Harnessing the Power of Organic Amendments: Enhancing Soil Microbiota and Functions in the Rhizosphere of Maize

Harnessing the Power of Organic Amendments: Enhancing Soil Microbiota and Functions in the Rhizosphere of Maize | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Harnessing the Power of Organic Amendments: Enhancing Soil Microbiota and Functions in the Rhizosphere of Maize Maurice Njiandoh Mbeboh, Imbia Leticia Senge, Tata Anold Kong, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7699033/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Soil degradation and declining fertility are pressing concerns in modern agriculture, compromising soil health and ecosystem services. This five-year field study aimed to investigate the long-term impact of soil amendments on soil microbiota and functions in the rhizosphere of maize plants, addressing the need for sustainable agricultural practices that promote soil health and ecosystem services. A 5-year field trial was setup in the monomodal rainforest agro-ecology in Littoral region of Cameroon, using a split plot design. Four soil fertility management options were evaluated with four replications, including chemical inputs, organic inputs (poultry droppings, cow dung, and mucuna green manure), combined chemical and organic inputs, and a virgin forest as a control. Results showed that organic inputs significantly ( P < 0.001) enhanced soil microbial biomass (1293 mg − 1 kg − 1 soil) and enzyme activities, including acid phosphatase (43.98 mU − 1 g − 1 soil), alkaline phosphatase 16.23 mU − 1 g − 1 soil), urease (57.17 mU − 1 g − 1 soil), β-glucosidase (6.54 mU − 1 g − 1 soil), and arylamidase (2.49 mU − 1 g − 1 soil), compared to chemical inputs (742 mg − 1 kg − 1 soil, 21.66 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 3.81 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 46.79 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 2.61 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, and 0.86 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, respectively). Organic inputs also modulated soil pH (6.23), increased organic matter content (7.53%), and improved nutrient availability. The combined treatment showed intermediate effects, while chemical inputs alone resulted in reduced soil pH, microbial biomass, and enzyme activities. The study highlights the benefits of integrating organic amendments into agricultural practices to promote soil health, fertility, and ecosystem services. These findings have significant implications for developing eco-friendly and sustainable agricultural practices that prioritize soil health and ecosystem functioning. Enzymes Microbial biomass organic matter pH soil amendments soil health Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 1. Introduction Soil degradation, declining fertility, and reduced agricultural productivity are pressing concerns in modern agriculture (Derpsch et al ., 2024; Mesele et al ., 2025). Some farm management practices have disrupted the delicate balance of soil ecosystems, compromising the health and resilience of soil microbiota, which can jeopardize sustainability of agro-ecosystems (Das et al ., 2025; Topa et al ., 2025). Thereby, necessitating sustainable options and soil monitoring tools (Szekacs and Darvas, 2022; Bittencourt et al ., 2024; Zhu et al ., 2025). In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the critical role that soil microorganisms play in maintaining soil fertility, plant health, and ecosystem services (Chen et al ., 2024; Marzouk et al ., 2025; Zhao et al ., 2025). The rhizosphere, the region surrounding plant roots, is a hotspot of microbial activity, where complex interactions between plants, microorganisms, and soil nutrients occur (Bordé-Pavlicz et al ., 2024; Mesele et al ., 2024). Soil microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and protozoa, contribute to nutrient cycling, decomposition, and plant disease suppression (Moraes et al ., 2018; Becke et al ., 2024; Olougou et al ., 2024; Achiri et al ., 2025). However, some management practices can disrupt these beneficial interactions, leading to reduced soil fertility and plant productivity (Al-Shammary et al ., 2024; Liang et al ., 2025). Organic amendments have emerged as a vital strategy for enhancing soil microbiota and functions in the rhizosphere, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional agricultural practices (Jeon et al ., 2023; Gil-Martinez et al ., 2025; Mutai et al ., 2025). Organic amendments, such as compost, animal waste, green manure, and bio-fertilizers, offer a promising solution to revitalize soil microbiota and functions (Lu et al ., 2021; Karhu et al ., 2022). These amendments provide a rich source of nutrients, carbon, and energy, stimulating microbial growth and activity (Chen et al ., 2024; Marzouk et al ., 2025; Zhao et al ., 2025). By enhancing soil microbiota, organic amendments can improve microbial biomass (Lu et al ., 2021; Karhu et al ., 2022), and boost enzyme activities (Jabborova et al ., 2021; Olougou et al ., 2024), modulate pH (Olougou et al ., 2024), and enhance nutrient availability and uptake (Marzouk et al ., 2025). They also enhance plant disease resistance and tolerance, increase soil organic matter and structure, support beneficial microbial communities and promote ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration and climate regulation (Chen et al ., 2024; Achiri et al ., 2025; Marzouk et al ., 2025; Zhao et al ., 2025). Meanwhile, recent field studies demonstrated significant benefits of harnessing the plant microbiome in agriculture (Reed and Glick, 2023; Rios-Ruiz et al ., 2023). Tejada et al . (2007) demonstrated that Trifolium pratense and Brassica napus green manure increased crop yield and improved soil physico-chemical and biological properties. Okur et al . (2010) reported idiosyncratic responses of some plant materials on soil biota, with significant effects on microbial biomass and enzyme activities. The aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term (5 years) impact of soil amendments (chemical inputs, poultry dropping, cow dung, Mucuna cochinchinensis green manure, and virgin forest) on rhizosphere biotic activities (e.g., organic matter, microbial biomass, acid and alkaline phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, arylamidase), pH, and primary macronutrients availability (N, P, and K). It was hypothesized that organic amendments will modulate soil pH and enhance rhizosphere biotic interactions and primary macronutrients availability as compared to chemical input. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Description of experimental site This 5 year (August 2019 to August 2024) field study was conducted in four different field sites (Bonaberi, Souza, Njombe, and Yasem) in the humid agro-ecology in Littoral region of Cameroon with mono-modal rainfall pattern with rainy season from March to October. Average annual rainfall is between 3000 and 5000 mm, and relative humidity of 85–90%. Average annual temperature is between 20–28°C, with 900–1200 h sunshine. The soil is loamy with sand (59%), silt (27%), and clay (14%). The first planting season is between March and July, with heavy rains from April to July, and the second season is between August and December with heavy rains from August to October. 2.2 Experimental Design The five-year experiment was set up as a split plot design where four different sites (Bonaberi, Souza, Njombe, and Yasem) were chosen in the mono-modal rainfall agro-ecology of Cameroon to each represent a treatment and replicated four times (Table 1 ). A 2500 m 2 (50 m x 50 m) land area was manually cleared using a cutlass and demarcated into 50 m x 50 m experimental units using pegs in each of the sites. The experimental units were raked to remove debris and tilled using a hole prior to application of treatments. The experiment was established from August 2019 to August 2024. Table 1 Treatments comprising chemical input, poultry dropping, cow dung, and green manure. Treatment Site Treatment description Composition 1 Bonaberi Chemical input Urea, Triple Superphosphate, Muriate of Potash 2 Souza Chemical input + organic input Chemical input (50%) + poultry manure + cow dung 3 Njombe Organic input Poultry manure + Mucuna pruriens green manure 4 Yasem Virgin forest / 2.3 Application of treatments Maize was cultivated in all four sites throughout the 5-year experimental period. For chemical input in each planting season, single fertilizers (urea, triple superphosphate, and muriate of potash) were applied in 2 split doses at 90 kg ha − 1 , 60 kg ha − 1 , and 90 kg ha − 1 , respectively. The first fertilizer dose (50%) was applied at sowing and the second (50%) at 6 weeks after sowing (WAS), by ringing at 5 cm radius of maize plants. One month before sowing for each cropping season, poultry and cow droppings from local poultry and cattle farms were each incorporated into the soil at the fresh weight rate of 5 tons ha − 1 . Mucuna green manure from a local farm was incorporated into the soil one month before sowing for each planting season at the fresh weight rate of 5 tons ha − 1 . The experimental sites were regularly monitored for emergence of weeds and manual weeding was done when necessary. Soil moisture during the experimental period depended on the local rainfall regime. 2.4. Data collection and analyses 2.4.1. Microbial biomass, acid and alkaline phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, and arylamidase in maize rhizosphere The rhizospheres of one hundred (100) randomly selected and tagged maize plants from each experimental site were sampled for analysis of microbial biomass, acid and alkaline phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, and arylamidase activities at mid-flowering (65 days after sowing). A spade was used to carefully dig at about 20 cm away from plants and 30 cm soil depth. Secondary root sections (about 15 cm each) with adhering soil were excised and bulked in polythene bag to form a composite sample after 5 years of continuous maize cropping. 10 g secondary root adhering soil was taken from each plant and bulked to form a 100 g composite sample and used for soil microbial biomass and enzymes assessments in the fifth experimental year. Soil microbial biomass was determined by fumigation extraction method where total carbon and nitrogen released from microbial cells after chloroform fumigation were directly measured and used for calculations (Vance et al. , 1987). P-nitrophenyl phosphate method was used to assess alkaline and acid phosphatase (Tabatabai and Bremmer, 1969), while colorimetric determination of ammonium method was used to determine urease activity (Kandeler and Gerber, 1988). β-glucosidase was determined using extraction and colorimetric determination of the P-nitrophenol method (Eivazi and Tabatabai, 1988), while arylamidase was determined using colorimetric determination of β-naphthylamine method (Acosta-Martinez, 2000). 2.4.2. Soil organic matter and chemical properties Soil samples were collected from each experimental site at 65 days after sowing in the fifth experimental year of continuous maize cropping. Twelve (12) core samples were randomly collected from each experimental site at 0–30 cm depth using a soil auger and thoroughly mixed to form a composite sample. The samples were air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm mesh, and analyzed for soil organic matter, pH, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). Soil pH was measured potentiometrically using a glass electrode pH meter. Total nitrogen was assessed by Kjeldahl digestion method (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982), organic carbon by Walkley and Black wet digestion method (Kalra and Maynard, 1991), soil available phosphorus by Bray II method (Van Reeuwijk, 1992), and flame photometer was used to analyze potassium (Rowell, 1994). 2.5. Statistical analysis All data sets were analyzed using statistical software package IBM SPSS statistics version 23 for Windows. Data sets were checked for normality and homogeneity using Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Levene’s tests, respectively. The dependent variables were subjected to univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA, P < 0.05) to test the effect of treatments ( n = 4), and significantly different means were further separated by posthoc Tukey’s HSD test ( P < 0.05). 3. Results 3.1. Treatments effects on microbial biomass, acid and alkaline phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, and arylamidase in the rhizosphere of maize After five years of experimentation, soil microbial biomass, acid and alkaline phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, and arylamidase activities in the rhizosphere of maize plants showed significant differences across treatments ( P < 0.001). The highest soil microbial biomass content (1730 mg − 1 kg − 1 soil) was recorded in Yasem (virgin forest), followed by Njombe (organic inputs) with 1293 mg − 1 kg − 1 soil, while Bonaberi (chemical inputs) recorded the least with 742 mg − 1 kg − 1 soil which was significantly lower than that of Souza (chemical inputs + organic inputs) with 994 mg − 1 kg − 1 soil ( P < 0.001, Fig. 1). Similar trends were observed for acid phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, and arylamidase with Yasem recording the highest (56.93 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 74.01 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 8.34 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, and 3.51 mU − 1 g − 1 soil respectively), followed by Njombe (43.98 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 57.17 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 6.54 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, and 2.49 mU − 1 g − 1 soil respectively), while Bonaberi recorded the least with 21.66 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 46.79 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 2.61 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, and 0.86 mU − 1 g − 1 soil respectively, which was also significantly lower than that of Souza with 35.52 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 28.16 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, 4.35 mU − 1 g − 1 soil, and 1.71 mU − 1 g − 1 soil respectively ( P < 0.001, Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively). For alkaline phosphatase, the highest activity (16.23 mU − 1 g − 1 soil) was recorded in Njombe followed by Yasem (9.95 mU − 1 g − 1 soil), while Bonaberi recorded the lowest (3.81 mU − 1 g − 1 soil) which was not significantly different from Souza with 6.61 mU − 1 g − 1 soil ( P < 0.001, Fig. 6). 3.2. Treatments effects on soil organic matter and chemical properties After five years of experimentation, the soil organic matter, pH, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) differed significantly across treatments ( P 0.05), followed by Souza (5.95) which was significantly higher than Bonaberi (5.08) that recorded the lowest value ( P < 0.001, Fig. 7). The highest soil organic matter content was recorded in Yasem (9.73%), followed by Njombe (7.53%) and Souza (6.88%) which were all significantly higher than the lowest (4.00%) recorded in Bonaberi ( P < 0.001, Fig. 8). For total soil nitrogen, the highest amount was recorded in Yasem (0.76%), which was not significantly different from Njombe (0.66%) and Bonaberi (0.70%), while the lowest (0.61%) was recorded in Souza ( P < 0.05, Fig. 9). The content of soil available phosphorus was highest in Yasem (68.08 mg − 1 kg − 1 soil), followed by Bonaberi (63.27 mg − 1 kg − 1 soil), which did not differ significantly ( P < 0.001, Fig. 10) from Souza (60.89 mg − 1 kg − 1 soil). Although the lowest soil available phosphorus was recorded in Njombe (57.77 mg − 1 kg − 1 soil), it did not differ significantly with that of Souza ( P > 0.05, Fig. 10). For soil potassium, the highest amount was recorded in Yasem (4.08 me − 1 100 g − 1 soil), although it did not differ significantly from Bonaberi (3.22 me − 1 100 g − 1 soil) and Souza (2.90 me − 1 100 g − 1 soil). Even though the lowest soil potassium was recorded in Njombe (2.82 me − 1 100 g − 1 soil), it did not differ significantly from Bonaberi and Souza ( P < 0.05, Fig. 11). 4. Discussion 4.1. Organic inputs modulated soil pH and enhanced rhizosphere biotic activities The findings of this present study highlight the profound impact of management practices on rhizosphere biotic activities. Soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities are crucial indicators of soil health and ecosystem functioning (Wang et al ., 2021; Asensio et al ., 2024; Daunoras et al ., 2024). The highest soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities recorded in Yasem (virgin forest) compared to chemical and organic inputs is in line with the diverse plant community in virgin forests comprising various tree species, under story vegetation, and herbaceous layers which creates a highly heterogeneous soil environment (Lang et al ., 2023; Pan et al ., 2025; Vivian et al ., 2025). This diversity promotes a wide range of microbial niches, supporting a higher microbial biomass and enzyme activities (Pan et al ., 2025; Vivian et al ., 2025). Moreover, the undisturbed nature of the virgin forest must have accumulated organic matter over centuries, providing a stable carbon source for microorganisms which supports a higher microbial biomass and enzyme activities (Shao et al ., 2017; Kang et al ., 2025). More so, the absence of human disturbance in the virgin forest maintains soil stability, allowing microbial community to thrive and evolve over time which ensures the preservation of microbial biomass and enzyme activities (Kang et al ., 2025; Pan et al ., 2025; Vivian et al ., 2025). The higher soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities recorded in Njombe (organic inputs) and Souza (chemical + organic inputs) compared to Bonaberi (solely chemical inputs) corroborates with the higher organic matter recorded which was likely enhanced upon addition of poultry droppings (Mierzwa et al ., 2017), cow dung (Das et al ., 2017) and mucuna green manure (Xu et al ., 2023). Moreover, organic matter is a source of carbon for microorganisms which increases microbial biomass and supports the growth of microorganisms (Lu et al ., 2021; Karhu et al ., 2022). Furthermore, organic inputs improve soil structure, increasing porosity, aggregation and water infiltration, which create a favorable environment for microbial growth and activity, supporting higher microbial biomass and enzyme activities (Chen et al ., 2024; Marzouk et al ., 2025; Zhao et al ., 2025). Also, organic inputs support diverse microbial communities, including beneficial bacteria, fungi and protozoa which enhances soil functioning, promotes nutrient cycling, and increases enzyme activities (Chen et al ., 2024; Marzouk et al ., 2025; Zhao et al ., 2025). In addition, organic inputs have minimal harmful effects on soil microorganisms, unlike chemical inputs which can harm or kill beneficial microorganisms, which reduce stress on microbial communities, allowing them to thrive and increase in biomass and activity (Ndung’u et al ., 2021; Zhao et al ., 2025). The lowest soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities recorded in Bonaberi (solely chemical inputs) compared to Njombe (organic inputs) and Souza (chemical + organic inputs) is likely due to toxicity resulting from the decrease in soil pH (Kunito et al ., 2016; Meena et al ., 2020; Wang et al ., 2021; Daunoras et al ., 2024), and supported by other studies where organic inputs also modulated rhizosphere pH and biotic activities (Faust et al. , 2017; Milkereit et al ., 2021; Olougou et al ., 2024). The finding is in line with the study’s hypothesis that organic amendments will modulate soil pH and enhance rhizosphere biotic interactions and primary macronutrients availability as compared to chemical input. Overall, the study underscores the importance of organic inputs in sustainable agricultural practices to promote soil health and ecosystem functioning, while minimizing the use of chemical inputs that can have negative impact on soil microorganisms and ecosystem health. 4.2. Organic inputs enhanced soil pH, organic matter and nutrient availability The findings of this study show that different management practices affect soil organic matter and chemical properties. The higher soil pH values in Yasem (virgin forest) and Njombe (organic inputs) can be attributed to the presence of organic matter, which can buffer soil pH and maintain a more stable and neutral environment (Wang et al ., 2009; Wang et al ., 2013; Jayalath et al ., 2016; Mosley et al ., 2024). In contrast, the lower pH values in Souza (organic inputs + chemical inputs) and Bonaberi (solely chemical inputs) could be attributed to the use of chemical fertilizers, which can acidify soils over time (Zhang et al ., 2022; Zhang 2024). The strong acidity in Bonaberi might be exacerbated by the lack of organic matter inputs, which can help mitigate soil acidification (Jayalath et al ., 2016; Jeon et al ., 2023) The higher soil organic matter (SOM) content in Yasem and Njombe can be attributed to the presence of vegetation cover and organic inputs, respectively (Barreto et al ., 2021; Khan et al ., 2024; Sun et al ., 2024; Gil-Martinez et al ., 2025). Virgin forests like Yasem tend to have high SOM content due to the accumulation of plant residues and roots (Fekete et al ., 2023; Sun et al ., 2024). Similarly, organic inputs in Njombe would have contributed to the build-up of SOM (Ndung’u et al ., 2021; Khan et al ., 2024; Mutai et al ., 2025). In contrast, the lower SOM content in Bonaberi might be due to the sole use of chemical inputs, which can lead to soil degradation and reduced organic matter content over time (Jayalath et al ., 2016; Jeon et al ., 2023; Mutai et al ., 2025). The total soil nitrogen content was highest in Yasem, which might be due to the presence of nitrogen-fixing plant species or the accumulation of organic nitrogen from plant residues (Kang et al ., 2023; Shu et al ., 2025). The similar nitrogen levels in Njombe and Bonaberi, despite differences in SOM content, could suggest that nitrogen availability is influenced by factors other than SOM, such as fertilizer application (Uddin et al ., 2021; Chiriac et al ., 2025). The available phosphorus content was highest in Yasem, which might be attributed to the presence of organic phosphorus sources, such as plant residues or microbial biomass (Schaap et al ., 2021; Gargallo-Garriga et al ., 2024). The similar phosphorus levels in Bonaberi and Souza could suggest that phosphorus availability is influenced by factors other than SOM content, such as fertilizer application or soil pH (Jiang et al ., 2025). The soil potassium content was highest in Yasem, which might be due to the presence of potassium-rich minerals or organic matter (Andrews et al ., 2021; Wu et al ., 2025). The similar potassium levels in Bonaberi and Souza could suggest that potassium availability is influenced by factors other than SOM content, such as fertilizer application (Zhang et al ., 2021; Wu et al ., 2024). Overall, the study highlights the importance of considering the complex interactions between soil properties, management practices, and crop responses when developing sustainable soil fertility management strategies. By understanding the factors influencing soil chemical properties, farmers can make informed decisions to optimize soil health and crop productivity. 5. Conclusion This study demonstrates that management practices significantly impact soil health and fertility. Virgin forests and organic inputs promote higher microbial biomass and enzyme activities, while chemical inputs can harm soil microorganisms and reduce enzyme activities. The findings suggest that integrating organic inputs into agricultural practices can improve soil fertility and health. Therefore, adopting sustainable soil management strategies that prioritize organic inputs and minimize chemical use can enhance soil ecosystem services, promote crop productivity, and support long-term agricultural sustainability. By understanding the complex interactions between soil properties, management practices, and crop responses, farmers can make informed decisions to optimize soil health, fertility, and productivity, ultimately contributing to a more sustainable and resilient agricultural system. Declarations Conflicts of Interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. Ethics, Consent to Participate, and Consent to Publish declarations not applicable. Clinical Trial Number not applicable. Funding statement This study was funded by the European Union (EU) through EJP SOIL, and the research grant of Saint Louis University Institute. Author Contribution M.N.M. conceptualized the research, acquired part of the funding, adopted some of the methods, performed data curation, visualized the data, did most of the analysis, supervised the investigation and wrote the main manuscript. I.L.S. adopted some of the methods, visualized the data, and took part in the investigation. T.A.K. adopted some of the methods, did some of the analysis, and took part in the investigation. K.A.B. adopted some of the methods and took part in the investigation. N.F.N. took part in the investigation. N.J.M. took part in the investigation. L.M.N. conceptualized part of the research, acquired part of the funding, adopted some of the methods and supervised the investigation. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Acknowledgement We extend our sincere appreciation to the Biochem-Env Platform of the French National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (INRAE), Palaiseau, France, and Doctor Christian Mougin, Platform Head, for their invaluable support and generosity in hosting the corresponding author to conduct key analyses in their state-of-the art laboratory, utilizing their established protocols. Their contribution significantly enhanced the quality and rigor of this research. Data Availability All data used to support the findings of this study are included in the article. References Achiri, T.D., Ndode, E.E., Mbeboh, N.M., Ngone, A.M., Ndzeshala, D.S., Ruppel, S., Tening, S.A. and Ngosong, C. (2025). Bio-inoculant consortium and organic amendment comprising plant bioactive extract increase maize yield by improving soil nutrient availability and mitigating pest damage. Plant Soil , 025, 07250-8. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19884,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on soil microbial biomass (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/8776530a40a2305cf5ed13e8.png"},{"id":93791209,"identity":"427b7106-39cc-4039-9f23-c239a0fdb51f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:05:01","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21182,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on acid phosphatase activity (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/57b4df06c6d541ad193b1b7c.png"},{"id":93791214,"identity":"ffdf6b08-56bb-4031-acac-0349208fd137","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:05:01","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17963,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on urease activity (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/564263d49b0b71ea9c69f94b.png"},{"id":93792182,"identity":"a4c845a4-eea6-4926-8b5c-bad4345b0e71","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:13:01","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19097,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on β-glucosidase activity (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/a6042e34d679e38af66e0878.png"},{"id":93792184,"identity":"53a19588-a64e-45c7-897b-6cefabd3f475","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:13:01","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":18914,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on arylamidase activity (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/5bedaf6fa1b83857ef01a3e3.png"},{"id":93792187,"identity":"65b9feaf-0395-497b-bb64-4768699bdb92","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:13:01","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21584,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on alkaline phosphatase activity (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/20cf66435f18c5338e296482.png"},{"id":93792185,"identity":"64c1d6b1-a399-4b15-a5e4-7f653710c351","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:13:01","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":14569,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on soil pH (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/dd77f4d74b88f28aaa837f18.png"},{"id":93792306,"identity":"7a37feef-3fcc-4ab0-a458-1a6755658ef2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:21:01","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":15787,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on soil organic matter (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/7c8ca5fae356acb153c499a3.png"},{"id":93792188,"identity":"d49c7cd1-b43a-4570-8ed4-2c7527171b8e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:13:01","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17394,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on total nitrogen (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/9c71e5cbee89d5b289312c67.png"},{"id":93791221,"identity":"af41e0fe-f5e4-44f7-84c6-1edb05e8bc58","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:05:01","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21646,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on soil available phosphorus activity (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/394f20ad9a59c4f607ab97e5.png"},{"id":93791220,"identity":"93f9af6c-1cb4-4821-b8f3-b77d015b6b03","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:05:01","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17897,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on soil potassium (Mean ± SD). Bars with different letters represent significant differences across treatments (Tukey’s HSD, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05). Bonaberi: Chemical input, Souza: Chemical input+organic input, Njombe: Organic input, Yassem: Virgin forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/d5df6ac63dcc196f296e36a1.png"},{"id":93793406,"identity":"c36ac40f-ad5d-4edb-b94d-2e815a57e4f6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 15:29:02","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1169455,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7699033/v1/b1e52840-2001-4dd1-b637-efb06543ce79.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Harnessing the Power of Organic Amendments: Enhancing Soil Microbiota and Functions in the Rhizosphere of Maize","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSoil degradation, declining fertility, and reduced agricultural productivity are pressing concerns in modern agriculture (Derpsch \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Mesele \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). Some farm management practices have disrupted the delicate balance of soil ecosystems, compromising the health and resilience of soil microbiota, which can jeopardize sustainability of agro-ecosystems (Das \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Topa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). Thereby, necessitating sustainable options and soil monitoring tools (Szekacs and Darvas, 2022; Bittencourt \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Zhu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the critical role that soil microorganisms play in maintaining soil fertility, plant health, and ecosystem services (Chen \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Marzouk \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Zhao \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). The rhizosphere, the region surrounding plant roots, is a hotspot of microbial activity, where complex interactions between plants, microorganisms, and soil nutrients occur (Bord\u0026eacute;-Pavlicz \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Mesele \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). Soil microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and protozoa, contribute to nutrient cycling, decomposition, and plant disease suppression (Moraes \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018; Becke \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Olougou \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Achiri \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). However, some management practices can disrupt these beneficial interactions, leading to reduced soil fertility and plant productivity (Al-Shammary \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Liang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). Organic amendments have emerged as a vital strategy for enhancing soil microbiota and functions in the rhizosphere, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional agricultural practices (Jeon \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023; Gil-Martinez \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Mutai \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrganic amendments, such as compost, animal waste, green manure, and bio-fertilizers, offer a promising solution to revitalize soil microbiota and functions (Lu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Karhu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). These amendments provide a rich source of nutrients, carbon, and energy, stimulating microbial growth and activity (Chen \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Marzouk \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Zhao \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). By enhancing soil microbiota, organic amendments can improve microbial biomass (Lu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Karhu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022), and boost enzyme activities (Jabborova \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Olougou \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024), modulate pH (Olougou \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024), and enhance nutrient availability and uptake (Marzouk \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). They also enhance plant disease resistance and tolerance, increase soil organic matter and structure, support beneficial microbial communities and promote ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration and climate regulation (Chen \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Achiri \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Marzouk \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Zhao \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). Meanwhile, recent field studies demonstrated significant benefits of harnessing the plant microbiome in agriculture (Reed and Glick, 2023; Rios-Ruiz \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). Tejada \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2007) demonstrated that \u003cem\u003eTrifolium pratense\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eBrassica napus\u003c/em\u003e green manure increased crop yield and improved soil physico-chemical and biological properties. Okur \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2010) reported idiosyncratic responses of some plant materials on soil biota, with significant effects on microbial biomass and enzyme activities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term (5 years) impact of soil amendments (chemical inputs, poultry dropping, cow dung, \u003cem\u003eMucuna cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e green manure, and virgin forest) on rhizosphere biotic activities (e.g., organic matter, microbial biomass, acid and alkaline phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, arylamidase), pH, and primary macronutrients availability (N, P, and K). It was hypothesized that organic amendments will modulate soil pH and enhance rhizosphere biotic interactions and primary macronutrients availability as compared to chemical input.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Description of experimental site\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis 5 year (August 2019 to August 2024) field study was conducted in four different field sites (Bonaberi, Souza, Njombe, and Yasem) in the humid agro-ecology in Littoral region of Cameroon with mono-modal rainfall pattern with rainy season from March to October. Average annual rainfall is between 3000 and 5000 mm, and relative humidity of 85\u0026ndash;90%. Average annual temperature is between 20\u0026ndash;28\u0026deg;C, with 900\u0026ndash;1200 h sunshine. The soil is loamy with sand (59%), silt (27%), and clay (14%). The first planting season is between March and July, with heavy rains from April to July, and the second season is between August and December with heavy rains from August to October.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Experimental Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe five-year experiment was set up as a split plot design where four different sites (Bonaberi, Souza, Njombe, and Yasem) were chosen in the mono-modal rainfall agro-ecology of Cameroon to each represent a treatment and replicated four times (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). A 2500 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (50 m x 50 m) land area was manually cleared using a cutlass and demarcated into 50 m x 50 m experimental units using pegs in each of the sites. The experimental units were raked to remove debris and tilled using a hole prior to application of treatments. The experiment was established from August 2019 to August 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments comprising chemical input, poultry dropping, cow dung, and green manure.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment description\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComposition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBonaberi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChemical input\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrea, Triple Superphosphate, Muriate of Potash\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSouza\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChemical input\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;organic input\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChemical input (50%)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;poultry manure\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;cow dung\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNjombe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrganic input\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePoultry manure\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eMucuna pruriens\u003c/em\u003e green manure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYasem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVirgin forest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Application of treatments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaize was cultivated in all four sites throughout the 5-year experimental period. For chemical input in each planting season, single fertilizers (urea, triple superphosphate, and muriate of potash) were applied in 2 split doses at 90 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 60 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, and 90 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively. The first fertilizer dose (50%) was applied at sowing and the second (50%) at 6 weeks after sowing (WAS), by ringing at 5 cm radius of maize plants. One month before sowing for each cropping season, poultry and cow droppings from local poultry and cattle farms were each incorporated into the soil at the fresh weight rate of 5 tons ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. \u003cem\u003eMucuna\u003c/em\u003e green manure from a local farm was incorporated into the soil one month before sowing for each planting season at the fresh weight rate of 5 tons ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The experimental sites were regularly monitored for emergence of weeds and manual weeding was done when necessary. Soil moisture during the experimental period depended on the local rainfall regime.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Data collection and analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4.1. Microbial biomass, acid and alkaline phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, and arylamidase in maize rhizosphere\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rhizospheres of one hundred (100) randomly selected and tagged maize plants from each experimental site were sampled for analysis of microbial biomass, acid and alkaline phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, and arylamidase activities at mid-flowering (65 days after sowing). A spade was used to carefully dig at about 20 cm away from plants and 30 cm soil depth. Secondary root sections (about 15 cm each) with adhering soil were excised and bulked in polythene bag to form a composite sample after 5 years of continuous maize cropping. 10 g secondary root adhering soil was taken from each plant and bulked to form a 100 g composite sample and used for soil microbial biomass and enzymes assessments in the fifth experimental year. Soil microbial biomass was determined by fumigation extraction method where total carbon and nitrogen released from microbial cells after chloroform fumigation were directly measured and used for calculations (Vance \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 1987). P-nitrophenyl phosphate method was used to assess alkaline and acid phosphatase (Tabatabai and Bremmer, 1969), while colorimetric determination of ammonium method was used to determine urease activity (Kandeler and Gerber, 1988). β-glucosidase was determined using extraction and colorimetric determination of the P-nitrophenol method (Eivazi and Tabatabai, 1988), while arylamidase was determined using colorimetric determination of β-naphthylamine method (Acosta-Martinez, 2000).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4.2. Soil organic matter and chemical properties\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil samples were collected from each experimental site at 65 days after sowing in the fifth experimental year of continuous maize cropping. Twelve (12) core samples were randomly collected from each experimental site at 0\u0026ndash;30 cm depth using a soil auger and thoroughly mixed to form a composite sample. The samples were air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm mesh, and analyzed for soil organic matter, pH, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). Soil pH was measured potentiometrically using a glass electrode pH meter. Total nitrogen was assessed by Kjeldahl digestion method (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982), organic carbon by Walkley and Black wet digestion method (Kalra and Maynard, 1991), soil available phosphorus by Bray II method (Van Reeuwijk, 1992), and flame photometer was used to analyze potassium (Rowell, 1994).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll data sets were analyzed using statistical software package IBM SPSS statistics version 23 for Windows. Data sets were checked for normality and homogeneity using Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Levene\u0026rsquo;s tests, respectively. The dependent variables were subjected to univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) to test the effect of treatments (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4), and significantly different means were further separated by \u003cem\u003eposthoc\u003c/em\u003e Tukey\u0026rsquo;s HSD test (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.1. Treatments effects on microbial biomass, acid and alkaline phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, and arylamidase in the rhizosphere of maize\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter five years of experimentation, soil microbial biomass, acid and alkaline phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, and arylamidase activities in the rhizosphere of maize plants showed significant differences across treatments (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001). The highest soil microbial biomass content (1730 mg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003ekg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil) was recorded in Yasem (virgin forest), followed by Njombe (organic inputs) with 1293 mg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003ekg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, while Bonaberi (chemical inputs) recorded the least with 742 mg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003ekg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil which was significantly lower than that of Souza (chemical inputs + organic inputs) with 994 mg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003ekg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, Fig.\u0026nbsp;1). Similar trends were observed for acid phosphatase, urease, β-glucosidase, and arylamidase with Yasem recording the highest (56.93 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 74.01 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 8.34 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, and 3.51 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil respectively), followed by Njombe (43.98 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 57.17 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 6.54 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, and 2.49 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil respectively), while Bonaberi recorded the least with 21.66 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 46.79 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 2.61 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, and 0.86 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil respectively, which was also significantly lower than that of Souza with 35.52 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 28.16 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 4.35 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, and 1.71 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil respectively (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, Figs.\u0026nbsp;2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively). For alkaline phosphatase, the highest activity (16.23 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil) was recorded in Njombe followed by Yasem (9.95 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), while Bonaberi recorded the lowest (3.81 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil) which was not significantly different from Souza with 6.61 mU\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, Fig.\u0026nbsp;6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Treatments effects on soil organic matter and chemical properties\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter five years of experimentation, the soil organic matter, pH, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) differed significantly across treatments (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05). The highest soil pH was recorded in Yasem (6.40) and Njombe (6.23) with no significantly difference (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.05), followed by Souza (5.95) which was significantly higher than Bonaberi (5.08) that recorded the lowest value (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, Fig.\u0026nbsp;7). The highest soil organic matter content was recorded in Yasem (9.73%), followed by Njombe (7.53%) and Souza (6.88%) which were all significantly higher than the lowest (4.00%) recorded in Bonaberi (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, Fig.\u0026nbsp;8). For total soil nitrogen, the highest amount was recorded in Yasem (0.76%), which was not significantly different from Njombe (0.66%) and Bonaberi (0.70%), while the lowest (0.61%) was recorded in Souza (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05, Fig.\u0026nbsp;9). The content of soil available phosphorus was highest in Yasem (68.08 mg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003ekg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), followed by Bonaberi (63.27 mg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003ekg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), which did not differ significantly (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, Fig.\u0026nbsp;10) from Souza (60.89 mg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003ekg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil). Although the lowest soil available phosphorus was recorded in Njombe (57.77 mg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003ekg\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), it did not differ significantly with that of Souza (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.05, Fig.\u0026nbsp;10). For soil potassium, the highest amount was recorded in Yasem (4.08 me\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e100 g\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), although it did not differ significantly from Bonaberi (3.22 me\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e100 g\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil) and Souza (2.90 me\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e100 g\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil). Even though the lowest soil potassium was recorded in Njombe (2.82 me\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e100 g\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), it did not differ significantly from Bonaberi and Souza (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05, Fig.\u0026nbsp;11).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1. Organic inputs modulated soil pH and enhanced rhizosphere biotic activities\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this present study highlight the profound impact of management practices on rhizosphere biotic activities. Soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities are crucial indicators of soil health and ecosystem functioning (Wang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Asensio \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Daunoras \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). The highest soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities recorded in Yasem (virgin forest) compared to chemical and organic inputs is in line with the diverse plant community in virgin forests comprising various tree species, under story vegetation, and herbaceous layers which creates a highly heterogeneous soil environment (Lang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023; Pan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Vivian \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). This diversity promotes a wide range of microbial niches, supporting a higher microbial biomass and enzyme activities (Pan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Vivian \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). Moreover, the undisturbed nature of the virgin forest must have accumulated organic matter over centuries, providing a stable carbon source for microorganisms which supports a higher microbial biomass and enzyme activities (Shao \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017; Kang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). More so, the absence of human disturbance in the virgin forest maintains soil stability, allowing microbial community to thrive and evolve over time which ensures the preservation of microbial biomass and enzyme activities (Kang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Pan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Vivian \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe higher soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities recorded in Njombe (organic inputs) and Souza (chemical\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;organic inputs) compared to Bonaberi (solely chemical inputs) corroborates with the higher organic matter recorded which was likely enhanced upon addition of poultry droppings (Mierzwa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017), cow dung (Das \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017) and mucuna green manure (Xu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). Moreover, organic matter is a source of carbon for microorganisms which increases microbial biomass and supports the growth of microorganisms (Lu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Karhu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). Furthermore, organic inputs improve soil structure, increasing porosity, aggregation and water infiltration, which create a favorable environment for microbial growth and activity, supporting higher microbial biomass and enzyme activities (Chen \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Marzouk \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Zhao \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). Also, organic inputs support diverse microbial communities, including beneficial bacteria, fungi and protozoa which enhances soil functioning, promotes nutrient cycling, and increases enzyme activities (Chen \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Marzouk \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025; Zhao \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). In addition, organic inputs have minimal harmful effects on soil microorganisms, unlike chemical inputs which can harm or kill beneficial microorganisms, which reduce stress on microbial communities, allowing them to thrive and increase in biomass and activity (Ndung\u0026rsquo;u \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Zhao \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe lowest soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities recorded in Bonaberi (solely chemical inputs) compared to Njombe (organic inputs) and Souza (chemical\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;organic inputs) is likely due to toxicity resulting from the decrease in soil pH (Kunito \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016; Meena \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020; Wang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Daunoras \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024), and supported by other studies where organic inputs also modulated rhizosphere pH and biotic activities (Faust \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2017; Milkereit \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Olougou \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). The finding is in line with the study\u0026rsquo;s hypothesis that organic amendments will modulate soil pH and enhance rhizosphere biotic interactions and primary macronutrients availability as compared to chemical input. Overall, the study underscores the importance of organic inputs in sustainable agricultural practices to promote soil health and ecosystem functioning, while minimizing the use of chemical inputs that can have negative impact on soil microorganisms and ecosystem health.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2. Organic inputs enhanced soil pH, organic matter and nutrient availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study show that different management practices affect soil organic matter and chemical properties. The higher soil pH values in Yasem (virgin forest) and Njombe (organic inputs) can be attributed to the presence of organic matter, which can buffer soil pH and maintain a more stable and neutral environment (Wang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2009; Wang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2013; Jayalath \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016; Mosley \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). In contrast, the lower pH values in Souza (organic inputs\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;chemical inputs) and Bonaberi (solely chemical inputs) could be attributed to the use of chemical fertilizers, which can acidify soils over time (Zhang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022; Zhang 2024). The strong acidity in Bonaberi might be exacerbated by the lack of organic matter inputs, which can help mitigate soil acidification (Jayalath \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016; Jeon \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe higher soil organic matter (SOM) content in Yasem and Njombe can be attributed to the presence of vegetation cover and organic inputs, respectively (Barreto \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Khan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Sun \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Gil-Martinez \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). Virgin forests like Yasem tend to have high SOM content due to the accumulation of plant residues and roots (Fekete \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023; Sun \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). Similarly, organic inputs in Njombe would have contributed to the build-up of SOM (Ndung\u0026rsquo;u \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Khan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Mutai \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). In contrast, the lower SOM content in Bonaberi might be due to the sole use of chemical inputs, which can lead to soil degradation and reduced organic matter content over time (Jayalath \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016; Jeon \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023; Mutai \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe total soil nitrogen content was highest in Yasem, which might be due to the presence of nitrogen-fixing plant species or the accumulation of organic nitrogen from plant residues (Kang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023; Shu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). The similar nitrogen levels in Njombe and Bonaberi, despite differences in SOM content, could suggest that nitrogen availability is influenced by factors other than SOM, such as fertilizer application (Uddin \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Chiriac \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe available phosphorus content was highest in Yasem, which might be attributed to the presence of organic phosphorus sources, such as plant residues or microbial biomass (Schaap \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Gargallo-Garriga \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). The similar phosphorus levels in Bonaberi and Souza could suggest that phosphorus availability is influenced by factors other than SOM content, such as fertilizer application or soil pH (Jiang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe soil potassium content was highest in Yasem, which might be due to the presence of potassium-rich minerals or organic matter (Andrews \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Wu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). The similar potassium levels in Bonaberi and Souza could suggest that potassium availability is influenced by factors other than SOM content, such as fertilizer application (Zhang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Wu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the study highlights the importance of considering the complex interactions between soil properties, management practices, and crop responses when developing sustainable soil fertility management strategies. By understanding the factors influencing soil chemical properties, farmers can make informed decisions to optimize soil health and crop productivity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that management practices significantly impact soil health and fertility. Virgin forests and organic inputs promote higher microbial biomass and enzyme activities, while chemical inputs can harm soil microorganisms and reduce enzyme activities. The findings suggest that integrating organic inputs into agricultural practices can improve soil fertility and health. Therefore, adopting sustainable soil management strategies that prioritize organic inputs and minimize chemical use can enhance soil ecosystem services, promote crop productivity, and support long-term agricultural sustainability. By understanding the complex interactions between soil properties, management practices, and crop responses, farmers can make informed decisions to optimize soil health, fertility, and productivity, ultimately contributing to a more sustainable and resilient agricultural system.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics, Consent to Participate, and Consent to Publish declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003enot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003enot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding statement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was funded by the European Union (EU) through EJP SOIL, and the research grant of Saint Louis University Institute.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM.N.M. conceptualized the research, acquired part of the funding, adopted some of the methods, performed data curation, visualized the data, did most of the analysis, supervised the investigation and wrote the main manuscript. I.L.S. adopted some of the methods, visualized the data, and took part in the investigation. T.A.K. adopted some of the methods, did some of the analysis, and took part in the investigation. K.A.B. adopted some of the methods and took part in the investigation. N.F.N. took part in the investigation. N.J.M. took part in the investigation. L.M.N. conceptualized part of the research, acquired part of the funding, adopted some of the methods and supervised the investigation. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe extend our sincere appreciation to the Biochem-Env Platform of the French National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (INRAE), Palaiseau, France, and Doctor Christian Mougin, Platform Head, for their invaluable support and generosity in hosting the corresponding author to conduct key analyses in their state-of-the art laboratory, utilizing their established protocols. Their contribution significantly enhanced the quality and rigor of this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data used to support the findings of this study are included in the article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAchiri, T.D., Ndode, E.E., Mbeboh, N.M., Ngone, A.M., Ndzeshala, D.S., Ruppel, S., Tening, S.A. and Ngosong, C. (2025). Bio-inoculant consortium and organic amendment comprising plant bioactive extract increase maize yield by improving soil nutrient availability and mitigating pest damage. \u003cem\u003ePlant Soil\u003c/em\u003e, 025, 07250-8. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAcosta-Martinez, V. and Tabatabai, M.A. (2000). Arylamidase activity of soils. \u003cem\u003eSoil Sci. Soc. Am. J.\u003c/em\u003e, 64, 215-221.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Shammary, A.A.G., Al-Shihmani, L.S.S., Fernandez-Galvez, J. and Caballero-Calvo, A. (2024). 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Plant Sci\u003c/em\u003e., 10(15), 1520272.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-soil","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Soil](https://link.springer.com/journal/44378)","snPcode":"44378","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44378/3","title":"Discover Soil","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Enzymes, Microbial biomass, organic matter, pH, soil amendments, soil health","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7699033/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7699033/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSoil degradation and declining fertility are pressing concerns in modern agriculture, compromising soil health and ecosystem services. This five-year field study aimed to investigate the long-term impact of soil amendments on soil microbiota and functions in the rhizosphere of maize plants, addressing the need for sustainable agricultural practices that promote soil health and ecosystem services. A 5-year field trial was setup in the monomodal rainforest agro-ecology in Littoral region of Cameroon, using a split plot design. Four soil fertility management options were evaluated with four replications, including chemical inputs, organic inputs (poultry droppings, cow dung, and mucuna green manure), combined chemical and organic inputs, and a virgin forest as a control. Results showed that organic inputs significantly (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) enhanced soil microbial biomass (1293 mg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003ekg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil) and enzyme activities, including acid phosphatase (43.98 mU\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), alkaline phosphatase 16.23 mU\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), urease (57.17 mU\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), β-glucosidase (6.54 mU\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), and arylamidase (2.49 mU\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil), compared to chemical inputs (742 mg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003ekg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 21.66 mU\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 3.81 mU\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 46.79 mU\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, 2.61 mU\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, and 0.86 mU\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil, respectively). Organic inputs also modulated soil pH (6.23), increased organic matter content (7.53%), and improved nutrient availability. The combined treatment showed intermediate effects, while chemical inputs alone resulted in reduced soil pH, microbial biomass, and enzyme activities. The study highlights the benefits of integrating organic amendments into agricultural practices to promote soil health, fertility, and ecosystem services. These findings have significant implications for developing eco-friendly and sustainable agricultural practices that prioritize soil health and ecosystem functioning.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Harnessing the Power of Organic Amendments: Enhancing Soil Microbiota and Functions in the Rhizosphere of Maize","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-17 15:04:56","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7699033/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-11-09T08:14:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-18T10:31:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-17T11:30:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"126450685194872839244926522940962300942","date":"2025-10-15T11:50:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"184751058680754369321613557612129683886","date":"2025-10-12T10:38:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"139514274330732222180906836561997249188","date":"2025-10-08T09:49:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-06T18:16:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-28T20:42:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-26T14:39:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-26T14:38:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Soil","date":"2025-09-24T03:37:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-soil","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Soil](https://link.springer.com/journal/44378)","snPcode":"44378","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44378/3","title":"Discover Soil","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9f90e5ef-22e9-4758-8176-d5d0708273ce","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-09T10:58:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-17 15:04:56","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7699033","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7699033","identity":"rs-7699033","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}