Modeling comparison and structural optimization of stepped sintered heat exchangers in dilution refrigerator

Modeling comparison and structural optimization of stepped sintered heat exchangers in dilution refrigerator | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Modeling comparison and structural optimization of stepped sintered heat exchangers in dilution refrigerator Yuanbo Ti, Kongkuai Ying, Lingji Hua, Kangjun Liu, Zhenhua Jiang, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8106368/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract As a key device for achieving sub-Kelvin temperatures, the performance of dilution refrigerator heat exchangers at low temperatures directly determines the overall cooling efficiency of the system. This work develops a coupled numerical model combining a continuous counterflow heat exchanger (CCHE) with stepped sintered heat exchangers (SSHE), and compares two mainstream stepped exchanger configurations available in the market. The two types are analyzed using the local thermal nonequilibrium (LTN) model and the efficiency-number of heat transfer units method (ε-NTU), respectively. The control equations are discretized using the finite volume method, with comprehensive consideration of Kapitza resistance, axial heat conduction, viscous heating, and pressure drop. The model systematically analyzes the resulting temperature, pressure, and concentration distributions. The study investigates the influence of heat transfer area distribution in three-stage SSHE, compares the contributions of different heat transfer mechanisms, and evaluates the effect of channel factor on exchanger performance. Finally, the differences between the two heat exchanger configurations and the impact of ³He flow rate on thermal efficiency are examined. Dilution Refrigerator Continuous Counterflow Heat Exchanger Stepped Sintered Heat Exchanger Numerical Calculation Sub-Kelvin Temperature Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 08 Apr, 2026 Reviews received at journal 10 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 28 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 09 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 22 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 20 Nov, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 20 Nov, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 14 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 13 Nov, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8106368","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":549261516,"identity":"b141d0f6-4258-4fe5-ae5e-0c3d69d3f775","order_by":0,"name":"Yuanbo Ti","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yuanbo","middleName":"","lastName":"Ti","suffix":""},{"id":549261517,"identity":"3d59e895-8042-4ec1-bf22-c01c94579bd0","order_by":1,"name":"Kongkuai Ying","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kongkuai","middleName":"","lastName":"Ying","suffix":""},{"id":549261518,"identity":"789cbc74-4431-4069-a969-ed75a93f8871","order_by":2,"name":"Lingji Hua","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lingji","middleName":"","lastName":"Hua","suffix":""},{"id":549261519,"identity":"f8596145-a8cb-4c4a-9f03-a1e07f89d40c","order_by":3,"name":"Kangjun Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kangjun","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":549261520,"identity":"a3c5e846-10ee-4f84-a676-989135acfc99","order_by":4,"name":"Zhenhua Jiang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhenhua","middleName":"","lastName":"Jiang","suffix":""},{"id":549261521,"identity":"ed9c537c-e596-4c5a-8605-3d02e12ebcef","order_by":5,"name":"Deping Dong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Deping","middleName":"","lastName":"Dong","suffix":""},{"id":549261526,"identity":"b0988187-6b13-4666-9ffc-6bc7fac26f39","order_by":6,"name":"Shaoshuai Liu","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shaoshuai","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-13 13:53:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8106368/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8106368/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":96920536,"identity":"45410ef9-282b-4ade-ba47-e6e42393f19a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:15","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1220060,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/18f85c6681591460619c9a5d.docx"},{"id":96899215,"identity":"8732fc6c-7d84-4b86-a1d2-fdc63e7a4871","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:50","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":7774,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"c9821b0fdad5483396375f5d89d29ce5.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/0c827484bc85da117cb9defe.json"},{"id":96919896,"identity":"5d8f58d9-ba8b-4aa8-9c8d-47642be47ca8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:35","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":101256,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"c9821b0fdad5483396375f5d89d29ce51enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/65cde4e351122d01f5b388e1.xml"},{"id":96899216,"identity":"1e8276d1-a313-48c8-946a-d7c3eed34420","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:50","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":57647,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/c57f6d893e4f85d8f918918d.png"},{"id":96920541,"identity":"712e20ed-1e53-40b2-ab55-1a848f9b1840","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:15","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":245160,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/103d0146aabf18a0471235d0.png"},{"id":96920990,"identity":"3971008d-0c3e-430a-b87a-7e57208c61c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:34","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":73042,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/d67fbf37dd1713ab17835a02.png"},{"id":96899231,"identity":"9d40303d-f290-4d7f-b220-eef4cba3261a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":142880,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/419c25ac7406cdbc685f2d06.png"},{"id":96899223,"identity":"5cfa1c3a-6e4f-4360-ad05-991f0d4ac9b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:50","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":141504,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/19f1147e6ae5543c3dead14c.png"},{"id":96899224,"identity":"4f5f7f51-1cc3-4e81-b851-eb8253e359e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:50","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":42223,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/55f59c1a6d31290eaa86db9c.png"},{"id":96919702,"identity":"fa475bc7-e54d-4f63-b4cf-72726ca32008","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:20","extension":"emf","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":102872,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/83eea613a73a02366cf13433.emf"},{"id":96920268,"identity":"9f23e7d0-f5df-455a-b178-0d908c4f4c6e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:59","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":76111,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/d4b3cd986a85e1b92c0db634.png"},{"id":96899228,"identity":"058b01fc-1580-46b3-ab31-053d548752e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:50","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":113771,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/9abac5563e551cd7107e1af7.png"},{"id":96899220,"identity":"8384ade0-d08d-481c-859e-339eef405bc7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:50","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":48374,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/2bed8dd1b93fda810d87d336.png"},{"id":96920439,"identity":"ebf2052c-67aa-495f-9aa3-331348a306b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:09","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":49398,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/67c4902df5e0b8d7c951d8cb.png"},{"id":96920947,"identity":"82297659-786b-4f3c-bef8-e9fb8236d52c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:31","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":71597,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/6b2c61957a7b5fe87d7e6319.png"},{"id":96899232,"identity":"b5df77cb-bdc6-4955-aa8c-9377c34a3c3e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"wmf","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4862,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image10.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/976934b82b8624178f4887f5.wmf"},{"id":96919859,"identity":"e650d435-7fca-4a48-8ab8-390d40f61dba","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:33","extension":"wmf","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4742,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image11.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/c529a69b4ecbe4067a96e29a.wmf"},{"id":96920848,"identity":"fe4001e6-c391-49db-95d7-0680e2247e49","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:27","extension":"wmf","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3770,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image12.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/08b907a01e55fa84aa6ce4f7.wmf"},{"id":96919735,"identity":"da4487b9-9d65-4faa-b106-d3cfb9dcaf69","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:24","extension":"wmf","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4590,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image13.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/dff44934a893eef4dfd21aa0.wmf"},{"id":96920317,"identity":"6aa5d3f8-b264-4fc0-bc1b-caba2e40fe7a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:03","extension":"wmf","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4664,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image14.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/cf23f689b750a546533473a9.wmf"},{"id":96920987,"identity":"c6da1435-6120-4e44-846d-634e0335fe2e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:34","extension":"wmf","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3568,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image15.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/abfe2b5ca24441f798b3c4cf.wmf"},{"id":96899255,"identity":"22316144-151d-4331-90c6-3107f5c37ab7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"wmf","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4654,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image16.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/bb04b57cd4e02ec153e1779b.wmf"},{"id":96920920,"identity":"a5701eb5-3b7a-4c40-aa3a-89c53de667f3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:30","extension":"wmf","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4418,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image17.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/1fc57418931b64990e671618.wmf"},{"id":96899234,"identity":"38389d5e-856b-4fd9-a4f9-c9eaeb74c720","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"wmf","order_by":23,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3464,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image18.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/0890ae439f4994c052d8fcb9.wmf"},{"id":96920952,"identity":"8278b17a-e888-497a-a560-f628e719c1e5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:32","extension":"wmf","order_by":24,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3696,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image4.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/db02d3e1022d55b6ce2667d7.wmf"},{"id":96920407,"identity":"537c510a-22ae-4999-8977-b404319620af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:08","extension":"wmf","order_by":25,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2144,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image5.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/2d8d2b47965f460b671fb63e.wmf"},{"id":96919770,"identity":"b217c496-843b-4fba-a94a-c9d785210669","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:26","extension":"wmf","order_by":26,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3322,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image6.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/012adf8b41624efe53d4148f.wmf"},{"id":96899239,"identity":"3ef0545c-733e-4bb2-9a46-9713ded11102","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"wmf","order_by":27,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3322,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image7.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/076deffe7e069e9a5396f291.wmf"},{"id":96921073,"identity":"1af83d55-3907-410a-a76b-01075be11e31","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:40","extension":"wmf","order_by":28,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2768,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"image8.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/657a4a3733ef28f7b07e79e7.wmf"},{"id":96899247,"identity":"e5c4aaf6-71de-49a6-aba4-39380b7a1b71","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":29,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":22280,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/d21ed8a277bb3e978c5613af.png"},{"id":96919602,"identity":"8b4f1aa1-1be6-4fb1-b70d-f320c6f2b7b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:11","extension":"png","order_by":30,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":61743,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/c2d7d81c558f57b945bb5d63.png"},{"id":96899240,"identity":"a20568c6-ac15-48a7-b5b0-592eed45cc5c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":31,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":33603,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/76123928b39febf61f259b17.png"},{"id":96899260,"identity":"d619752e-b888-4c55-a18d-18aa7bef8b45","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":32,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":63194,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/f80d5f3375c114cb0df638ee.png"},{"id":96921093,"identity":"f4821b1b-7347-4527-b71c-e38d76089d8e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:41","extension":"png","order_by":33,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":50077,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/cac79ded1181b31968b45b9f.png"},{"id":96921095,"identity":"b8b73583-80e8-4f98-8880-19d28286c16e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:42","extension":"png","order_by":34,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":20378,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/f556355f698c80ad72f1ce00.png"},{"id":96899249,"identity":"1dfc18e5-9285-4040-9eb2-434fc3565a3c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":35,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":16366,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/e62de94c004a00f371c2bcb2.png"},{"id":96920894,"identity":"971a0ad3-96f6-4bca-9445-3ff8e6a51b33","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:30","extension":"png","order_by":36,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":26048,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/2ba077b45e19a8a7c4501c1c.png"},{"id":96899251,"identity":"1fdc47fc-2c9d-4c19-8f6e-8b15b0238c1b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":37,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":42988,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/cb3cc0dcd675ef41fae5c353.png"},{"id":96899257,"identity":"03468557-e473-449c-94c4-a8a3b64637d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":38,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":13511,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/e0e7f1413563c86352c02cee.png"},{"id":96921099,"identity":"2be298e0-057f-4cf9-8d9a-704ea821b93e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:42","extension":"png","order_by":39,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":20146,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/d7492f4e65a20a51a552586a.png"},{"id":96920623,"identity":"b1105e1d-ee00-4737-9f56-08223a275ca8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:19","extension":"png","order_by":40,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":18262,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/ccb10505d140ad7f8b582eae.png"},{"id":96899250,"identity":"67b53179-d1a2-4009-a4fe-905f62e8f847","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":41,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3559,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/a62c370b8250bccc47d6a4cb.png"},{"id":96899252,"identity":"e2e46bcf-e6d6-4b88-9c70-4474581b5a18","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":42,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3790,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/adbeb7847b2ef06a18493920.png"},{"id":96920659,"identity":"e33d2c18-0b68-4dda-8738-871bd16bddcf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:20","extension":"png","order_by":43,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3184,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/1874a4fcba6c99de90e5c5af.png"},{"id":96899253,"identity":"d36abd2b-412b-4234-b334-7cce0336d5d6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":44,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3465,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/4e5000c3e9fe0bd3acfd2240.png"},{"id":96920575,"identity":"d3e9a31d-9bfa-4627-a84a-14814fe9c56f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:18","extension":"png","order_by":45,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3672,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage14.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/7fdfd2128823b8a3956e13cd.png"},{"id":96921101,"identity":"3a36bb4f-62aa-4122-a724-bd4cbf820587","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:43","extension":"png","order_by":46,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2967,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage15.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/c3566e135f9b7d0f7ad8af68.png"},{"id":96899266,"identity":"bf547924-142c-40b9-9832-fea087b35239","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":47,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3472,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/7ff64bc7222937a80c9d6e04.png"},{"id":96920059,"identity":"c21504b2-8171-4d00-9b19-9dfc27791dd0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:44","extension":"png","order_by":48,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3641,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage17.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/1ff3776f56b6531e541818df.png"},{"id":96920765,"identity":"be6193a6-009c-43c9-8ece-f22083173993","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:24","extension":"png","order_by":49,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2957,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage18.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/f1f6d3c7cec9e72408f8841a.png"},{"id":96899270,"identity":"2b805032-58e1-4c6c-ba3b-c35150d90a20","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":50,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2932,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/34f54b2424c51af16ef1f1fd.png"},{"id":96899265,"identity":"80c35eb4-fc40-469f-a6cb-b037ed823b04","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":51,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1248,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/7e57d55ea72f4f04fabe5fa7.png"},{"id":96920685,"identity":"ed2be896-d70a-4b70-87ff-0e9965a279a9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:22","extension":"png","order_by":52,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3045,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/4189a07e37112946343c3da3.png"},{"id":96920208,"identity":"23e41f0f-e326-45f3-b0e5-13c61f42fc0b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:55","extension":"png","order_by":53,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3149,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/2b2e5b68e3a474b854ba8394.png"},{"id":96920910,"identity":"e2ea0049-1017-4fb2-a805-6c1e1b0b568b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:30","extension":"png","order_by":54,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2356,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlineimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/ebd39009e61a8a1e9bceec91.png"},{"id":96899268,"identity":"ef6c9169-c29c-4576-91dd-0d4ecbc57c52","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 11:03:51","extension":"xml","order_by":55,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":101259,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"c9821b0fdad5483396375f5d89d29ce51structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/e5e4b8fac48f62c5328eed27.xml"},{"id":96920732,"identity":"c4a8262f-5435-4785-9791-26853fbd0000","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:23","extension":"html","order_by":56,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":112163,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1/61833bcd2f7545bf84eb5a47.html"},{"id":97136203,"identity":"f44ae71b-e3ce-4b61-92a7-2bfa14f32f7e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 09:56:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1057935,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8106368/v1_covered_ce3c8dd2-e996-41b0-87a6-61994d78ceeb.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Modeling comparison and structural optimization of stepped sintered heat exchangers in dilution refrigerator","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-low-temperature-physics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jltp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Low Temperature Physics](http://link.springer.com/journal/10909)","snPcode":"10909","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10909/3","title":"Journal of Low Temperature Physics","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Dilution Refrigerator, Continuous Counterflow Heat Exchanger, Stepped Sintered Heat Exchanger, Numerical Calculation, Sub-Kelvin Temperature","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8106368/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8106368/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAs a key device for achieving sub-Kelvin temperatures, the performance of dilution refrigerator heat exchangers at low temperatures directly determines the overall cooling efficiency of the system. This work develops a coupled numerical model combining a continuous counterflow heat exchanger (CCHE) with stepped sintered heat exchangers (SSHE), and compares two mainstream stepped exchanger configurations available in the market. The two types are analyzed using the local thermal nonequilibrium (LTN) model and the efficiency-number of heat transfer units method (ε-NTU), respectively. The control equations are discretized using the finite volume method, with comprehensive consideration of Kapitza resistance, axial heat conduction, viscous heating, and pressure drop. The model systematically analyzes the resulting temperature, pressure, and concentration distributions. The study investigates the influence of heat transfer area distribution in three-stage SSHE, compares the contributions of different heat transfer mechanisms, and evaluates the effect of channel factor on exchanger performance. Finally, the differences between the two heat exchanger configurations and the impact of \u0026sup3;He flow rate on thermal efficiency are examined.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Modeling comparison and structural optimization of stepped sintered heat exchangers in dilution refrigerator","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-27 11:03:46","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8106368/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-08T06:18:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-10T10:10:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"298123668157114423921778528577132745580","date":"2026-01-28T15:59:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-09T07:23:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"19010812623923825478458707866819001950","date":"2025-11-22T22:58:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-20T15:24:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-20T14:41:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-14T09:00:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Low Temperature Physics","date":"2025-11-13T13:43:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-low-temperature-physics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jltp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Low Temperature Physics](http://link.springer.com/journal/10909)","snPcode":"10909","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10909/3","title":"Journal of Low Temperature Physics","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9d266dc7-fce0-4ec1-aad8-92c8db55dd2b","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-14T13:38:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-27 11:03:46","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8106368","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8106368","identity":"rs-8106368","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}