, conference proceedings, and repositories.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1. Search strings for extract papers\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"667\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSearch strings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSearch Results\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Cluster \u0026nbsp;farming\u0026quot;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e283\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Cluster-based farming\u0026quot;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Challenges in cluster farming approach\u0026quot;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e567\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Advantage of cluster farming approach\u0026quot;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e960\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"5\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia\u0026quot;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e110\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Constraints OR opportunities AND cluster-based farming\u0026quot;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1143\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"7\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Constraints \u0026nbsp;OR opportunities AND cluster-based farming in Ethiopia\u0026quot;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"8\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia AND Social constraints OR Social \u0026nbsp;opportunities\u0026quot;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e219\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia AND Economic constraints OR Economic opportunities\u0026quot;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia AND Ecological OR \u0026quot;Environmental constraints OR Ecological \u0026nbsp;OR Environmental opportunities\u0026quot; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"11\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia AND Institutional constraints\u0026quot; \u0026nbsp; OR \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Institutional opportunities\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79.3103%;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"12\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026quot;Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia AND Political constraints OR\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePolitical opportunities\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026quot;\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6897%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Selection Criteria\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this review, inclusion and exclusion criteria were used to filtered papers, and the author rejected papers directly that were not relevant to this systematic literature review.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2. Filtering Criteria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"649\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46.379%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInclusion Criteria\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53.621%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; Exclusion Criteria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46.379%;\"\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStudies published in English.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStudies published in Agriculture-related journals, conference proceedings, and repositories.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStudies that directly answer the research question.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbstracts that clearly stated cluster-based farming.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53.621%;\"\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDuplicate papers.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStudies published before 2015.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStudies only with the abstract but not the full text available.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStudies that have poor research design.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStudies with unclear findings and ambiguous.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.5 Systematic review process\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter scrubbing duplicates, 70 studies were examined. The results of the searches compared to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. As depicted in Figure 1, after the identification, eligibility, and screening, a total of 14 papers were included for further analysis and discussion. Lastly, a conclusion and recommendation were made.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eFollowing the PRISMA process, 14 empirical sources were remained. The findings of this study are described in the section that follows.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCluster-based farming is a new agricultural production process that involves grouping neighboring smallholder farmers in a cluster that is important for smallholder farmers to have access to modern agricultural input, modern farm inputs\u0026nbsp;such as chemical fertilizers, improved seeds, pesticides, and machinery (mechanization)\u0026nbsp;along with crucial support services like extension, training, and market information, and create output market linkage, moreover has effects on some agricultural crop\u0026rsquo;s commercialization in terms of productivity [5, 11, 13, 14]. \u0026nbsp;Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia has been identified as a potential institutional option to improve agricultural productivity, reduce poverty, and enhance food security [2, 5, 9, 10, 13, 14].\u0026nbsp;As, a systematic literature review results that there are several constraints and opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from social, economic, ecological, institutional, and political perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding social opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia, cluster-based farming creates a social\u0026nbsp;relationship between smallholder framers (farmers learn from each other\u0026rsquo;s and share skills) this allows, to increase awareness and information on the importance of agricultural mechanization like tractor and combine harvester for productivity and quality improvement leads farmers to group themselves to buy these large production machines which were difficult to get it individually [15, 16] and rapid expansion of agro-processing industries in a different region of Ethiopia which require a huge amount of agricultural products as raw materials are social opportunities of cluster-based farming [\u0026nbsp;11, 16, 17]. The interactions that take place among farmers and their peers in social networks are valuable for learning and gaining knowledge. Additionally, these social engagements play a crucial role in shaping perceptions of risk [6].\u0026nbsp;Moreover, the availability of NGO support, timely availability and reliable access of inputs, availability of support from agricultural research institutes, technical support from\u0026nbsp;farm experts, availabilities of support from universities, access to supplementary irrigation, private sector investor in the agriculture sector, and electric city accessibility are social opportunities in cluster-based farming [13, 15].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnlike the above social opportunities offered by cluster-based farming in Ethiopia, also has social constraints in cluster-based agriculture in Ethiopia and it must be careful during each step of implementation [11]. Farmer\u0026rsquo;s resistance to accepting the idea, competition for water irrigation, low working capital, and low sense of cooperative ownership are some of the social constraints of cluster-based farming [14]. Similarly, land tenure arrangements in Ethiopia are owned by the government (this undermining possibility to borrow, and expand); customary systems of land tenure moving into private property, and opportunistic behavior in the cluster are some constraints [11, 17]. Moreover, lack of trust among farmers in the same\u0026nbsp;group, and other stakeholders working in the agricultural value chain, norms, and cultural beliefs [11, 15, 17] are social constraints in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia which can have a high economic and social crisis for smallholder farmers as well as the national economy.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConcerning economic opportunities, cluster-based farming assists farmers in the cluster to obtain the latest technologies, increase economies scale by sharing risk, share costs related to training, and increase their crop productivity, which ultimately assist them in establishing food security.\u0026nbsp;[16]. In cluster-based farming smallholder, farmers can achieve economies of scale and bargaining power to negotiate for better market conditions and prices through market their produce collectively, and certification of produced supply and distribution [2, 10, 18], external agencies, universities, Ministry of Agriculture, and agricultural research institutes to provide assistance and knowledge transfer to members via the farmer group rather than through individual farmers [15]. Also, individual smallholder farmers will have better access to finance for their annual cropping inputs as well as loans for immediate personal cash needs\u0026nbsp;by approaching themselves as a member of a cluster [18]. In addition, the Ethiopian government changes its approach to empowering farmers by supplying them with agricultural input via credit or subsidies to raise agricultural productivity and ensure sustainable farming practices Farmers in the cluster have a chance to obtain this chance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhereas,\u0026nbsp;unexpected price failure on selected crops may lead to automatic rejection of the producers from their business, low marketing promotion for their produce, low market price for their produce, dependency on project support, lack of support from the government, lack of economies of scale of smallholder farmers, inefficient rural financial system, lack of access to inputs (high price of basic seed), lack of access to land, lack of access to credit service, lack of certificate their produce, and lack of well-functioned agricultural extension services are major economic constraints in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia [11 , 15].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding ecological opportunities, cluster-based farming assists smallholder farmers within the cluster to put their resources together and work with the Ministry of Agriculture in collaboration on conservation activity (such as soil conservation, water conservation, and agroforestry conservation), resulting\u0026nbsp;an agricultural production zone with favorable weather, soil, and water resources will have a comparative advantage (suitable agro-ecology/conducive ecology) for various crop production are some of the excellent ecological opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia\u0026nbsp;[11,15,17].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhereas,\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;a mix of unfavorable agroecological conditions, climate change, water scarcity, erratic rainfalls, land scarcity (can lead to deforestation), and excessive use of pesticides and herbicides could harm the environment, such as soil quality degradation and water pollution, environmentally related risks like frost, ice rain and moisture stress can damage all farm crops grown in the cluster, and have a negative impact on\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eproducer farmers who have no alternative farm or means of income [11,19]. Moreover, the emergency of newly introduced rust diseases and pests may lead to crop failure of the whole, a major ecological constraint in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia, for small farmers working in clusters, it often leads to major problems of food insecurity and economic poverty [11, 20].\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstitutions are defined as the rules of the game, which include both formal rules (laws, constitutions, property rights, etc.) and informal practices such as norms, conventions, and codes of conduct that provide structure for human interaction [17]. One of the institutional\u0026nbsp;opportunities\u0026nbsp;in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia allows smallholder farmers within the cluster to\u0026nbsp;boost\u0026nbsp;strong institutions which have strong social capital, partnerships and networking, leadership, and shared vision, strong entrepreneurial culture, competition, and specialties that influence economic performance, growth, and development [2]. Moreover, smallholder farmers working as clusters create institutional environments and institutional arrangements that are suitable for the collection as well as the whole agricultural system [18]. The agricultural cluster provides enormous benefits for forming strong institutions [9].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, planned cluster-based agricultural interventions require a complex institutional environment to coordinate the involvement of foreign capital, development partners and the public sector [17]. Poor time management, lack of physical or social infrastructure,\u0026nbsp;lack of money, lack of social interaction in the institution , lack of coordination, weak implementation capacity, high distance to the extension office, high distance to market, poorly designed legal frameworks, and distorted incentives among smallholder farmers in the cluster, lack of certificate of seed distribution, and poor institutional coordination are the major institutional constraints in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia [15, 16, 17].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCluster-based farming was established to improve\u0026nbsp;production and productivity of smallholder farmers to transform from subsistence farming to a commercial farming system, and fulfill national food demand [13]. Similarly, smallholder farmers in the cluster also benefited from it, such as monopolizing the extension services, they have better access to modern farm inputs, access to credit, benefited from lower taxes, and other similar advantages\u0026nbsp;[17]. Concerning political opportunities in cluster-based farming, it helps as an instrument for the political system to engage in agreement with other countries abroad; they have more experience in the customization of agricultural technology, allowing the political system to attract investors\u0026apos; attention focused on the farming sector, allows the apolitical approach to get donation/supports from developed countries (like agrarian machinery, pesticides, fertilizers) [11]. Moreover, once the cluster system is sufficiently developed to achieve the expected productivity, the cluster can give the state/political system organizational capacity and further increase its power over non-cluster smallholder farmers, it allows the cluster to control the market\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e[17].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConcerning political constraints, natural disasters affect agricultural production, ecosystems, and livelihoods, newly emerged diseases in the cluster, poor administration (because of corruption), and export restrictions on agricultural commodities by regional and federal governments are major political constraints in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia affecting the income of cluster farmers [16,17], this impact reduces the availability of food in local markets, leading to food price inflation. Most of the political instability and economic inflation was attributed because of the above-mentioned constraints [17].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthiopia is in a vicious circle of poverty with low productivity, low income, low export, low saving, and low investments, but progressive change is found in production, export, and irrigation utilization. Agriculture is taking the lion\u0026rsquo;s share in employment, GDP, and exports and with advanced GDP growth. The rate of malnutrition, hunger, poverty, and food insecurity is high and found under serious conditions. Increasing the productivity and commercialization of smallholder farmers is widely recognized as a key strategy for rural development, poverty reduction and food security.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecently, the agricultural transformation agency of Ethiopia started to mobilize the agriculture sector through different strategies such as the establishment of other crop commercial clusters, expansion of commercial farms, green legacy development, and livestock enterprise development practiced yet in the country. Commercialization of smallholder farming is getting priority in Ethiopia. Recently, agricultural cluster-based farming approaches have been practiced as an effort to change and improve smallholder subsistence farming productivity and income by transforming subsistence farming into market-oriented farming. The current agricultural cluster-based program focused on increasing agricultural productivity and income through a market-oriented approach. In addition to this, cluster-based farming had numerous advantages in reducing their costs and increasing productivity by sharing risk, encouraging innovation, quality improvement, grading, and transportation by linking agriculture with agro-processing industries.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, cluster-based farming in Ethiopia has so many opportunities from social, economic, ecological, institutional, and political perspectives. It acts as the mechanism to build highly social interaction, highly economic of scale, conductive/suitable agroecology, strong institutions that have partnerships and networking with other institutions, and a stable political system. Therefore, the success of cluster-based farming in Ethiopia depends on how farmers in the cluster respond to social, economic, ecological, institutional, and political constraints (such as farmer\u0026rsquo;s resistance to accepting the idea, lack of economies of scale to smallholder farmers, unfavorable agro-ecological conditions, poor institutional coordination, and political instability), and ensuring that there is adequate support from the agricultural research institutes, NGOs, the Ministry of Agriculture, universities, government, and others working on agriculture.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Recommendation ","content":"\u003cp\u003eBased on the review result, the following recommendations were forwarded:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThis study\u0026apos;s findings are based on a sample size of 14 scientific research\u0026rsquo;s conducted between \u0026nbsp;2015-2023 years and extracted from digital libraries (Agriculture Science Database, Science Direct (Elsevier),Springer Link, IEEE Xplore Digital Library, Wiley Online Library) and web sources (Research Get, Semantic Scholar, Google Scholar) and from Ethiopian public \u0026nbsp;university repositories. It\u0026nbsp;could be recommended that future work could replicate the study findings with a larger sample and different academic research databases like the directory of open access journals, and MSc thesis and Ph.D. dissertation repositories will allow adding more constraints and opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from diverse perspectives in addition to social, economic, ecological, institutional and political respective.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIt should be better if concerned governmental and non-governmental organizations provide training to farmers in the cluster to convince, and create awareness which in turn can help to minimize the farmer\u0026rsquo;s resistance to accepting the idea.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThere is a need to search for funding organizations and projects to address the lack of working capital of cluster-based farming cooperatives especially during cultivation, harvesting, distribution, and conservation activities (such as soil, water, and\u0026nbsp;agroforestry).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBoth the Ministry of Agriculture and the government should focus on promoting the growth of pro-poor agriculture through clusters. As smallholders dominate and farm sizes continue to shrink in developing countries, smallholder farm productivity is critical to driving agricultural growth. Expanding access to finance, risk management strategies, inputs, services and advice for smallholder farmers and increasing investment in rural infrastructure is critical.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe high distance of the extension office from the farmer\u0026apos;s home is one of the institutional constraints in cluster-based farming. Therefore, both the Ministry of Agriculture and government should focus on expanding the extension office and outreach to farmers.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGovernment should conduct monitoring and evaluation of the opportunities in cluster-based farming from poverty reduction, food security, employment, GDP, the formation of conductive agroecology, the formation of strong institutions, the formation of high social relationships, and the formation of stable political system perspective to identify areas of improvement.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePolicymakers should give priority to enhancing infrastructure to bolster connectivity among adjacent cluster farms. This initiative would not only foster increased interaction and learning but also contribute to sustained mutual economic benefits in the long run.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe are also grateful to all the anonymous reviewers for their useful comments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contribution\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEndris collected the data and wrote the manuscript. Dr. Muluken revised the manuscript and conducted some additional analysis. Both authors read final manuscript before submitting to publisher for publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRights and permissions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen Access .\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe declare that this review article was composed by ourselves, that the work contained here is our and that this work has not been submitted for any other publisher.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoth authors agree and consent for the article to be published.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eAuthor information\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEndris Mamo Mulate, Ph.D. student in \u0026nbsp;Knowledge Management and Capacity Development ,School of Rural development and Agricultural Innovation, College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Haramaya University\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMuluken Gezahegn\u0026nbsp;Wordofa (Ph.D.), Associate Professor, School of Rural development and Agricultural Innovation, College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Haramaya University\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Email: -\u0026nbsp;[email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorresponding author\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrespondence to\u0026nbsp;Endris Mamo\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmail: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Bank. Overview of Ethiopia Data. 2022, Accessed from https://data.worldbank.org /country/ET. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHussen CH, Geleta FT. Factors Affecting Smallholder Farmers Participations in Cluster Crop Production: Evidence from Selected Districts of West Shewa Zone, Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture. 2021 Sep 30; 37.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCSA (Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia), \u0026quot;Agricultural Sample Survey 2020/21 (2013 E.C.). Report on Area and Production of Major Crops (Private Peasant Holdings, Meher Season),\u0026quot; Statistical Bulletin 590, Volume I, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2021a.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCSA (Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia), \u0026quot;Agricultural Sample Survey 2020/21 [2013 E.C.]. Report on Livestock And Livestock Characteristics (Private Peasant Holdings),\u0026quot; Statistical Bulletin 589, Volume II, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2021b.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTadesse A, Adicha A, Yoseph T, Tadesse A. Cluster-based Improved Sorghum Production and Commercialization in Nyangatom Woreda of South Omo Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Research on World Agricultural Economy. 2023 Mar 30;4(1):62-72.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJoffre OM, Poortvliet PM, Klerkx L. To cluster or not to cluster farmers? Influences on network interactions, risk perceptions, and adoption of aquaculture practices. Agricultural systems. 2019 Feb 1;173:151-60.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEstudillo JP, Kijima Y, Sonobe T. Agricultural Development in Asia and Africa: Essays in Honor of Keijiro Otsuka. Springer Nature; 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDureti GG, Tabe‐Ojong MP, Owusu‐Sekyere E. The new normal? Cluster farming and smallholder commercialization in Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics. 2023 Aug 8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDembi K, Basha K, Girma A. Cluster Based Pre-Scaling Up of Improved Irish Potato Variety at Highland Districts of Guji Zone, Southern Oromia, Ethiopia. International Journal of Food Science and Agriculture. 2020;4(3):323-329.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbebe S, Abebe L. Cluster-based improved Malt barley technology demonstration in selected districts of Arsi and West Arsi zones of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Open Journal of Plant Science. 2021;6(1):082-6.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMamo D. Cluster farming as new approach in Ethiopia. A review paper, Hawassa, Ethiopia. 2019. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMoher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Altman D, Antes G, Atkins D, Barbour V, Barrowman N, Berlin JA, Clark J. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement (Chinese edition). Journal of Chinese Integrative Medicine. 2009 Sep;7(9):889-96.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGetahun A and Milkias D. Top of form review on agricultural extension systems in Ethiopia: A cluster farming approaches. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare. . 2021,11(14),1-6.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChimdessa T, Takele C, Bayeta G, Fikadu O, Gemada F. Cluster Based Large Scale Demonstration of Irrigated Wheat Production Technologies in East Wollega Zone, Oromia, Ethiopia. International Journal of Applied Agricultural Sciences. 2022 May 26;8(3):113.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMezgebo HK. Opportunities and constraints of community based seed production in Northern Ethiopia: The case of seed producing cooperatives in South Tigray. Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics \u0026amp; Sociology. 2019;29(4):1-0.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbate S. Impact of Cluster Farming On Farmers Productivity and Commercialization: The Case of Dera Woreda,\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eSouth Gondar Zone (Doctoral dissertation).2021.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePoli M. The Ethiopian Way to Agrarian Transformation: Agricultural Clusters in South Wollo.2018.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLouhichi K, Temursho U, Colen L, y Paloma SG. Upscaling the productivity performance of the Agricultural Commercialization Cluster Initiative in Ethiopia. JRC Science for Policy Report, Publications office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 2019 Nov.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMinten B, Mohammed B, Tamru S. Emerging medium-scale tenant farming, gig economies, and the COVID-19 disruption: the case of commercial vegetable clusters in Ethiopia. The European Journal of Development Research. 2020 Dec;32(5):1402-29.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNigus M, Shimelis H, Mathew I, Abady S. Wheat production in the highlands of Eastern Ethiopia: opportunities, challenges and coping strategies of rust diseases. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B\u0026mdash;Soil \u0026amp; Plant Science. 2022 Dec 31;72(1):563-75.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Cluster-based farming, Cluster-based farming in Ethiopia, Constraints in cluster based farming in Ethiopia, Opportunities in cluster based farming in Ethiopia, Smallholder farmers","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8824156/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8824156/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e In many developing nations, smallholders play a pivotal role in the agricultural sector, holding significant potential for sustained expansion. Agriculture, contributing 37.57% to Ethiopia's GDP, is vital for livelihoods. However, recent agricultural growth could not address efficiently and effectively food security, nutrition security, and poverty challenges of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. To enhance productivity agricultural transformation agency of Ethiopia started to mobilize the agriculture sector through a cluster-based farming approach is getting priority as an effort to change smallholder subsistence farming productivity to market-oriented farming. However, the expansion and adoption of cluster farming in Ethiopia are not widespread due to different constraints. The aim of this paper is to critically review research conducted on constraints and opportunities in cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from a range of perspectives, including social, economic, ecological/environmental, institutional, and political.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e A systematic literature review methodology was, where searched for relevant papers were through digital libraries, web sources, Ethiopian public university repositories, Sci-Hub, and ATA government website. The study performed a keyword-based search to identify relevant works mostly from 2015-2023; 14 studies were selected that were relevant to the objective of the review.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e The review result shows that the availability of highly social interaction, highly economic of scale, conductive/suitable agro ecology, strong institutions that have partnerships and networking with other institutions, and a stable political system, respectively were the main opportunities, whereas farmer’s resistance for accepting the idea, lack of economies of scale of smallholder farmers, unfavorable agro-ecological conditions, poor institutional coordination, and political instability respectively, were the main constraints of cluster-based farming in Ethiopia from social, economic, ecological, institutional, and political perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e Ethiopia faces a poverty cycle despite progress in agriculture. The Agricultural Transformation Agency's focus on cluster-based farming aims to shift smallholder practices toward market-oriented models, offering benefits like cost reduction and innovation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRecommendation\u003c/strong\u003ePrioritize infrastructure to connect cluster farms, expand research, provide farmer training, secure funding for cooperatives, and promote pro-poor agriculture. Extend extension offices for better outreach, and conduct ongoing government monitoring and evaluation for sustained success.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Constraints and Opportunities in Cluster-Based Farming in Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-17 13:56:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8824156/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"10801282-6ac2-4795-a61f-cbaae9ab08cb","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 17th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-10T14:25:57+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-17 13:56:18","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8824156","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8824156","identity":"rs-8824156","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}