Phosphorus Transformations and Leaching Potential in Rewetting Drained Peatlands: Exploring the Influence of Land Use and Temperature

Phosphorus Transformations and Leaching Potential in Rewetting Drained Peatlands: Exploring the Influence of Land Use and Temperature | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Phosphorus Transformations and Leaching Potential in Rewetting Drained Peatlands: Exploring the Influence of Land Use and Temperature Atif Muhmood, Haonan Guo, Lorenzo Pugliese, Shubiao Wu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6583184/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 17 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Environmental Geochemistry and Health → Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Understanding phosphorus (P) transformation dynamics during peatland rewetting is crucial for developing effective management strategies, supporting ecological restoration initiatives and mitigating potential environmental risks. This incubation study explored the temporal variations in P transformation in peatlands under different land uses (cut grass, grazing, unmanaged) along with the potential risk of leaching by simulating rewetting conditions for four months at varying temperatures (10 and 20°C). Overall, only 0.19%, 0.34%, and 0.13% of initial total P was leached out during rewetting soils under cut grass, grazing, and unmanaged respectively. A higher risk of leaching at the beginning of the rewetting was observed to be associated with a high transformation rate of P from organic form to inorganic form but mitigated by resorption with ongoing rewetting. Soil organic carbon, initial contents of P, iron, and aluminium as well as temperature were found to be the main factors controlling P transformation and leaching during the rewetting process. Moreover, climate change with a future 1.5°C increase in temperature would increase the rate of P transformation and release by 0.24 times according to the temperature sensitivity analysis. More research is needed to comprehensively explore complex interactions involving seasonal variations, microbial activity, and geological processes. This is also necessary for a holistic understanding of how these ecosystems may respond to ongoing climate changes. Peatlands land use temperature rewetting phosphorus dynamics climate change Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1. Introduction Peatlands cover less than 3% of the Earth's land surface yet store around one-third of the world's terrestrial soil organic carbon and serve as vital sources of freshwater (Xu et al., 2018 ). Additionally, these unique ecosystems are home to fragile flora and fauna species, contributing significantly to nature conservation efforts (Renou-Wilson, 2018 ). Unfortunately, extensive drainage for agricultural purposes has transformed many peatlands from carbon sinks to sources, impairing their capacity to regulate water quality and causing biodiversity loss (Kreyling et al., 2021 ). Given these alarming trends, it is imperative to prioritize the restoration of degraded peatlands. Thus, rewetting degraded peatlands by raising the water table is essential to reinstate their carbon-sequestrating function and to promote the recolonization of peat-forming plant communities (Andersen et al., 2013 ). Despite the importance of peatland restoration, phosphorus (P) leaching presents a significant challenge during the rewetting process due to its potential to contribute to downstream eutrophication (Pönisch et al., 2023 ). Significant P leaching has been observed during the rewetting of certain drained peatlands, both through field and laboratory investigations (Forsmann and Kjaergaard, 2014 , Harpenslager et al., 2015 , Zak et al., 2017 ). However, it's crucial to recognize that not all rewetted peatlands exhibit substantial P leaching (Meissner et al., 2008 , Meissner et al., 2010 , Florea et al., 2024 ). Consequently, the current state of knowledge remains fragmented, making it challenging to draw definitive conclusions regarding the specific areas where P leaching may occur upon rewetting. Despite this uncertainty, it is imperative to guide policymakers and expedite rewetting efforts, given the potential environmental implications associated with P leaching. The mechanism of P retention and leaching during the rewetting of drained peatlands remains inadequately understood, owing to its complexity and dependence on various factors such as prior land use, soil texture and composition, and management practices (Zak et al., 2010 , Kaila et al., 2016 ). Intensive farming and the application of fertilizers have been observed to cause the buildup of P in soils, increasing the risk of leaching upon rewetting (Nest et al., 2015 ). Normally, P becomes extensively bound in the surface soil through redox-sensitive complexes of Fe, Al, and Ca. These complexes subsequently dissolve when the soil is saturated with water, triggering the reduction of ions upon rewetting, which in turn may release P into the porewater (Nieminen et al., 2020 , Curtinrich et al., 2022 ). Moreover, in rewetted peatlands, the mineralization of organic P into labile fractions might be facilitated. Simultaneously, the degradation of particulate organic matter would function as an auxiliary mechanism for P mobilization during the rewetting process (Guo et al., 2022 ). Therefore, understanding the complex interplay of P transformations within rewetted peatlands and finding out the main driving factors hold the key to mitigating the potential risk of leaching, thus safeguarding water quality for future generations. In the ever-evolving narrative of climate change, an escalation in the frequency, severity, and duration of extreme weather events is witnessed, exemplified by the rise of prolonged droughts and scorching heat waves, leading to transient high temperatures (Cook et al., 2014 , Diffenbaugh et al., 2017 ). Elevated temperatures have the potential to influence the dynamics of P transformations by accelerating organic matter decomposition and stimulating phosphatase activities (Li et al., 2019 , Guo et al., 2021 ). Additionally, rising temperatures may exacerbate sub-surface P losses, as the escalation of desorption mechanisms tends to outpace sorption processes, intensifying the vulnerability of P dynamics within the system (Hanyabui et al., 2020 ). Nevertheless, in the context of peatlands rewetting, the influence of projected temperature changes under future climates on P dynamics and its potential loss in soluble forms remains uncertain. Therefore, understanding the interactions between climate change and P dynamics is crucial for implementing effective management strategies to mitigate potential environmental risks associated with P leaching in rewetted peatlands. To address these knowledge gaps, we conducted a comprehensive sampling effort across two distinct river catchments, each characterized by three representative land uses (cut grass - CG, grazing - GR, and unmanaged/natural - UM). This extensive sampling enabled us to explore the intricate dynamics of P transformation within organic soils exhibiting a wide range of organic carbon (OC), P, Fe, and Al contents. Through batch incubation experiments simulating rewetting, P transformation dynamics in topsoil samples were investigated for four months and at varying temperatures (10°C and 20°C). The aims were to (i) discern where and when to strategically implement rewetting initiatives and (ii) evaluate if P leaching warrants serious consideration. Our findings provide valuable insights for the strategic implementation of rewetting initiatives and highlight the importance of considering P dynamics in peatland restoration efforts. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Soil sampling and processing The study area, situated in central Jutland, experiences a temperature range from 1°C in February to 17°C in July, with annual precipitation ranging between 650 mm and 875 mm. In February 2023, peat soil samples were collected from two distinct river catchments at Skals and Nørre (Fig. 1 ). At each site, undisturbed soil core samples (8.5 × 6.0 cm) were systematically collected in triplicate from the upper layer of organic soils subject to different land uses, namely CG, GR and UM. A total of 36 core samples (2 sets, each comprising 18 samples) were collected, transported to the laboratory with due care, and subsequently stored at 4°C until their use in the incubation study. Concurrently, soil samples were randomly collected from each sampling location and combined into a composite sample (approximately 1.0 to 1.5 kg). This composite sample underwent drying at 60°C for 48h, followed by sieving through a 2 mm mesh and subsequently used for the analysis of the soil chemical properties. 2.2 Batch incubation experimental setup An incubation study was undertaken to investigate the impact of rewetting on drained peatlands under varying land uses, with a specific focus on the dynamics of P transformation into inorganic and organic fractions. Soil cores were placed within glass jars (16 × 10 cm), and rewetting conditions were simulated by maintaining a water level of 5 cm above the surface of the soil core. To evaluate the temperature-dependent effects on P transformation during the rewetting process, the jars were incubated at two distinct temperatures, namely 10°C and 20°C in different rooms for a duration of four months. Approximately 10 ml of water sample was collected from the topsoil core in each jar using a syringe while around 5–10 g soil sample was taken using a spoon from each core in the jar. Water and soil samples were collected at one-month intervals for the analysis of soluble phosphate, as well as various inorganic and organic P fractions. 2.3 Analytical methods 2.3.1 Soil analysis Soil pH was measured by immersing 5 g of dry soil in 50 mL H 2 O overnight, employing a PHM210 Standard pH Meter (Radiometer Analytica, Brønshøj, Denmark). Organic carbon (OC) in soils were analyzed by dry combustion at 950°C using a Vario Max Cube (Elementar Analysensysteme GmbH, Hanau, Germany). The soil samples were devoid of carbonates (effervescence test) and total carbon was considered OC. Total contents of P, Al, Fe, and Ca in soils were determined by Thermo Scientific - iCAP 6000 Series ICP-OES after digesting 0.1 g ball-milled dry soil in a mixture of 1 ml concentrated H 2 SO 4 and 2 ml concentrated HClO 4 for one hour at 250°C on a Tecator digestion unit (FOSS A/S, Hillerød, Denmark). Results are reported on a soil dry mass (DM) basis. 2.3.2 Sequential P analysis Soil samples underwent sequential fractionation utilizing the modified Hedley P fractionation method (Negassa et al., 2020 , Graça et al., 2022 ). This protocol allowed fractionation into four inorganic P (P i ) fractions (H 2 O.P i , NaHCO 3 .P i , NaOH.P i , and H 2 SO 4 .P i ) and three organic P (P o ) fractions (NaHCO 3 .P o , NaOH.P o , and H 2 SO 4 .P o ). The H 2 O.P fraction represented desorbable P while NaHCO 3 extracted P represented loosely sorbed bioavailable P i linked to Al and Fe oxides, as well as easily mineralizable P o . The NaOH.P fraction included P i associated with amorphous and crystalline Fe and Al hydroxides, clay minerals, and P o components associated with humic substances. The H 2 SO 4 .P fraction represents P within apatite minerals and calcium phosphate forms, associated with Fe and Al phosphates occluded within sesquioxides, and P o related to Ca-bound hydrolysable P o (Pätzold et al., 2013 , Velásquez et al., 2016 ). The organic P content in all P fractions (NaHCO 3 .P o , NaOH.P o , and H 2 SO 4 .P o ) was computed as the difference between total P (P t ) and P i for each fraction. In terms of labile and non-labile forms, H 2 O.P i and NaHCO 3 .P i is considered as labile P while NaOH.P i , and H 2 SO 4 .P i belongs to non-labile P. A schematic representation of the sequential P fractionation process is illustrated in Figure S1 . For P fractionation, 2 g of soil was carefully weighed and placed into 50 mL centrifuge plastic tubes. The extraction process involved adding 40 mL of distilled water and subjecting the tubes to 16 hours of stirring on an end-over-end shaker. Following this step, the samples underwent centrifugation at 4500 g for 30 minutes, after which the resultant mixture was carefully filtered. The residual soil was subjected to an extraction process performed by using 30 mL of 0.5 M NaHCO 3 (pH 8.5) for an additional 16 hours. The supernatant was then collected using the earlier-mentioned method. Further chemical fractionation of the remaining soil was conducted with 30 mL of 0.1 M NaOH and 1 M H 2 SO 4 successively. At the end of each fractionation, the supernatant was collected. The Pi concentration in all extracts was measured utilizing the molybdenum blue method (Murphy and Riley, 1962 ) employing a Thermo Spectronic Helios Alpha 9423 UVA 1002E UV-VIS Spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The total P concentration in each fraction was determined by digesting the extract with sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) and ammonium persulfate [(NH 4 ) 2 S 2 O 8 ]. The procedure involved adding 1 mL of 11 N sulfuric acid solution (prepared by adding 28 mL of concentrated H 2 SO 4 in 100 mL) to a 50 mL sample in a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Subsequently, 0.4 g of ammonium persulfate was added, and the mixture gently boiled on a pre-heated hot plate for approximately 30–40 minutes until the volume was reduced to around 10 mL. Caution was taken to prevent the sample from drying out. The sample was then allowed to cool, and if necessary, it was filtered to ensure clarity. Finally, the sample was diluted to 50 mL, and the P content was determined using the molybdenum blue method (Murphy and Riley, 1962 ). 2.3.3 Temperature Sensitivity Quotient The Temperature Sensitivity Quotient (Q 10 ) serves as a measure of the relative change in a process with temperature variation. It is defined as the ratio of the rate of a process at a given temperature to the rate of the same process at a reference temperature. Q 10 was calculated using the following equation (Ito et al., 2015 ): \(\:{\text{Q}}_{10}\) = \(\:{\left[\frac{\text{R}2}{\text{R}1}\right]}^{\left(\frac{10}{\text{T}2-\text{T}1}\right)}\) ………………………….(1) Where Q 10 is the temperature sensitivity constant, R 2 and R 1 are the reaction rate at temperatures T 2 and T 1 , respectively. 2.3.4 Statistical analysis Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to investigate the influence of various factors including soil pH, soil OC, initial P content and temperature on P transformations into different fractions. SEM integrates factor analysis and path analysis to examine relationships among variables (Chen et al., 2023 ). The analysis was executed utilizing IBM SPSS AMOS 24 software. Moreover, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate significant differences between different land use for the P contents in various fractions, with a level of significance set at p < 0.05. Sigma plot software (version 12.5, Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) and Origin Pro 2023 were used for data analysis and plotting. 3. Results 3.1 Soil characterization The characteristics of soils under different land uses were highly variable (Table 1 ). Soil pH varied from extremely acidic (pH 3.90) to slightly acidic (pH 6.24), with the majority of samples showing very strong acidity. Similarly, the content of soil total organic carbon ranged from 10.7 to 38.7% of dry mass, with nearly all soils classified as peat (> 12% OC), except for the GR sample at Skals. Soil bulk density ranged from 0.26 to 0.64 g cm − 3 , while TN ranged from 0.80 to 2.73%. Ammonium nitrogen (NH 4 -N) concentrations ranged between 0.87 and 9.98 mg kg − 1 and NO 3 -N varied from 1.14 to 15.8 mg kg − 1 . The total P and Fe exhibited wider ranges of variation from 27.2 to 159 mmol kg − 1 and from 64.5 to 2103 mmol kg − 1 , respectively, across soils under various land uses. Furthermore, the contents of total Al and Ca varied from 48.2 to 198 mmol kg − 1 and from 67.9 to 307 mmol kg − 1 , respectively. Table 1 Properties of topsoil samples from two river catchments subject to different land uses. Standard deviations are also given. River catchment Land use and coordinates pH- TOC Mass % BD g cm − 3 TP mmol kg − 1 Fe mmol kg − 1 Al mmol kg − 1 Ca mmol kg − 1 Skals GC (56.54864°N, 9.57328°E) 5.23 ± 0.05 30.8 ± 1.77 0.42 ± 0.03 151 ± 9.6 2103 ± 213 117 ± 8.73 164 ± 21.4 GR (56.54414°N, 9.57305°E) 6.24 ± 0.02 10.7 ± 1.21 0.64 ± 0.07 37.2 ± 3.4 80.2 ± 15.7 198 ± 17.6 136 ± 16.7 UM (56.54740°N, 9.57430°E) 3.90 ± 0.07 36.1 ± 0.43 0.38 ± 0.01 159 ± 18.3 858 ± 86.5 48.2 ± 3.12 73.7 ± 9.62 Nørre GC (56.45252°N, 9.63143°E) 5.03 ± 0.08 28.4 ± 3.56 0.41 ± 0.09 38.1 ± 3.9 117 ± 22.9 174 ± 20.7 146 ± 24.7 GR (56.45088°N, 9.63024°E) 4.92 ± 0.03 20.5 ± 0.46 0.44 ± 0.04 27.2 ± 3.0 99.4 ± 13.8 121 ± 14.2 67.9 ± 10.1 UM (56.45184°N, 9.62863°E) 4.78 ± 0.08 38.7 ± 1.75 0.26 ± 0.02 28.2 ± 1.3 64.5 ± 3.24 82.1 ± 3.10 307 ± 7.95 TOC = total organic carbon, BD = bulk density, TN = total nitrogen, NH 4 -N = ammonium nitrogen, NO 3 − -N = nitrate nitrogen, TP = total P, Fe = iron, Al = aluminium, Ca = calcium 3.2 P fractions before rewetting Organic P (P o ) was the predominant component of total P (P t ), ranging from 681 ± 155 to 1879 ± 1303 mg kg − 1 (74–78% of P t ) (Fig. 2 , Table S1 ). When comparing different land uses, soils under GR had statistically lower P o contents compared with CG and UM (p < 0.05). A detailed examination of individual fractions revealed that the contents of P o fractions extracted using bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 ), alkali (NaOH), and acid (H 2 SO 4 ) ranged from 133 ± 33 to 225 ± 68, 244 ± 47 to 786 ± 611, and 303 ± 89 to 867 ± 624 mg kg − 1 , respectively, across soil under various land uses. Furthermore, inorganic P (P i ) content in soils under different land uses ranged from 229 ± 34 to 519 ± 333 mg kg − 1 (around 22–26% of P t ). Considering different P i fractions, the average contents of water, bicarbonate, alkali, and acid-extracted P ranged from 11.4 ± 2.62 to 14.9 ± 3.40, 38.5 ± 7.86 to 59.8 ± 14.4, 71.4 ± 20.0 to 211 ± 159, and 109 ± 14.3 to 232 ± 160 mg kg − 1 , respectively. Statistically significant differences in the contents of different P i fractions were observed in soils under different land uses (p < 0.05). 3.3 P fraction under rewetting The proportion of P o under rewetting decreased, ranging from 1879 ± 1303 to 335 ± 132 mg kg − 1 (a decrease in proportion from 78 to 35%) irrespective of the incubation temperature with incremented rewetting time from 1 to 4 months (Fig. 3 , Table S1 & S2). A continuous decline in individual P o fractions in soil under various land uses was observed with increasing rewetting time, ranging from 225 ± 68 to 77 ± 28, 786 ± 611 to 137 ± 48, and 867 ± 624 to 165 ± 61 mg kg − 1 for bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extractable, respectively. In contrast, P i content increased from 229 ± 34 to 993 ± 503 mg kg − 1 (an increase in proportion from 22 to 66%) with incremented rewetting time from 1 to 4 months, irrespective of incubation temperature (Fig. 3 ). Likewise, individual P i fractions increased, ranging from 11.4 ± 2.62 to 39.2 ± 6.75, 38.5 ± 7.86 to 119 ± 20.5, 71.4 ± 20.0 to 410 ± 150 and 109 ± 14.3 to 449 ± 170 mg kg − 1 for water, bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extracted fractions, respectively, at varying rewetting time. Furthermore, all land uses were statistically significant with each other for variations in P o and P i fractions during the rewetting process (p < 0.05). A trend of variations in different fractions (P o and P i ) before and after rewetting is depicted in (Fig. 4 and Figure S2). Significant variations in different fractions of P (P i and P o ) were also observed under varying rewetting temperatures (Fig. 5 and Figure S3). On an overall average basis, P o fractions decreased from 128 ± 43 to 101 ± 41, 405 ± 270 to 343 ± 249, and 493 ± 365 to 428 ± 316 mg kg − 1 for bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extractable P, respectively, with increasing rewetting temperature from 10°C to 20°C. In contrast, P i fractions increased from 27 ± 7.71 to 34 ± 8.20, 96 ± 22 to 120 ± 23, 306 ± 156 to 356 ± 134, and 346 ± 150 to 420 ± 180 mg kg − 1 for water, bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extractable P, respectively, with an increase in rewetting temperature from 10°C to 20°C. Significant differences were found among various land uses for the variations in the contents of different P fractions at varying rewetting temperatures (p < 0.05). The Q 10 results revealed that the average values ranged from 1.09 ± 0.08 to 1.19 ± 0.10, 1.14 ± 0.10 to 1.29 ± 0.13, 1.06 ± 0.08 to 1.37 ± 0.11 and 1.20 ± 0.13 to 1.58 ± 0.11 for the change in water, bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extractable P i fractions, respectively (Figure S4). Meanwhile, Q 10 values for different P o fractions ranged from 1.18 ± 0.10 to 1.35 ± 0.12, 1.15 ± 0.11 to 1.20 ± 0.10, and 1.10 ± 0.09 to 1.21 ± 0.10 for bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extractable P o fractions, respectively after rewetting soils. 3.4 P release in water during rewetting The results regarding the contents of P release in water during the rewetting process showed incremented contents with prolonged rewetting time (Fig. 7 ). Specifically, the average P contents exhibited increments from 2.08 ± 0.59 to 4.92 ± 0.70, 1.83 ± 0.33 to 4.48 ± 0.69, and 1.90 ± 0.40 to 4.213 ± 0.57 mg L − 1 in water leached from soils under CG, GR, and UM, respectively, with increasing time during rewetting at 20°C. In contrast, lower average contents of P ranged from 1.37 ± 0.29 to 3.63 ± 0.60, 1.24 ± 0.20 to 3.28 ± 0.47, and 1.22 ± 0.28 to 2.92 ± 0.46 mg L − 1 were leached from the soils under CG, GR, and UM, respectively, with incremented rewetting time during rewetting at 10°C. When looking at the release of P at varying rewetting times, the average contents released in water were around 1.65, 1.00, 0.82, and 0.80 mg L − 1 , 1.60, 0.96, 0.78, and 0.77 mg L − 1 , and 1.57, 0.82, 0.58, 0.57 mg L − 1 after 1 to 4 months, for CG, GR, and UM respectively. 4. Discussion 4.1 Re - assessing the risk of P leaching Peatlands play a crucial role in global ecosystems as substantial carbon reservoirs and unique biodiversity hotspots (Luo et al., 2021). However, the drainage of peatlands for agricultural or other purposes alters their hydrological conditions, resulting in high CO 2 emissions (Tattari et al., 2017). Therefore, rewetting drained peatlands is becoming an important international strategy to combat the changing climate and reestablish important ecological functions (Sowiński et al., 2024). In this process, P leaching has been recognized as a common concern resulting from increased mobility and availability of P under anaerobic conditions during rewetting (Comber et al., 2023). However, the impact of rewetting on P leaching is contradictory in the sense that high exports generally occur from certain sites, whereas other sites may exhibit low export rates after restoration (Koskinen et al., 2011, Kaila et al., 2016, Koskinen et al., 2017). Therefore, the knowledge regarding in what conditions and how P leaching in these organic soils upon rewetting can be problematic, and where to rewet, the potential P leaching can be minimized is insufficient and unclear. In this study, we also observed P leaching, approximately 0.19%, 0.34%, and 0.13% of initial TP, for CG, GR, and UM respectively (Figure 7). This might be ascribed to the reduction of iron complexes under saturated conditions, as P is usually bound to the surface of highly decomposed peat through redox-sensitive Fe, and Al complexes (Kaila et al., 2016). The differences in the content of leached P among land uses are believed to be attributed to the variations in the contents of Fe and Al (Table 1). The Fe:P molar ratio has been recognized as one of the factors affecting P release and a value of more than 10 is indicative of negligible to no leaching (Zak and Gelbrecht, 2007, Forsmann and Kjaergaard, 2014). Besides, Kaila et al. (2016) reported that the higher initial extractable P contents can also be responsible for the release of P to water. In this study, the Fe:P molar ratio and initial P contents were both found to be responsible for variations in the contents of leached P. The higher contents of P in water observed during rewetting soil under GR were attributed to a lower Fe:P molar ratio (2.90) compared with CG and UM (with Fe:P molar ratio of 8.49 and 3.85 respectively). Moreover, a positive correlation between the initial contents of P and the contents released in water further confirmed the differences in land uses for P leaching (Figure 8). The observed leaching contents in this study were relatively lower than already reported values (Zak and Gelbrecht, 2007, Zak et al., 2010, Kaila et al., 2016). Likewise, when looking at the release of P at varying rewetting times, a decreasing trend was observed (Figure 7). This declining trend can be attributed to the resorption of P onto Al and Fe oxides (Wang et al., 2020). The precipitation of vivianite was also observed to lower P contents released into the water (Hoffmann et al., 2012, Rothe et al., 2016). However, the low risk of leaching in our study may be because we simulated the rewetting process in stagnant water with no lateral or vertical movement. However, the cases with higher initial P contents and lower contents of Fe and Al, accompanied by lateral and vertical flow, may pose a higher risk of P leaching during the rewetting process compared to the conditions observed in the current study. Therefore, the studied lowland organic soils under different land uses here can be rewetted with minimal risk of P leaching. These findings can also be useful to the rewetting areas where hydrological flow is limited or can be controlled. 4.2 Multiple factors control P transformation during the rewetting process Some studies have already been conducted elucidating the influence of rewetting drained peatlands on P transformation into different fractions. For example, Zak and Gelbrecht (2007) collected peat core samples with different degrees of decomposition and evaluated P transformation into different fractions in an incubation study by simulating rewetting at 20°C. Negassa et al. (2020) collected soil samples from long-term drained and rewetted peatlands (forest, coastal, and percolation mires) and examined P contents in different fractions. However, their findings do not address the fluctuations in internal P transformations during the rewetting process. This is why the current batch incubation study was planned to evaluate the temporal variations in the transformation of P in the soil during the rewetting process for four months at varying temperatures. The transformation rate was found to be higher initially and declined with rewetting time (Figure 6). The initial higher transformation might be attributed to the fast microbial mineralization of organic P compounds into inorganic P (Margalef et al., 2017). Moreover, a high hydrolysis rate of organic P compounds by phosphatase enzymes might also be responsible for a higher initial transformation rate (Park et al., 2022). The lower transformation rates at the later stage of the rewetting process might be ascribed to the declining microbial and enzymatic activities due to the limited availability of readily available organic P compounds (Li et al., 2016). The process of P transformation and release from organic soil upon rewetting is very complex and the mechanism of its mobility depends on multiple factors including soil organic carbon, initial P contents, iron, and aluminium contents (Kinsman-Costello et al., 2016, Schneider et al., 2019). Structural equation modelling was employed in the current study to evaluate the influence of these factors on P transformation. The positive correlation of initial soil organic carbon with different P pools proves the significant role it plays in P transformation during the rewetting process (Figure 8). Soil organic carbon influences P transformation in the soil by regulating microbial-driven Fe(III)-oxides reduction and microbial mineralization of organic P (Hu et al., 2018, Chen et al., 2019, Zheng et al., 2019). The intensity of Fe (III) reduction as well as the mineralization of organic P relies on the soil organic carbon as an energy source for microbes and as an electron donor (Maranguit et al., 2017). Likewise, soil organic carbon was also observed to enhance P mobilization and release under anaerobic conditions by stimulating microbial and phosphatase enzymatic activities (Dong et al., 2022, Khan et al., 2022). The transformation of P is also influenced by the contents of Fe and Al because a large part of the soil P is bound to the oxides of these metals (Lamers et al., 2015). Moreover, both Fe and Al oxyhydroxides received considerable attention because of the significant role they play in binding organic P (Xu et al., 2018, Amadou et al., 2022b). The release of P from these organic P-mineral complexes depends upon the adsorption/desorption capacity as well as microbial activities (Amadou et al., 2022b, Park et al., 2022). The release of P from adsorbed glycerophosphate was faster than glucose 6 phosphate and myo-inositol hexakisphosphate depending upon the degree of hydrolysis by enzymatic activity (Annaheim et al., 2010, Amadou et al., 2022a). 4.3 Climate change will promote the potential risk of P leaching The global climate has undergone significant variations in the last century, characterized by escalating temperatures and an increased occurrence of extreme precipitation events (Masson-Delmotte et al., 2021). Elevated temperatures have the potential to strengthen P transformations by accelerating microbial processes and stimulating phosphatase activities (Li et al., 2019, Guo et al., 2021). In this study, a higher transformation rate was observed during rewetting at 20°C compared with rewetting at 10°C (Figure 6). The transformations of P under two different temperatures explored in this study offer insights into the seasonal variations of potential P leaching during the rewetting process. When to rewet is still an unresolved issue because of seasonal fluctuations over time. Our findings indicate that higher temperatures promote increased P transformation. Therefore, rewetting peatlands during the summer, when soil temperatures are elevated compared to other seasons, could accelerate Fe(III)-oxide reduction and P mobilization (Prem et al., 2015). However, the vigorous uptake of nutrients by vegetation and phytoplankton during the summer months may counterbalance this by reducing net P export from rewetted areas (Pönisch et al., 2023). Additionally, the typically lower precipitation in summer results in stagnant water and reduced hydrological flow, which minimizes P transport. Conversely, prolonged water saturation during spring and autumn can lead to extensive dissolution of the entire oxidized Fe pool, increasing the risk of P leaching (Schilling et al., 2019, Smith et al., 2023). Therefore, the timing of rewetting should consider both temperature and precipitation patterns. While our observations may not be universally applicable; however, they are relevant to many regions. Climate change makes the P leaching scenario more complex because the contents of released P increase around 33-41% with incrementing incubation temperature from 10°C to 20°C in this study (Figure 7). The increase in leaching contents with incremented temperature might be attributed to higher temperature sensitivity of desorption processes than sorption processes (Conant et al., 2011, Hanyabui et al., 2020). Moreover, according to the calculation of temperature sensitivity quotient, the risk of P leaching is expected to increase by 0.24 times (Figure S3), if we assume a 1.5-degree increase in temperature by 2030 (IPCC, 2021). Hence, there is no doubt that the future temperature rise will boost P transformations during the rewetting process, potentially leading to increased P leaching. Conclusions The rewetting process triggered a notable P transformation in the soil. The transformation rate was higher initially and declined over time due to the reduction in microbial and enzymatic activity as well as the resorption of the released P. The transformation of P from organic soil upon rewetting is a highly complex process, and the mechanism of its mobility is influenced by various factors such as the amount of soil organic carbon, initial P contents, and the presence of iron and aluminium. Climate change makes the P transformation scenario more complex by increasing the risk of leaching because of the higher temperature sensitivity of desorption processes than sorption processes. Seasonal variations influenced both the transformation and leaching risk of P. Therefore, both temperature and precipitation patterns should be considered for the strategic implementation of the rewetting initiative. Declarations Acknowledgements This work was supported by the EU-funded Marie Sklodowska- Curie Postdoctoral Fellowships program (101062861) and by the European Union’s Horizon Europe programme (WET HORIZONS, 101056848). 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Soil Biology and Biochemistry 136:107521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2019.107521 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupportingMaterials030525.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 17 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Environmental Geochemistry and Health → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 04 Jun, 2025 Reviews received at journal 12 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 May, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 06 May, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 06 May, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 05 May, 2025 First submitted to journal 03 May, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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20°C\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6583184/v1/01f887e105b114c3958e002b.png"},{"id":82512456,"identity":"62e55959-9357-4e57-bc28-11a73a071c41","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-12 11:01:36","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":176641,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in the contents of inorganic P fractions in soils under various land uses (CG=cut grass, GR= grazing, UM=unmanaged) after four months of rewetting under varying temperature\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6583184/v1/d9cba4cc601c5c21e48e45c7.png"},{"id":82512462,"identity":"0d0bd2e5-7be0-4619-b24f-3a6892ae7502","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-12 11:01:36","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":182462,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTransformation rate of organic P during rewetting of soil under different land uses at 20°C (a= cut grass, b= grazing, c= unmanaged) and 10°C (d= cut grass, e= grazing, f= unmanaged).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6583184/v1/888d11fd1ea9e1e9cea1e71d.png"},{"id":82512460,"identity":"1c6d8bae-57fa-4aa2-80be-b0949a929906","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-12 11:01:36","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19889,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in the P contents in water during rewetting of soils under various land uses (CG= cut grass, GR= grazing, UM= unmanaged) at 20\u003csup\u003e°\u003c/sup\u003eC (a) and 10\u003csup\u003e°\u003c/sup\u003eC (b)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6583184/v1/71138ffbc0917754d93b8299.png"},{"id":82513415,"identity":"9d24ac77-fc1d-481a-a10c-77cce94c33ae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-12 11:09:36","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":200844,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStructure equation modelling effect of pH, initial P, soil organic carbon, and temperature effect on different fractions of P\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6583184/v1/0c38c9ae8ee9efc4cc3462ab.png"},{"id":91889905,"identity":"738e4efb-54d3-477a-ac12-5bc1e930e8ea","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 16:03:29","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2564069,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6583184/v1/b3b0e424-6907-4d9e-9878-af4427fd793d.pdf"},{"id":82513418,"identity":"672132f0-d479-4aec-ba6e-17f7afc48767","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-12 11:09:36","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":475351,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupportingMaterials030525.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6583184/v1/22cd0aadd894f222468dace5.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Phosphorus Transformations and Leaching Potential in Rewetting Drained Peatlands: Exploring the Influence of Land Use and Temperature","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePeatlands cover less than 3% of the Earth's land surface yet store around one-third of the world's terrestrial soil organic carbon and serve as vital sources of freshwater (Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, these unique ecosystems are home to fragile flora and fauna species, contributing significantly to nature conservation efforts (Renou-Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Unfortunately, extensive drainage for agricultural purposes has transformed many peatlands from carbon sinks to sources, impairing their capacity to regulate water quality and causing biodiversity loss (Kreyling et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Given these alarming trends, it is imperative to prioritize the restoration of degraded peatlands. Thus, rewetting degraded peatlands by raising the water table is essential to reinstate their carbon-sequestrating function and to promote the recolonization of peat-forming plant communities (Andersen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the importance of peatland restoration, phosphorus (P) leaching presents a significant challenge during the rewetting process due to its potential to contribute to downstream eutrophication (P\u0026ouml;nisch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Significant P leaching has been observed during the rewetting of certain drained peatlands, both through field and laboratory investigations (Forsmann and Kjaergaard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Harpenslager et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Zak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). However, it's crucial to recognize that not all rewetted peatlands exhibit substantial P leaching (Meissner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e, Meissner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, Florea et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, the current state of knowledge remains fragmented, making it challenging to draw definitive conclusions regarding the specific areas where P leaching may occur upon rewetting. Despite this uncertainty, it is imperative to guide policymakers and expedite rewetting efforts, given the potential environmental implications associated with P leaching.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mechanism of P retention and leaching during the rewetting of drained peatlands remains inadequately understood, owing to its complexity and dependence on various factors such as prior land use, soil texture and composition, and management practices (Zak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, Kaila et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Intensive farming and the application of fertilizers have been observed to cause the buildup of P in soils, increasing the risk of leaching upon rewetting (Nest et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Normally, P becomes extensively bound in the surface soil through redox-sensitive complexes of Fe, Al, and Ca. These complexes subsequently dissolve when the soil is saturated with water, triggering the reduction of ions upon rewetting, which in turn may release P into the porewater (Nieminen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Curtinrich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, in rewetted peatlands, the mineralization of organic P into labile fractions might be facilitated. Simultaneously, the degradation of particulate organic matter would function as an auxiliary mechanism for P mobilization during the rewetting process (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, understanding the complex interplay of P transformations within rewetted peatlands and finding out the main driving factors hold the key to mitigating the potential risk of leaching, thus safeguarding water quality for future generations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the ever-evolving narrative of climate change, an escalation in the frequency, severity, and duration of extreme weather events is witnessed, exemplified by the rise of prolonged droughts and scorching heat waves, leading to transient high temperatures (Cook et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Diffenbaugh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Elevated temperatures have the potential to influence the dynamics of P transformations by accelerating organic matter decomposition and stimulating phosphatase activities (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e, Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, rising temperatures may exacerbate sub-surface P losses, as the escalation of desorption mechanisms tends to outpace sorption processes, intensifying the vulnerability of P dynamics within the system (Hanyabui et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, in the context of peatlands rewetting, the influence of projected temperature changes under future climates on P dynamics and its potential loss in soluble forms remains uncertain. Therefore, understanding the interactions between climate change and P dynamics is crucial for implementing effective management strategies to mitigate potential environmental risks associated with P leaching in rewetted peatlands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address these knowledge gaps, we conducted a comprehensive sampling effort across two distinct river catchments, each characterized by three representative land uses (cut grass - CG, grazing - GR, and unmanaged/natural - UM). This extensive sampling enabled us to explore the intricate dynamics of P transformation within organic soils exhibiting a wide range of organic carbon (OC), P, Fe, and Al contents. Through batch incubation experiments simulating rewetting, P transformation dynamics in topsoil samples were investigated for four months and at varying temperatures (10\u0026deg;C and 20\u0026deg;C). The aims were to (i) discern where and when to strategically implement rewetting initiatives and (ii) evaluate if P leaching warrants serious consideration. Our findings provide valuable insights for the strategic implementation of rewetting initiatives and highlight the importance of considering P dynamics in peatland restoration efforts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Soil sampling and processing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study area, situated in central Jutland, experiences a temperature range from 1\u0026deg;C in February to 17\u0026deg;C in July, with annual precipitation ranging between 650 mm and 875 mm. In February 2023, peat soil samples were collected from two distinct river catchments at Skals and N\u0026oslash;rre (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). At each site, undisturbed soil core samples (8.5 \u0026times; 6.0 cm) were systematically collected in triplicate from the upper layer of organic soils subject to different land uses, namely CG, GR and UM. A total of 36 core samples (2 sets, each comprising 18 samples) were collected, transported to the laboratory with due care, and subsequently stored at 4\u0026deg;C until their use in the incubation study. Concurrently, soil samples were randomly collected from each sampling location and combined into a composite sample (approximately 1.0 to 1.5 kg). This composite sample underwent drying at 60\u0026deg;C for 48h, followed by sieving through a 2 mm mesh and subsequently used for the analysis of the soil chemical properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Batch incubation experimental setup\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn incubation study was undertaken to investigate the impact of rewetting on drained peatlands under varying land uses, with a specific focus on the dynamics of P transformation into inorganic and organic fractions. Soil cores were placed within glass jars (16 \u0026times; 10 cm), and rewetting conditions were simulated by maintaining a water level of 5 cm above the surface of the soil core. To evaluate the temperature-dependent effects on P transformation during the rewetting process, the jars were incubated at two distinct temperatures, namely 10\u0026deg;C and 20\u0026deg;C in different rooms for a duration of four months. Approximately 10 ml of water sample was collected from the topsoil core in each jar using a syringe while around 5\u0026ndash;10 g soil sample was taken using a spoon from each core in the jar. Water and soil samples were collected at one-month intervals for the analysis of soluble phosphate, as well as various inorganic and organic P fractions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Analytical methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1 Soil analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil pH was measured by immersing 5 g of dry soil in 50 mL H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO overnight, employing a PHM210 Standard pH Meter (Radiometer Analytica, Br\u0026oslash;nsh\u0026oslash;j, Denmark). Organic carbon (OC) in soils were analyzed by dry combustion at 950\u0026deg;C using a Vario Max Cube (Elementar Analysensysteme GmbH, Hanau, Germany). The soil samples were devoid of carbonates (effervescence test) and total carbon was considered OC. Total contents of P, Al, Fe, and Ca in soils were determined by Thermo Scientific - iCAP 6000 Series ICP-OES after digesting 0.1 g ball-milled dry soil in a mixture of 1 ml concentrated H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e and 2 ml concentrated HClO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e for one hour at 250\u0026deg;C on a Tecator digestion unit (FOSS A/S, Hiller\u0026oslash;d, Denmark). Results are reported on a soil dry mass (DM) basis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2 Sequential P analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil samples underwent sequential fractionation utilizing the modified Hedley P fractionation method (Negassa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Gra\u0026ccedil;a et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This protocol allowed fractionation into four inorganic P (P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e) fractions (H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO.P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e, NaHCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e.P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e, NaOH.P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e, and H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e.P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e) and three organic P (P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e) fractions (NaHCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e.P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e, NaOH.P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e, and H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e.P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e). The H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO.P fraction represented desorbable P while NaHCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e extracted P represented loosely sorbed bioavailable P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e linked to Al and Fe oxides, as well as easily mineralizable P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e. The NaOH.P fraction included P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e associated with amorphous and crystalline Fe and Al hydroxides, clay minerals, and P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e components associated with humic substances. The H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e.P fraction represents P within apatite minerals and calcium phosphate forms, associated with Fe and Al phosphates occluded within sesquioxides, and P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e related to Ca-bound hydrolysable P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e (P\u0026auml;tzold et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, Vel\u0026aacute;squez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The organic P content in all P fractions (NaHCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e.P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e, NaOH.P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e, and H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e.P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e) was computed as the difference between total P (P\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e) and P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e for each fraction. In terms of labile and non-labile forms, H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO.P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e and NaHCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e.P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e is considered as labile P while NaOH.P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e, and H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e.P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e belongs to non-labile P. A schematic representation of the sequential P fractionation process is illustrated in Figure \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor P fractionation, 2 g of soil was carefully weighed and placed into 50 mL centrifuge plastic tubes. The extraction process involved adding 40 mL of distilled water and subjecting the tubes to 16 hours of stirring on an end-over-end shaker. Following this step, the samples underwent centrifugation at 4500 g for 30 minutes, after which the resultant mixture was carefully filtered. The residual soil was subjected to an extraction process performed by using 30 mL of 0.5 M NaHCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (pH 8.5) for an additional 16 hours. The supernatant was then collected using the earlier-mentioned method. Further chemical fractionation of the remaining soil was conducted with 30 mL of 0.1 M NaOH and 1 M H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e successively. At the end of each fractionation, the supernatant was collected. The Pi concentration in all extracts was measured utilizing the molybdenum blue method (Murphy and Riley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1962\u003c/span\u003e) employing a Thermo Spectronic Helios Alpha 9423 UVA 1002E UV-VIS Spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe total P concentration in each fraction was determined by digesting the extract with sulfuric acid (H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) and ammonium persulfate [(NH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003e]. The procedure involved adding 1 mL of 11 N sulfuric acid solution (prepared by adding 28 mL of concentrated H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e in 100 mL) to a 50 mL sample in a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Subsequently, 0.4 g of ammonium persulfate was added, and the mixture gently boiled on a pre-heated hot plate for approximately 30\u0026ndash;40 minutes until the volume was reduced to around 10 mL. Caution was taken to prevent the sample from drying out. The sample was then allowed to cool, and if necessary, it was filtered to ensure clarity. Finally, the sample was diluted to 50 mL, and the P content was determined using the molybdenum blue method (Murphy and Riley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1962\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.3 Temperature Sensitivity Quotient\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Temperature Sensitivity Quotient (Q\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e) serves as a measure of the relative change in a process with temperature variation. It is defined as the ratio of the rate of a process at a given temperature to the rate of the same process at a reference temperature. Q\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e was calculated using the following equation (Ito et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\text{Q}}_{10}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e= \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\left[\\frac{\\text{R}2}{\\text{R}1}\\right]}^{\\left(\\frac{10}{\\text{T}2-\\text{T}1}\\right)}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.(1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere Q\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e is the temperature sensitivity constant, R\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and R\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e are the reaction rate at temperatures T\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and T\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.3.4 Statistical analysis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStructural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to investigate the influence of various factors including soil pH, soil OC, initial P content and temperature on P transformations into different fractions. SEM integrates factor analysis and path analysis to examine relationships among variables (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The analysis was executed utilizing IBM SPSS AMOS 24 software. Moreover, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate significant differences between different land use for the P contents in various fractions, with a level of significance set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. Sigma plot software (version 12.5, Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) and Origin Pro 2023 were used for data analysis and plotting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Soil characterization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe characteristics of soils under different land uses were highly variable (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Soil pH varied from extremely acidic (pH 3.90) to slightly acidic (pH 6.24), with the majority of samples showing very strong acidity. Similarly, the content of soil total organic carbon ranged from 10.7 to 38.7% of dry mass, with nearly all soils classified as peat (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;12% OC), except for the GR sample at Skals. Soil bulk density ranged from 0.26 to 0.64 g cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, while TN ranged from 0.80 to 2.73%. Ammonium nitrogen (NH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e-N) concentrations ranged between 0.87 and 9.98 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e-N varied from 1.14 to 15.8 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The total P and Fe exhibited wider ranges of variation from 27.2 to 159 mmol kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and from 64.5 to 2103 mmol kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively, across soils under various land uses. Furthermore, the contents of total Al and Ca varied from 48.2 to 198 mmol kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and from 67.9 to 307 mmol kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProperties of topsoil samples from two river catchments subject to different land uses. Standard deviations are also given.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiver catchment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand use\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eand coordinates\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTOC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMass %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eg cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emmol kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emmol kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAl\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emmol kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emmol kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSkals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGC (56.54864\u0026deg;N,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.57328\u0026deg;E)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2103\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;213\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGR (56.54414\u0026deg;N,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.57305\u0026deg;E)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e198\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUM (56.54740\u0026deg;N,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.57430\u0026deg;E)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e159\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e858\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;86.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u0026oslash;rre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGC (56.45252\u0026deg;N,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.63143\u0026deg;E)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e174\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e146\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;24.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGR (56.45088\u0026deg;N,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.63024\u0026deg;E)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e121\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUM (56.45184\u0026deg;N,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.62863\u0026deg;E)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e307\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003eTOC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;total organic carbon, BD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;bulk density, TN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;total nitrogen, NH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e-N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;ammonium nitrogen, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e-N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;nitrate nitrogen, TP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;total P,\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003eFe\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;iron, Al\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;aluminium, Ca\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;calcium\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 P fractions before rewetting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic P (P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e) was the predominant component of total P (P\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e), ranging from 681\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;155 to 1879\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1303 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (74\u0026ndash;78% of P\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e). When comparing different land uses, soils under GR had statistically lower P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e contents compared with CG and UM (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). A detailed examination of individual fractions revealed that the contents of P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e fractions extracted using bicarbonate (NaHCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e), alkali (NaOH), and acid (H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) ranged from 133\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;33 to 225\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;68, 244\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;47 to 786\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;611, and 303\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;89 to 867\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;624 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively, across soil under various land uses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, inorganic P (P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e) content in soils under different land uses ranged from 229\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;34 to 519\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;333 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (around 22\u0026ndash;26% of P\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e). Considering different P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e fractions, the average contents of water, bicarbonate, alkali, and acid-extracted P ranged from 11.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.62 to 14.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.40, 38.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.86 to 59.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.4, 71.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.0 to 211\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;159, and 109\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.3 to 232\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;160 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively. Statistically significant differences in the contents of different P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e fractions were observed in soils under different land uses (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 P fraction under rewetting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe proportion of P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e under rewetting decreased, ranging from 1879\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1303 to 335\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;132 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (a decrease in proportion from 78 to 35%) irrespective of the incubation temperature with incremented rewetting time from 1 to 4 months (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; S2). A continuous decline in individual P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e fractions in soil under various land uses was observed with increasing rewetting time, ranging from 225\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;68 to 77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;28, 786\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;611 to 137\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;48, and 867\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;624 to 165\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;61 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extractable, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e content increased from 229\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;34 to 993\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;503 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (an increase in proportion from 22 to 66%) with incremented rewetting time from 1 to 4 months, irrespective of incubation temperature (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Likewise, individual P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e fractions increased, ranging from 11.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.62 to 39.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.75, 38.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.86 to 119\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.5, 71.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.0 to 410\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;150 and 109\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.3 to 449\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;170 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for water, bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extracted fractions, respectively, at varying rewetting time. Furthermore, all land uses were statistically significant with each other for variations in P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e and P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e fractions during the rewetting process (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). A trend of variations in different fractions (P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e and P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e) before and after rewetting is depicted in (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and Figure S2).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificant variations in different fractions of P (P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e and P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e) were also observed under varying rewetting temperatures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and Figure S3). On an overall average basis, P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e fractions decreased from 128\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;43 to 101\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;41, 405\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;270 to 343\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;249, and 493\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;365 to 428\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;316 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extractable P, respectively, with increasing rewetting temperature from 10\u0026deg;C to 20\u0026deg;C. In contrast, P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e fractions increased from 27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.71 to 34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.20, 96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22 to 120\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;23, 306\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;156 to 356\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;134, and 346\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;150 to 420\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;180 mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for water, bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extractable P, respectively, with an increase in rewetting temperature from 10\u0026deg;C to 20\u0026deg;C. Significant differences were found among various land uses for the variations in the contents of different P fractions at varying rewetting temperatures (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Q\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e results revealed that the average values ranged from 1.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08 to 1.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10, 1.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 to 1.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13, 1.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08 to 1.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11 and 1.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13 to 1.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11 for the change in water, bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extractable P\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e fractions, respectively (Figure S4). Meanwhile, Q\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e values for different P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e fractions ranged from 1.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 to 1.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12, 1.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11 to 1.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10, and 1.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09 to 1.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 for bicarbonate, alkali, and acid extractable P\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e fractions, respectively after rewetting soils.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 P release in water during rewetting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results regarding the contents of P release in water during the rewetting process showed incremented contents with prolonged rewetting time (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, the average P contents exhibited increments from 2.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59 to 4.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.70, 1.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.33 to 4.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.69, and 1.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40 to 4.213\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.57 mg L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e in water leached from soils under CG, GR, and UM, respectively, with increasing time during rewetting at 20\u0026deg;C. In contrast, lower average contents of P ranged from 1.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29 to 3.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.60, 1.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20 to 3.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47, and 1.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28 to 2.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46 mg L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e were leached from the soils under CG, GR, and UM, respectively, with incremented rewetting time during rewetting at 10\u0026deg;C. When looking at the release of P at varying rewetting times, the average contents released in water were around 1.65, 1.00, 0.82, and 0.80 mg L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1.60, 0.96, 0.78, and 0.77 mg L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, and 1.57, 0.82, 0.58, 0.57 mg L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e after 1 to 4 months, for CG, GR, and UM respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1 Re\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eassessing the risk of P leaching \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeatlands play a crucial role in global ecosystems as substantial carbon reservoirs and unique biodiversity hotspots (Luo et al., 2021). However, the drainage of peatlands for agricultural or other purposes alters their hydrological conditions, resulting in high CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions (Tattari et al., 2017). Therefore, rewetting drained peatlands is becoming an important international strategy to combat the changing climate and reestablish important ecological functions (Sowiński et al., 2024). In this process, P leaching has been recognized as a common concern resulting from increased mobility and availability of P under anaerobic conditions during rewetting (Comber et al., 2023). However, the impact of rewetting on P leaching is contradictory in the sense that high exports generally occur from certain sites, whereas other sites may exhibit low export rates after restoration (Koskinen et al., 2011, Kaila et al., 2016, Koskinen et al., 2017). Therefore, the knowledge regarding in what conditions and how P leaching in these organic soils upon rewetting can be problematic, and where to rewet, the potential P leaching can be minimized is insufficient and unclear.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we also observed P leaching, approximately 0.19%, 0.34%, and 0.13% of initial TP, for CG, GR, and UM respectively (Figure 7). This might be ascribed to the reduction of iron complexes under saturated conditions, as P is usually bound to the surface of highly decomposed peat through redox-sensitive Fe, and Al complexes (Kaila et al., 2016). The differences in the content of leached P among land uses are believed to be attributed to the variations in the contents of Fe and Al (Table 1). The Fe:P molar ratio has been recognized as one of the factors affecting P release and a value of more than 10 is indicative of negligible to no leaching (Zak and Gelbrecht, 2007, Forsmann and Kjaergaard, 2014). Besides, Kaila et al. (2016) reported that the higher initial extractable P contents can also be responsible for the release of P to water. In this study, the Fe:P molar ratio and initial P contents were both found to be responsible for variations in the contents of leached P. The higher contents of P in water observed during rewetting soil under GR were attributed to a lower Fe:P molar ratio (2.90) compared with CG and UM (with Fe:P molar ratio of 8.49 and 3.85 respectively). Moreover, a positive correlation between the initial contents of P and the contents released in water further confirmed the differences in land uses for P leaching (Figure 8). \u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003eThe observed leaching contents in this study were relatively lower than already reported values (Zak and Gelbrecht, 2007, Zak et al., 2010, Kaila et al., 2016). Likewise, when looking at the release of P at varying rewetting times, a decreasing trend was observed (Figure 7). This declining trend can be attributed to the resorption of P onto Al and Fe oxides (Wang et al., 2020). The precipitation of vivianite was also observed to lower P contents released into the water (Hoffmann et al., 2012, Rothe et al., 2016). However, the low risk of leaching in our study may be because we simulated the rewetting process in stagnant water with no lateral or vertical movement. However, the cases with higher initial P contents and lower contents of Fe and Al, accompanied by lateral and vertical flow, may pose a higher risk of P leaching during the rewetting process compared to the conditions observed in the current study. Therefore, the studied lowland organic soils under different land uses here can be rewetted with minimal risk of P leaching. These findings can also be useful to the rewetting areas where hydrological flow is limited or can be controlled. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2 Multiple factors control P transformation during the rewetting process\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSome studies have already been conducted elucidating the influence of rewetting drained peatlands on P transformation into different fractions. For example, Zak and Gelbrecht (2007) collected peat core samples with different degrees of decomposition and evaluated P transformation into different fractions in an incubation study by simulating rewetting at 20\u0026deg;C. Negassa et al. (2020) collected soil samples from long-term drained and rewetted peatlands (forest, coastal, and percolation mires) and examined P contents in different fractions. However, their findings do not address the fluctuations in internal P transformations during the rewetting process. This is why the current batch incubation study was planned to evaluate the temporal variations in the transformation of P in the soil during the rewetting process for four months at varying temperatures. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe transformation rate was found to be higher initially and declined with rewetting time (Figure 6). The initial higher transformation might be attributed to the fast microbial mineralization of organic P compounds into inorganic P (Margalef et al., 2017). Moreover, a high hydrolysis rate of organic P\u003csub\u003e \u003c/sub\u003ecompounds by phosphatase enzymes might also be responsible for a higher initial transformation rate (Park et al., 2022). The lower transformation rates at the later stage of the rewetting process might be ascribed to the declining microbial and enzymatic activities due to the limited availability of readily available organic P compounds (Li et al., 2016). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe process of P transformation and release from organic soil upon rewetting is very complex and the mechanism of its mobility depends on multiple factors including soil organic carbon, initial P contents, iron, and aluminium contents (Kinsman-Costello et al., 2016, Schneider et al., 2019). Structural equation modelling was employed in the current study to evaluate the influence of these factors on P transformation. The positive correlation of initial soil organic carbon with different P pools proves the significant role it plays in P transformation during the rewetting process (Figure 8). Soil organic carbon influences P transformation in the soil by regulating microbial-driven Fe(III)-oxides reduction and microbial mineralization of organic P (Hu et al., 2018, Chen et al., 2019, Zheng et al., 2019). The intensity of Fe (III) reduction as well as the mineralization of organic P relies on the soil organic carbon as an energy source for microbes and as an electron donor (Maranguit et al., 2017). Likewise, soil organic carbon was also observed to enhance P mobilization and release under anaerobic conditions by stimulating microbial and phosphatase enzymatic activities (Dong et al., 2022, Khan et al., 2022). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe transformation of P is also influenced by the contents of Fe and Al because a large part of the soil P is bound to the oxides of these metals (Lamers et al., 2015). Moreover, both Fe and Al oxyhydroxides received considerable attention because of the significant role they play in binding organic P (Xu et al., 2018, Amadou et al., 2022b). The release of P from these organic P-mineral complexes depends upon the adsorption/desorption capacity as well as microbial activities (Amadou et al., 2022b, Park et al., 2022). The release of P from adsorbed glycerophosphate was faster than glucose 6 phosphate and myo-inositol hexakisphosphate depending upon the degree of hydrolysis by enzymatic activity (Annaheim et al., 2010, Amadou et al., 2022a).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.3 Climate change will promote the potential risk of P leaching\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe global climate has undergone significant variations in the last century, characterized by escalating temperatures and an increased occurrence of extreme precipitation events (Masson-Delmotte et al., 2021). Elevated temperatures have the potential to strengthen P transformations by accelerating microbial processes and stimulating phosphatase activities (Li et al., 2019, Guo et al., 2021). In this study, a higher transformation rate was observed during rewetting at 20\u0026deg;C compared with rewetting at 10\u0026deg;C (Figure 6). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe transformations of P under two different temperatures explored in this study offer insights into the seasonal variations of potential P leaching during the rewetting process. When to rewet is still an unresolved issue because of seasonal fluctuations over time. Our findings indicate that higher temperatures promote increased P transformation. Therefore, rewetting peatlands during the summer, when soil temperatures are elevated compared to other seasons, could accelerate Fe(III)-oxide reduction and P mobilization (Prem et al., 2015). However, the vigorous uptake of nutrients by vegetation and phytoplankton during the summer months may counterbalance this by reducing net P export from rewetted areas (P\u0026ouml;nisch et al., 2023). Additionally, the typically lower precipitation in summer results in stagnant water and reduced hydrological flow, which minimizes P transport. Conversely, prolonged water saturation during spring and autumn can lead to extensive dissolution of the entire oxidized Fe pool, increasing the risk of P leaching (Schilling et al., 2019, Smith et al., 2023). Therefore, the timing of rewetting should consider both temperature and precipitation patterns. While our observations may not be universally applicable; however, they are relevant to many regions. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClimate change makes the P leaching scenario more complex because the contents of released P increase around 33-41% with incrementing incubation temperature from 10\u0026deg;C to 20\u0026deg;C in this study (Figure 7). The increase in leaching contents with incremented temperature might be attributed to higher temperature sensitivity of desorption processes than sorption processes (Conant et al., 2011, Hanyabui et al., 2020). Moreover, according to the calculation of temperature sensitivity quotient, the risk of P leaching is expected to increase by 0.24 times (Figure S3), if we assume a 1.5-degree increase in temperature by 2030 (IPCC, 2021). Hence, there is no doubt that the future temperature rise will boost P transformations during the rewetting process, potentially leading to increased P leaching.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe rewetting process triggered a notable P transformation in the soil. The transformation rate was higher initially and declined over time due to the reduction in microbial and enzymatic activity as well as the resorption of the released P.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe transformation of P from organic soil upon rewetting is a highly complex process, and the mechanism of its mobility is influenced by various factors such as the amount of soil organic carbon, initial P contents, and the presence of iron and aluminium.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eClimate change makes the P transformation scenario more complex by increasing the risk of leaching because of the higher temperature sensitivity of desorption processes than sorption processes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSeasonal variations influenced both the transformation and leaching risk of P. Therefore, both temperature and precipitation patterns should be considered for the strategic implementation of the rewetting initiative.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the EU-funded Marie Sklodowska- Curie Postdoctoral Fellowships program (101062861) and by the European Union\u0026rsquo;s Horizon Europe programme (WET HORIZONS, 101056848).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of competing interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAmadou I, Faucon M-P, Houben D (2022a) New insights into sorption and desorption of organic phosphorus on goethite, gibbsite, kaolinite and montmorillonite. 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Soil Biology and Biochemistry 136:107521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2019.107521\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-geochemistry-and-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"egah","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Geochemistry and Health](https://www.springer.com/journal/10653)","snPcode":"10653","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10653/3","title":"Environmental Geochemistry and Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Peatlands, land use, temperature, rewetting, phosphorus dynamics, climate change","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6583184/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6583184/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding phosphorus (P) transformation dynamics during peatland rewetting is crucial for developing effective management strategies, supporting ecological restoration initiatives and mitigating potential environmental risks. This incubation study explored the temporal variations in P transformation in peatlands under different land uses (cut grass, grazing, unmanaged) along with the potential risk of leaching by simulating rewetting conditions for four months at varying temperatures (10 and 20\u0026deg;C). Overall, only 0.19%, 0.34%, and 0.13% of initial total P was leached out during rewetting soils under cut grass, grazing, and unmanaged respectively. A higher risk of leaching at the beginning of the rewetting was observed to be associated with a high transformation rate of P from organic form to inorganic form but mitigated by resorption with ongoing rewetting. Soil organic carbon, initial contents of P, iron, and aluminium as well as temperature were found to be the main factors controlling P transformation and leaching during the rewetting process. Moreover, climate change with a future 1.5\u0026deg;C increase in temperature would increase the rate of P transformation and release by 0.24 times according to the temperature sensitivity analysis. More research is needed to comprehensively explore complex interactions involving seasonal variations, microbial activity, and geological processes. This is also necessary for a holistic understanding of how these ecosystems may respond to ongoing climate changes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Phosphorus Transformations and Leaching Potential in Rewetting Drained Peatlands: Exploring the Influence of Land Use and Temperature","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-12 11:01:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6583184/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-05T03:38:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-12T12:02:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"69057568817513363084368144025453425799","date":"2025-05-09T09:53:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-07T01:38:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-06T22:41:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-05T10:45:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Geochemistry and Health","date":"2025-05-03T09:08:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-geochemistry-and-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"egah","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Geochemistry and Health](https://www.springer.com/journal/10653)","snPcode":"10653","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10653/3","title":"Environmental Geochemistry and Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"22a7c2dd-9b49-4c53-807f-66e8cb74c36a","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-22T16:02:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6583184","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-025-02751-y","journal":{"identity":"environmental-geochemistry-and-health","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Environmental Geochemistry and Health"},"publishedOn":"2025-09-17 15:57:46","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 17th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-12 11:01:31","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10653-025-02751-y","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-025-02751-y","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6583184","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6583184","identity":"rs-6583184","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}