Abstract
We previously demonstrated that the NO‐receptor soluble guanylyl cyclase (GC1) has the ability to
transnitrosate other proteins in a reaction that involves, in some cases, oxidized Thioredoxin 1 (oTrx1).
This transnitrosation cascade was established in vitro and we identified by mass spectrometry and
mutational analysis Cys 610 (C610) of GC1 α‐subuni t as a major donor of S‐nitrosothiols (SNO). To assay
the relevance of GC1 transnitrosation under physiological conditions and in oxidative pathologies, we
studied a knock‐in mouse in which C610 was replaced with a serine (KI αC610S) under basal or angiotensin
II (Ang II)–treated conditions. Despite similar GC1 expression and NO‐stimulated cGMP‐forming activity,
the Ang II‐treated KI mice displayed exacerbated oxidative pathologies including higher mean arterial
pressure and more severe cardiac dysfunctions compared to the Ang II‐treated WT. These phenotypes
were associated with a dra stic decrease in global S‐nitrosation and in levels of SNO‐Trx1 and SNO‐RhoA
in the KI mice. To investigate the mechanism underlying the dysregulation of blood pressure despite an
intact NO‐cGMP axis, pressure myography and in vivo intravital microscopy were conducted to analyze
the vascular resistance tone. Both appr oaches indicated that, even in the absence of oxidative stress,
the single mutation C610S led to a significant deficiency in acetylcholine‐induced vasorelaxation while
smooth muscle relaxation in response to NO remained unchanged. These findings indicate that the
C610S mutation uncoupled the two NO signaling pathways involved in the e ndothelium and smooth
muscle vasorelaxation and suggest that GC1‐dependent S‐nitrosation is a key player in endothelium‐
derived hyperpolarization.
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Introduction
Cardiovascular health is highly dependent on nitric oxide (NO) signaling and is extensively compromised
by oxidative stress. Soluble guanylyl cyclase (GC1) is a heme‐containing heterodimer, which catalyzes
the production of cGMP upon stimulation of NO binding to the heme. The NO‐GC1‐cGMP pathway is
critical to smooth muscle relaxation of blood vessels, as well as pro tecting the heart from myocardial
infarction, fibrosis and negatively modulating cardiac contractility(1‐3). In fact, GC1 is currently one of
the most sought‐after targets to treat cardiovascular diseases(4). NO also signals in the cardiovascular
system by a non‐canonical pathway, S‐nitrosation (also called S‐ni trosylation), which is the addition of a
NO moiety to a cysteine (Cys)(5). As other post‐translational modifications (PTMs), S‐nitrosation changes
protein function, localization or interaction.
We recently discovered that GC1 mediates as well the NO non‐canonical pathway. We showed in cardiac
and smooth muscle cell lines tha t GC1 has the ability to drive S‐nitrosation of over 200 proteins via a
transnitrosation activity, i.e., the transfer of S‐nitrosothiol groups (SNO) through specific protein‐protein
interactions (6). GC1 transnitrosation activity is favored under oxidative stress, a condition that could
lead to disruption of the NO‐GC1‐cG MP by oxidation of the heme and thiols of GC1, reduction of NO
availability and increased S‐nitrosation levels in cells(6‐8). Interestingly, Thioredoxin 1 (Trx1) a major
regulator of cellular thiol redox is one of the GC1 transnitrosation targets. The transnitrosation reaction
was unidirectional from GC1 to Trx1 and took place with oxidized Trx1 (o Trx1), which acquires a
transnitrosation activity when oxidized(9) (10, 11). We showed that SNO‐GC1 “uses” oTrx1 as a SNO
relay to amplify the number of SNO‐targets. In fact, using Angiotensin II (AngII) as an
oxidative/nitrosative inducer in cardiac cells, we discovered that SNO‐GC1/oTrx1 compl ex S‐nitrosates
the small GTPase RhoA, in turn inhibiting its activity (6). Using Mass spectrometry, we identified Cys 610
(C610) of the α subunit of GC1 as the main SNO donor and Cys73 (C73) of Trx1 as the main SNO
recipient/acceptor. We confirmed the crucial role of αC610 in GC1 transnitrosation activity by
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mutational analysis in smooth muscle cells. Of importance, the NO‐stimulated cGMP‐forming activity
per se was not affected in the mutant. (12)
To determine the (patho)physiological significance of GC1 transnitrosation activity in the cardiovascular
system, we created a knock‐in mouse for which αC610 was replaced by a serine (KI αC610S). We used
chronic infusion of AngII, which is a well‐described model to increase blood pressure and to induce
cardiac hypertrophy and electrical dysfunction. We previously showed that oxidative stress generated
by Ang II infusion induces S‐nitrosation in rodent tissues, and affects vascular reactivity and cardiac
function (13, 14). Toge ther with the idea that S‐nitrosation could be cardioprotective (15, 16) and that it
modulates several signaling pathways involved in vascular reactivity, including calcium signaling (17, 18),
we sought to determine whether disruption of the transnitrosation cascade in the knock‐in (KI) mice
harboring the αC610S mutation would display cardiovascular pathologies.
Herein, we dem
onstrate that the KIC610S mice lacking GC1 transnitrosation activity and treated with
Ang II display a higher increase in mean arterial pressure (MAP), compared to WT mice treated with Ang
II. The KI mice also suffered from more severe cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, higher oxidation and
electrical dysfunction in response to Ang II treatment, compared to WT. Sur prisingly, the NO‐stimulated
GC1 activity did not decrease in the KI mice compared to the WT (± AngII). Further pressure myography
and intravital microscopy studies in small resistance mesenteric arteries (MA) indicated that the KI mice
has a significant decreased vasorelaxation in response to Acetyl choline (ACh) but vasorelaxation to NO
remains essentially unchanged, even in the absence of oxidative stress. Overall these results suggest
that GC1 transnitrosation activity modulates endothelium‐dependent relaxation in small resistance
vessels, hence regulates blood pressure.
Material and methods
Generation of knock‐in C610S mice.
C610S knock‐in mice were generated by the Genome Editing Shared Resource at Rutgers using
CRISPR/Cas9 technology. The gRNA sequence to replace cysteine 610 with a serine was
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CTGCAGTGTGCCTCGGAAAATC →TAGCAGTGTGCCTCGGAAAATC and also included the restricƟon site
BfaI (5’‐C˅TAG‐3’) to facilitate screening of the Cys to Ser replacement, in addition to sequencing. 10
knock‐in founders heterozygotes for C610S were successfully generated, 5 were bred (3 males, 2
females) with wild‐type (WT) C57Bl/6J mice to expand the line. WT C57Bl/6 were pur chased from
Jackson laboratories and Charles River. The heterozygous C610S/+ first generation were backcrossed
with WT C57Bl/6 and maintained on the C57Bl/6 genetic background. The homozygous WT and αGC1
C610S/C610S were generated by C610S/+ heterozygous breeding and whenever possible, littermates
were used in the various e xperiments. 4 to 8‐month‐old male and female mice were used in the study.
Mice were maintained in the animal facility at 22–24°C with 12‐h light/dark cycles and 60%–70% of
humidity. The animals were fed ad libitum under a normal chow diet and sterilized water.All animal
experiments were c onducted in accordance with policies of the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of
Laboratory Animals and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC), Rutgers,
Newark, NJ.
HD‐X11 telemetry device implantation and Angiotensin II (Ang II) infusion
Blood pressure (BP) and electrocardiogram (ECG) recordings were made in awake, freely moving mice
using an implanted radio telemetry device (PhysioTel HD‐X11 transmitter, Data Sciences International).
Briefly, mice were anesthetized with 4‐5% isoflurane inhalation, followed by single dose of local anesthetic
Bupivacaine (2‐2.5 mg/kg, SC). During surgery, anesthesia was maintained with 1‐3% isoflurane during.
The pressure catheter was inserted through the left carotid artery into the aortic arc, while the two leads
were fixed subcutaneously in standard positions (positive lead was placed in left rib region and negative
lead was placed to the right pectoral muscle).The transmitter body was secured into a subcutaneous
pocket in the left flank. Buprenorphine (0.05 mg/kg, SC) was administered as an analgesic immediately
after telemetry device implantation surgery and thereafter mice were allowed to recover in cages on
heating Pad.
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Angiotensin II (Ang II) infusion At 5 to 7 days following telemetry device implantation, recordings were
conducted as internal, untreated controls. At day 7, mice were treated with saline or AngII (0.8 mg/kg per
day) for 14 days via a miniosmotic pump (ALZET®, cat # 0000296) implanted subcutaneously, as indicated
in the scheme below.
Telemetry recordings. Mice were divided into 4 groups (WT ± Ang II and KI ± Ang II) and the data were
recorded using a LabChart analysis software with a PhysioTel/HD Hardware MX2 configuration. Various
pressures (systolic, diastolic and mean), heart rate (HR) and multiple ECG parameters, among them RR
interval, PR interval, QT interval, QTc interval, QRS and P wave duration and amplitude were recorded and
analyzed. The measurements were conducted in unrestrained mice, daily for 1 hour in the morning for 21
days. At the end of the experiment (day 28), mice were anesthetized and various organs including heart,
lungs and mesenteric artery were removed, washed in PBS, and processed for biochemical or histological
protocols.
Heart rate variability (HRV) analysis. HRV was performed on ECG tracings by using Labchart software.
Arrhythmias, ectopic beats and artifacts were discarded from ECG tracing before HRV analysis by
excluding R–R values not contained between mean R–R interval ± 2 S.D. (95.5% confidence intervals)(19).
Pressure Myography.
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Mice were sacrificed under anesthesia and the mesenteric tissue was rapidly harvested and placed in a
cold HEPES‐PSS buffer containing (mmol/L): NaCl 118, KCl 4.7, CaCl2 1.6, KH2PO4 1.2, MgSO4 1.2, NaHCO3
25, glucose 5.5, HEPES 10. The final pH was adjusted to 7.4. For each experiment, a second or third order
of mesenteric arteries (without any branches) was isolated and cannulated in a pressure myography
chamber (Danish MyoTechnology A/S, model: 114P) using 60‐80 or 100‐120 µM cannulas. Each vessel was
perfused in o
xygenated prewarmed HEPES‐PSS buffer (37°C, same composition that was used for vessel
dissection). The pressure was increased gradually from 20 to 60 mmHg (with intervals of 10 mmHg).
Bending of the vessel (due to pressure) was adjusted using the micro‐positioners of the myography
chamber; the vessel was equilibrated fo r 30 min at 37°C with a pressure of 60 mmHg (20). To evaluate the
viability of vessel, 60 mM KCL solution was added to the chamber and vessels with less than 50%
constriction were excluded from analysis. After KCl treatment, the chamber was washed 3 times with
prewarmed HEPES buffer . The perfused vessel was live‐tracked at 10 X magnification using a Zeiss
AxioVert.A1 inverted microscope. Data including changes in outer and inner diameters were acquired and
analyzed using the Myoview v. 5.1 software.
The vessels were pre‐constricted with phenylephrine (PE at 10−5 M). Changes in vessel outer and inner
diameters were then assessed in response to a cumulative dose of acetylcholine (ACh; 10−8‐10−4 M) or
Diethylamine NONOate diethylammonium (DEA/NO; 10−8‐10−4 M). Percentage dilation was measured
using the formula % dilation=
ሾሺ௫ିሻሿ
ሺିሻ∗ 100, where D is the measured lumen diameter and x, i, and e
indicate the measured arterial diameter at each dose of agonist (x), initial diameter following PE
constriction (i), and diameter at 60 mmHg pressure after equilibrium (e) (20). n=3‐7 mice per condition
and 1‐2 vessels were analyzed for each mouse.
Vascular vasomotion response in vivo using intravital microscopy
To assess in vivo relaxation, we employed an intravital microscopy protocol as previously described (13,
21). Male and female mice, aged 4‐6 months, were anesthetized with isoflurane (1.5‐2%) for the
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procedure. The mesenteric bed was isolated for vessel visualization and continuously superfused with a
saline solution at 37°C at a rate of 1 mL per minute. For vessel visualization and diameter detection, we
inject Dextran 70‐KDa‐FITC conjugate retro‐orbitally, as shown in Supplemental Figure 1. Vasodilators
agents (10 µM ACh, 10 µM DEANO donor) were topically administered two minutes after 10 µM PE
administration, during which time the peak and relative maintenance of arteriolar contraction were
detected. The peak relaxation response was measured two minutes after administering ACh/NO, using
the same formula as described in the pressure myography section. Diameter changes were quantified
with Metamorph software (Molecular Device, USA). Relaxation was monitored using a time‐lapse
sequence, capturing images at one‐second intervals. For each experimental condition, 2 to 3 vessels per
animal were analyzed.
Measurement of reactive oxygen species
We measured reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in mice myocardial tissue with dihydroethidium (DHE),
a redox‐sensitive fluorescent probe (Cayman chemical company, cat # 104821‐25‐2). Briefly, frozen heart
sections embedded with OCT (Tissue‐Tek®, cat# 4583) were cut into 8‐μm section, washed three times
with PBS and incubated with DHE (2.5 µM) for 30 min at 37 °C in a dark humidified box. Following three
washes with PBS, sections were incubated for 30 min at 37 °C with wheat germ agglutinin (WGA5µg/ml)
to stain cardiomyocytes’ plasma membrane. Following three additional washes with PBS, sections were
mounted in a medium‐containing DAPI for nuclei staining (Sigma Aldrich, DUO82040). After drying in the
dark, fluorescence images were captured using 200 Axiovert Zeiss fluorescence microscope, 20X objective
and quantified with Image J software. To calculate DHE fluorescence in ImageJ, DAPI‐stained nuclei were
identified and corresponding fluorescence intensities of DAPI and DHE were measured. The fluorescence
intensity of DHE was normalized to DAPI, and data are presented as the ratio of DHE/DAPI.
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Measurement of cardiac fibrosis.
Heart tissues were fixed with 10% buffered formalin (Fisher chemical SF93‐4), embedded in paraffin,
and sectioned at 5μm thickness. Interstitial and perivascular fibrosis was evaluated by picric acid Sirius
red staining. The sections were incubated with a 0.1% Sirius Red solution dissolved in aqueous saturated
picric acid for 1 h, washed in acidified wat
er (0.5% glacial acetic acid), dehydrated, and mounted with
SignalStain medium (Cell Signaling, 14177S). Collagen is stained red, while non‐collagen tissues are
stained yellow. The positively stained (red) fibrotic area was measured and expressed as a percentage of
total area. For each section, 6‐10 fields at 10X magni fication were used for the analysis by ImageJ. n=5‐
10 mice per condition.
Soluble guanylyl cyclase activity measurements.
Fresh or snap‐frozen lung tissues (20‐30 mg) were homogenized in a lysis buffer containing 50mM Tris‐
HCL pH 8.0, 150 mM NaCL, 1 mM EDTA and protease inhi bitor cocktail + PMSF (Sigma, # P7626), using a
Turax (VDI 12, VWR) on ice for 10‐20 seconds. Homogenates were first spun at 4⁰C at 500g for 1 min to
remove the biggest debris. The supernatant was then centrifuged at 14 000 g for 10 min at 4⁰ C. The
cytosolic fraction (superna
tant) was used for Western blot and GC1 activity after measurement of
protein concentrations using Bradford reagent. NO‐stimulated GC1 activity was measured for 5 min. at
30⁰ C in a 50mM HEPES pH 8.0 buffer containing 1mM GTP, 5 mM MgCl2, GTP32 and stimulated with 100
μM DEA‐NO, as previously described (22). Each measurement was done in duplicate, n=4 mice for each
group (WT, WT+ AngII, KI C610S, KI C610S + AngII). Data are expressed in nmol cGMP.min‐1.mg‐1.
Biotin switch assays of mouse tissues.
Lung or heart tissues (20‐30 mg) were homogenized in lysis buffer containing 50 mM Tris‐HCL pH 7.5,
150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.1 mM neocuproine, 0.2 mM PSMF and 40 mM N‐ethylmaleimide (NEM). 2
mg of the homogenates were diluted to 0.5mg/ ml in blocking buffer containing 1% Triton X‐100 and 2%
SDS in 50 mM Tris‐HCL, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.1 mM neocuproine, 0.2 mM PSMF and 40
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mM N‐ethylmaleimide (NEM). Samples were incubated at 50°C for 30 min in the dark. Excess NEM was
removed using cold acetone precipitation. The protein pellets were generated by centrifugation at 4000
rpm for 20 min at 4°C and washed once with cold acetone. The pellets were resuspended in 300 μl of a
buffer contai
ning 25 mM HEPES, pH 7.7, 1 mM EDTA, and 1% SDS, supplemented with 0.1 mM biotin‐
HPDP, 10 mM ascorbate and 1μM CuCl, at room temperature for 1 h in the dark. Negative controls were
the blocked samples without ascorbate. Excess biotin‐HPDP was removed and bi otinylated proteins
were precipitated using cold acetone at ‐20°C for 1 h followed by centrifugation at 5000 g for 10 min at
4°C. The pellets were dissolved in HENS buffer. For detection of biotinylated proteins, resuspended
samples were mixed with 4X Laemmli buffer without β‐Mercaptoethanol.
For avidin enrichment, the biotinylated samples wer e diluted in 700 μl PBS and mixed with 100 μl
streptavidin‐agarose beads. The mixture was incubated for 1 h at room temperature with regular
agitation. The beads were pelleted by centrifuging at 5000 g for 10 min and washed 3 times with 1 ml of
PBS. The washed beads we re mixed with 100 μl of 1X Laemmli loading buffer with 10% β‐
Mercaptoethanol and heated at 85°C for 5 min. The proteins released from the beads were then
subjected to Western blotting.
Statistical analysis:
Errors bars represent the mean ± SEM. Statistical analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism
software (9. 5.0). Two‐way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by post‐hoc Tukey's multiple
comparisons test were used when necessary. P values < 0.05 were considered significant for all statistical
tests. Data collection and analyses were done blinded to the samples, whenever feasible.
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Results
To determine the physiological significance of GC1‐dependent transnitrosation activity, we created
knock‐in mice lacking this activity by replacing αC610, the main SNO donor cysteine of GC1, with a serine
(αC610S). As previously, we used infusion of Angiotensin II to increase S‐nitrosation and compromise
vascular reactivity and cardiac homeostasis by augmenting oxidative stress (13, 14). Along the study, the
4 groups of mice were WT and KI αC610S treated with AngII or vehicle. We first assayed whether the
expression of GC1 and its activity were changed by the point mutation GC1‐αC610S compared to WT mice
and in response to Ang II‐induced oxidative stress.
1. The expression and NO‐stimulated activity of GC1 are similar in WT and KI αC610S mice ± AngII
treatment. Lysates of lungs of the 4 groups of mice were prepared and the expression of GC1 α and β
subunits assessed (Figure 1A). As previously observed (13, 14), the Ang II treatment did not affect GC1
expression, nor was the KI mutation, indicating that any difference in phenotype between WT and KI
could not be attribu
ted to a difference in expression. Likewise, the NO‐stimulated activity of GC1 in
lungs of WT and KI C610S mice treated with vehicle or Ang II was not significantly different between the 4
groups (Figure 1B). As previously observed, Ang II treatment induces a decrease in NO‐stimulated
Figure 1. Assays of expression and NO-stimulated acti vity of WT and KI C610S mice ± Ang II. ( A).
Representative Western blot showing similar expression, albeit slightly less for the KI (n>3). Fifty μg of each
lysate was electrophoresed on 12 % SDS gel then blotted and probed with antibodies against GC1 α and
GC1β subunits. β actin was used as loading control. (B) 10-50 μg lysates of lungs from the 4 groups of mice
were assayed for basal (not shown) and NO-stimulated activity (the NO-donor DEA-NO was used at 100 μM).
Lungs were used because they are one of the riches t sources of GC1. n=4 mi ce. Measurements of GC1
activity were done in duplicate.
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activity in the WT mice; however, it did not reach significance. The untreated KI C610S mice has a NO‐
stimulated activity similar to untreated WT mice. In contrast to WT mice treated with AngII, the KI C610S
did not show any decrease in NO‐stimulated activity when treated with AngII. Overall, while there might
be a slight impairment of GC1 activity by oxidation in the WT, the expression and activities of GC1 in the
4 groups of mice are not altered by the point mutation C610S in the KI mi ce.
2. Ang II‐induced global and specific S‐nitrosation is drastically decreased in KI αC610S mice compared to
WT mice. We next analyzed and compared to the WT mice, the S‐nitrosation status of the KI C610S mice
under vehicle or Ang II treatment (Figure 2). For this, we conducted a biotin switch assay showing that
biotinylation, hence nitrosation, was not detectable in the lung tissues of untreated WT and KI mice. In
Figure 2. Decreased S-nitrosation in KI mice is associated with increased Ang II-induced blood pressure
compared to WT. Left panels: S-nitrosation levels in WT and KI C610S mice ± Ang II. (A). Representative
Western blot of biotin ylated samples from the 4 groups el ectrophoresed on a non-reducing 12 % SDS-
PAGE and probed with anti-biotin ( n=3). (B) Following avidin purification, the biotinylated samples were
separated by electrophoresis of a 12 % SDS-PAGE r educing gel, blotted and probed with antibodies
against GC1 α and β, RhoA and Trx1. n=3. The uncut Ponceau red stained blots showing similar protein
amount and the “no ascorbat e” control are shown in Supplemental Figure 2 for both Fig 2A and 2B.
M.W.: Molecular Weight markers. Right panel (C): Mean blood pressure (MBP) in WT and KI C610S mice
± Ang II. Telemetry recording of BP analyzed with LabC hart software. n=5-7 for each group, expressed
in mmHg ± SEM. Statistical analysis was performed with a two-way ANOVA-Tukey's multiple comparisons
test with *, p< 0.05, and ****, p< 0.001
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contrast, treatment with AngII led to high levels of S‐nitrosation in WT mice but this increase was
considerably blunted in KI mice (Figure 2A). Following avidin enrichment, specific S‐nitrosation of GC1 was
detected in WT and in KI mice (though with a slight decrease) with or without Ang II infusio n. In the WT
mice, S‐nitrosation of RhoA and Trx1 were detected and increased with AngII. In sharp contrast, S‐
nitrosation was very faint in the KI mice whether they were treated or not with AngII. These results
indicate that S‐nitrosation of tissues in response to oxidative stress is largely m odulated by GC1 and that
αCys 610 is the main driver of GC1’ transnitrosation activity. As we previously observed in cells (6, 23) and
now confirmed in vivo, GC1 is a major source of global S‐nitrosation, S‐nitrosated Trx1 and is also
responsible for RhoA S‐nitrosation probably via a transnitrosation cascade i nitiated by GC1.
3. AngII‐dependent hypertension in WT mice is further increased in KI αC610S mice.
Next we aimed to test whether this deficit in S‐nitrosation, in particular under AngII‐induced oxidative
stress, had any impact on the cardiovascular system. For this, we first assayed the changes in blood
pressure. Using a telemetry system, we measured different pressures (systolic, diastolic and mean) in
unrestrained mice, daily for 1 hour during a 21‐day period. The telemetry device was implanted with a
recovery period of 7 days and then the osmotic pump with AngII or vehicle was implanted for 14 days.
Figure 2C (right panel) shows the mean blood pressure for each group at 7th day after the device
implantation (vehicle, Ctrl) and at 14 days of AngII. Prior to AngII infusion, the baseline MBP measured at
day 7 was similar between WT and KI, i.e., 105.9 ± 2.1 and 105.3 ± 3.3 mm Hg for the WT and KI mice,
respectively. After 2 weeks of AngII treatment, telemetry recordings indicated significant increase in BP
in both KI and WT mice, as expected(24) (25). However, the AngII‐dependent rise in blood pressure was
significantly higher (29.4%) in the KI mice compared to WT mice (20.9%), with a MBP of 130.6 ± 1.9 vs.
141.2 ± 3.3 mm Hg in the WT and KI mice, respectively. The increased pressure values in the KI mice imply
that the cardiac output or/and the total resistance (vasorelaxation) is more affected by oxidative stress
and correlate with decreased S‐nitrosation in KI mice. This suggests that GC1‐dependent transnitrosation
activity could protect from cardiovascular oxidative pathologies.
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4. Cardiac health is more compromised in KI mice treated with AngII than in WT mice treated with AngII.
Because of a direct correlation between sustained elevated BP and cardiac health, we next assessed
cardiac hypertrophy, oxidation, fibrosis and electrical properties in each group of mice. Figure 3A shows
that there was no apparent cardiac hypertrophy, measured as the ratio of heart weight (mg) over body
weight (g), in untreated WT and KI mice. AngII treatment induces hypertrophy in both WT and KI mice and
was significantly higher in KI mice compared to WT mice treated with AngII (12.1% vs. 6.9% increase in KI
and WT mice, respectively). As myocardial superoxide generation is a marker of Ang II‐induced cardiac
remodeling (26), we measured the levels of oxidation in the heart of the 4 groups of mice (Figure 3B and
supplementary Figure 3). While DHE staining is increased by AngII treatment in both WT and KI mice,
Figure 3: KI mice treated with AngII have more severe cardiac hypertrophy (A), higher cardiac oxidation (B),
increased collagen deposition (C), longer QTc interval (D) and higher number of sinoatrial (SAN) pauses (E)
compared to WT mice treated with AngII. Cardiac hypertrophy is expressed as HW (mg)/BW (g). Oxidation
was assayed by DHE staining and fibrosis was assessed by Picrosirius red staining (PSR).
Electrocardiogram (D and E) of the 4 groups of mice were recorded by telemetry and data were analyzed
with labchart software. n=5-11 for each group. Values are expressed as S.E.M. Statistical analysis was
performed with a two-way ANOVA- multiple comparison s test, with *, p< 0.05, **, p<0.01, and ****, p<
0.0001
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there was a significantly higher oxidation in KI mice in comparison to WT mice (ROS production was 1.5‐
fold higher in KI mice than WT mice after AngII treatment). These results indicate that reduced S‐
nitrosation in KI mice is associated with increased ROS and that the heart of KI mice is less protected from
oxidative stress. Cardiac fibrosis is usually observed in Ang II‐induced hypertension (27, 28). Using
Picrosirius red staining of heart cryosections, we confirmed that AngII significantly increases interstitial
and perivascular collagen deposition in both WT and KI mice. Importantly, KI mice exhibited more collagen
deposition, hence more severe cardiac fibrosis than WT mice after AngII treatment (Figure 3C and
supplementary Figure 4). The enhanced collagen deposition in KI mice suggests a potential protective
effect of GC1‐transnitrosation activity under oxidative stress conditions. To determine whether the
cardiac fibrosis and hypertrophy were associated with electrical dysfunction, we conducted telemetric
ECG recording in the same 4 groups of mice. While AngII treatment led to a prolonged QTc interval in
both WT and KI, the increase in the duration was only significant in the KI mice (26.2% vs a 13.8% increase
in WT + AngII). Consequently, the increase in QTc interval of KI + AngII mice was also significantly higher
than in WT + AngII mice (Figure 4D). These data suggest that ventricular repolarization is delayed in KI
mice. These results are consistent with previous studies that showed prolonged action potential durations
in cardiomyocytes from hypertrophic hearts. The number of sinoatrial node (SAN) pauses was also
significantly increased in KI mice treated with AngII; it was also higher compared to WT treated with AngII
(Figure 4E), indicating a supraventricular dysfunction. Taken together, these results indicate that the KI
mice develop hypertrophic cardiomyopathy accompanied with typical electrical alterations following
AngII treatment. We further investigated the cardiac rhythm changes by extracting heart rate variability
parameters (HRV) from the ECG recordings. We observed that the HRV was significantly decreased in KI
mice compared to WT mice when challenged with Ang II (supplementary Figure 5).
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5. The endothelium‐dependent relaxation in the resistance vasculature is significantly impaired in KI
mice.
To investigate the potential mechanism(s) of dysregulated BP in KI mice, we assessed the relaxation of the
small resistance mesenteric arteries (MA) by pressure myography. The two main vasodilators of the
resistance vessels are NO and endothelium hyperpolarization. NO induces relaxation of smooth muscle
cells (SMC) through direct activation of GC1 (“ muscle component” of relaxation), while hyperpolarization
is usually considered the “endothelial component” of vasorelaxation. Acetylcholine (ACh) is the
quintessential endothelial‐dependent vasodilator, which triggers endothelial cell hyperpolarization in
small resistance arteries leading to relaxation, while in conduit (large) arteries the ACh‐induced NO
release, in turn stimulating GC1 activity, is the predo minant mechanism of vasorelaxation. We measured
vascular resistance in isolated pressurized MA in the 4 groups of mice (WT, KI ± AngII) in response to ACh
and the NO donor, DEA‐NO. MA of 3‐4th order were pressurized at 60 mmHg, pre‐contracted with 10 µM
phenylephrine (PE) and increases in luminal diameter were assessed as a function of increasing
Figure 4: Cumulative ACh and DEA-NO dose-response curves of WT and KI C
610S
mice untreated or
treated with AngII. (A) Vasorelaxation to ACh was significantly impaired in the KI mice, as well as in the
WT and KI treated with AngII, compared to untreated WT. There was no significant difference between
KI, KI + AngII and WT + AngII. (B) The 4 groups showed a similar response to increasing DEA-NO
concentrations. Vasorelaxation was assayed by changes in luminal diameter; data were recorded and
analyzed with Myoview software. n=3 -6 for each group.. Statistical analysis was performed with a two-
way ANOVA-Tukey's multiple comparisons test, with **, p<0.01, and ***, p< 0.0001
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(cumulative) concentrations of ACh and DEA‐NO. We observed a significant decrease in ACh‐dependent
vasorelaxation in the KI mice compared to the WT. This decreased vascular response in the KI was similar
in the WT and KI mice treated with AngII and significant compared to WT (Figure 4A). In sharp contrast ,
there was no significant changes in the vasorelaxation of the 4 groups of mice in response to DEA‐NO,
which directly stimulates GC1 activity in the SMC (Figure 4B). The lack of significant alteration in the
response to NO in the resistance vasculature of the KI mice indicates that the NO‐GC1‐cG MP axis is not
affected by the C610S replacement, in line with our observation that the levels of NO‐stimulated
production of cGMP remained unchanged in the KI mice. The impaired ACh‐dependent vasorelaxation
with maintenance of the NO‐dependent response indicates that the C610S mutation does not affect the
SMC compon
ent of vasorelaxation but leads to endothelium‐dependent vascular dysfunction, probably at
the origin of the increased BP in the KI mice. Importantly, the deficient response to ACh in the KI mice was
observed in the absence of Ang II‐induced oxidative stress suggesting that the mutation affects the
physiological vasorelaxation signalin
g, even in the absence of oxidative stress.
6‐ KI C610S Mice show reduced relaxation in PE‐precontracted vessels in response to ACh stimulation
in vivo
Figure 4 illustrates that the endothelial response is significantly diminished in KI mice with impaired S‐
nitrosation. To further evaluate these find ings, we measured vasomotion in vivo in the mesenteric
arteries, accounting for the influence of the surrounding microenvironment, such as adipocytes,
sympathetic system and blood cells, among others. For this, we used intravital microscopy (Supplemental
Figure 1). Under control conditions, arterioles ranging from 100 to 130 µm in outer diameter wer e
precontracted with 10 µM PE. After two minutes of PE, these vessels were stimulated with 10 µM ACh or
10 µM DEA‐NO. Figure 5A shows representative traces of the vasomotion response of arterioles from WT,
WT + Ang II, KI, and KI + Ang II mice under baseline condi tions and following PE, ACh, and NO‐donor
treatments.
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Figure 5. KI C610S mice exhibit diminished relaxation to ACh stimulation in PE-precontracted vessels in
vivo. A) Representative traces showing vasomotion chang es in the mesenteric bed of WT and KI mice
under control conditions and AngII treatment. Vessels were stimulated with 10 µM PE, followed by 10 µM
ACh or 10 µM DEANO to assess vasorelaxation. For each group of mice, average vascular response to
ACh (B), and to DEANO (C) were plotted (5-9 vessels, n>3 mice). D) Percentage of maximum relaxation
response induced by ACh from data in B. E) Percentage of maximum relaxation response induced by DEA-
NO, from data in C. From data in B, percentage of PE-induced contraction (F), and time to achieve
maximum contraction (G). Time to achieve maximum dilation in PE-contracted vessels upon ACh (H) and
upon DEA-NO (I). Statistical analysis was performed with a two-way ANOVA-Tukey's multiple comparisons
test, with **, p<0.01
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Data analyses indicate that vasorelaxation peak in response to ACh was significantly impaired in KI mice
as well as in Ang II‐treated WT and KI mice compared to untreated WT (Figure 5B and 5D). In contrast,
the response to NO remained unchanged in WT and KI mice untreated or treate d with Ang II, aligning with
pressure myography results that showed no difference in NO‐smooth muscle relaxation (Figure 5C and
5E). Additionally, while the extent of contraction induced by PE was similar between WT mice with and
without Ang II treatment, it was significantly reduced in KI mice under both co nditions (control and Ang
II, Figure 5F). Moreover, the time to reach peak contraction was significantly shorter (10‐15 seconds) in KI
mice and Ang II‐treated WT mice, compared to WT mice for which the peak contraction typically occurs
around 20‐25 seconds. The shorter time to reach peak contraction in these mode ls suggest faster smooth
muscle contraction compared to WT mice (Figure 5G). Following ACh stimulation, the time required to
achieve maximum relaxation was significantly prolonged in KI mouse models compared to WT mice. In
contrast, this delay in relaxation was not observed with NO donor treatment (Fig ures 5H and 5I).
Collectively, the pressure myography and in vivo findings suggest that the endothelium‐mediated
vasorelaxation is specifically compromised by the C610S point mutation in the α ‐subunit of GC1. This
mutation is linked to a reduction in GC1 transnitrosation activity while leaving the NO‐GC1‐cGMP signaling
pathway inta
ct. The fact that the defect in ACh‐dependent relaxation takes place in the absence of
oxidative conditions suggests that the mutation affects a physiological contractile signal.
Discussion
In this study, we established that the ability of the soluble guanylyl cyclase (GC1) to transfer S‐nitrosothiol
(SNO) groups, i.e., promotes S‐nitrosation in other proteins, is involved in the vasorelaxation of small
resistance vessels. This is an important finding as it indicates that the transnitrosation activity of GC1
contributes to regulation of blood pressure, which is largely det ermined by the peripheral vascular
resistance. In the large conduit arteries, NO induces vasorelaxation by increasing cGMP production via
stimulation of GC1 in the smooth muscle (SM) cells. On the other hand, vasorelaxation of small resistance
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vessels is initiated by endothelium hyperpolarization, which in turn relaxes SM cells. While the identity of
endothelium–derived hyperpolarization factors and the exact mechanism(s) are still highly debated, S‐
nitrosation appears to be one of the contributing factors of endothelium‐dependent vasorelaxation(3, 29‐
31). Acetylcholine (ACh) the quintessential endothelium‐dependent vasodilator also activates endothe lial
NO synthases leading to NO production and subsequent activation of GC1 in the SMC. For this reason it
has been very difficult to distinguish the contribution of the endothelium vs. SM component of
vasorelaxation regulated by the NO/SNO vasodilation pathways. By introducing in mice a single mutation
of GC1 (C610 S) that affects its transnitrosation activity but leaves intact its “canonical” NO‐stimulated
cGMP forming activity, we were able to uncouple two keys NO signaling pathways that are involved in the
endothelial and SM components of vasorelaxation.
We have shown that the NO‐stimulated activity of GC1 is inhibited by S‐ni trosation under oxidative
stress. Many reports demonstrated that excess S‐nitrosation was associated with endothelial
dysfunction(13, 32). When we treated the WT and KI C610S mice with Ang II, our intent was to
determine whether the mutation, by potentially lowering the levels of S‐nitrosation in the KI, will be
protective fro
m extensive cardiovascular pathologies. The opposite took place as shown by exacerbated
cardiac pathologies and a higher rise in MAP in the KI under Ang II treatment. Remarkably, the NO‐cGMP
axis did not appear to be involved, because the mutation did not decrease NO‐stimulated cGMP activity
and be cause NO‐dependent vasorelaxation of SMC still occurred in the isolated MA and in vivo. In
contrast, the ACh‐dependent vasorelaxation in the resistance vessels was strongly and significantly
decreased and the alteration was maximal in the KI, even in the absence of AngII treatment. One
potential explanation was that the mu tation C610S, considering its overall effect on global S‐nitrosation
levels removes an attributed function of SNO, which is to protect the tissues from more deleterious thiol
oxidations, in particular in the cardiac tissues (15). This could be the explanation for the compromised
cardiac heath observed in the KI mice tr eated with AngII. Nonetheless, we observed the decreased ACh‐
dependent relaxation in the absence of oxidative/nitrosative stress suggesting that the mutation C610S
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impaired a cGMP‐independent physiological function of GC1, probably unrelated to a mechanism of
protection in oxidative pathologies. We did not observe an increased MAP in untreated KI mice and
inferred that this could be due to compensatory mechanism(s) from the multiple regulators of BP.
In summary, we propose that GC1‐dep endent transnitrosation is involved in the endothelium–
dependent vasorelaxation of resistance vessels and our next challenge is to identify and assess the
involvement of SNO targets, known to participate in endothelium‐dependent hyperpolarization
mechanism. We also currently investigate the role of RhoA in these phenotypes because it is a GC1/Trx1
transnitrosation cascade ta rget in vivo, and its S‐nitrosation leads to inhibition of its contractile
pathway(33). Likewise, we will assess whether C610 is the potential cys that was proposed to interact
with additional NO to maximally stimulate GC1, a somewhat controversial mechanism (34) (addition of
excess NO in the pressure myography an d in vivo experiments might have masked this mechanism).
Likewise, the impact on cardiac pathologies of the mutation C610S and the underlying mechanisms need
to be further explored (5).
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health, R01 GM 067640 and R01 GM112415
(A.B.); R01 HL157116 and R01HL133294 (L.H.X). American Heart Association, 19TPA34900003 (L.H.X.)
Career Development Award 932684 (M.L.); AHA Research Supplement to Promote Diversity in Science
23DIVSUP1054931 (P.B.).
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