Repellency and antifeedant effects of selected chitin synthesis inhibitor insecticides on the termite Microcerotermes diversus under laboratory conditions

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Laboratory free-choice and no-choice feeding tests were conducted using bait disks treated with varying concentrations (0.001, 0.002, 0.01) of each insecticide. Results showed that chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron exhibited significant repellent properties, reducing termite settlement on treated baits by 44.15–72.34% compared to controls. Conversely, cyromazine at low concentrations (0.001 and 0.002) increased bait attractiveness by 41.15% and 23.52%, respectively, though it became repellent at 0.01 concentration. Etoxazole demonstrated attractant properties at all tested concentrations, increasing termite settlement by up to 55.42%. Feeding tests confirmed that chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron negatively impacted feeding behavior, while cyromazine and etoxazole stimulated significant consumption at lower concentrations. These findings suggest that etoxazole and low concentrations of cyromazine may be promising candidates for termite bait formulations due to their non-repellent and potentially attractant properties. Termite baiting insect growth regulator wood pest molting disruption Introduction Toxic baits incorporating specifically formulated chemical compounds are increasingly recognized as a more effective and environmentally sustainable strategy for termite control across diverse ecological and structural settings (Su, 2019 ). This method leverages the social behavior of termites, particularly their trophallactic activity—where individuals regurgitate and exchange food with nestmates—to disseminate the active insecticidal ingredients throughout the colony. As a result, even reproductive individuals such as queens and kings, which are often hidden deep within the colony and difficult to target directly, ingest lethal doses of the toxin. This systemic transfer ultimately leads to the disruption of colony dynamics and, eventually, colony collapse (Verma et al., 2009 ). For such baiting systems to be successful, however, the insecticides employed must not exhibit repellent or antifeedant properties. If termites detect and avoid the toxicant, it prevents both consumption and horizontal transfer, thereby undermining the efficacy of the entire baiting strategy (Lee and Lee, 2025 ). Among the various termite species, Microcerotermes diversus Silvestri (Blattoidea: Termitidae) is considered one of the most economically damaging wood-destroying pests in the tropical regions of Iran. It is particularly prevalent and destructive in Khuzestan Province, where it poses a significant threat to both agricultural and structural wooden resources (Habibpour et al., 2010 ; Cheraghi, 2013). The worker caste of this species primarily feeds on different parts of palm trees, excavating narrow galleries within the wood of living trees or infesting household wooden structures and furniture. These galleries are often filled with fine granular frass, a characteristic sign of their feeding and nesting activity (Habibpour et al., 2010 ). Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors (CSIs) are a vital class of insecticides widely used in agriculture, public health, and urban pest management due to their high specificity and low mammalian toxicity. These compounds interfere with the biosynthesis of chitin, a structural polysaccharide essential for the formation of the insect’s exoskeleton and the peritrophic matrix in the midgut (Marx, 1977 ). By inhibiting the enzyme chitin synthase, CSIs disrupt the production of new cuticle during critical developmental stages such as molting and metamorphosis, leading to malformed exoskeletons, developmental abnormalities, or death during ecdysis (Leighton et al., 1981 ). Because these effects primarily target immature insect stages, CSIs act as insect growth regulators (IGRs), making them particularly effective in long-term pest population suppression while minimizing harm to non-target organisms. Their unique mode of action also makes them valuable tools for managing pesticide-resistant pest populations (Muzzarelli and Marks, 1986 ). This study aimed to evaluate the repellency and antifeedant properties of four CSIs—chlorfluazuron, diflubenzuron, cyromazine, and etoxazole—against M. diversus . The findings may contribute to the development of effective toxic baits for termite control. Materials and Methods The termite colony used in this study was obtained from a field laboratory affiliated with the Department of Plant Protection at Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan (31°35'56.565"N, 48°53'23.528"E), located in Bavi County, Khuzestan Province. The colony's homogeneity was confirmed through aggressive behavior assays following the method described by Clément ( 1986 ). Workers were gently gathered using a fine brush and transferred to the laboratory in closed containers that included pieces of date palm wood and soil from their original habitat to maintain environmental consistency. Prior to experimentation, the termites were allowed to acclimate for 24 hours under controlled conditions of total darkness, 27°C temperature, and 60% relative humidity, in order to minimize stress-related agitation. For bait preparation, date palm rachis was processed into fine particles (< 3 mm) and mixed with a clay-water binder in an 80:20 ratio (wood to clay). To improve the bait’s appeal to termites, 5% glucose and cellulose, along with 3% sodium bicarbonate, were added to the blend. The resulting mixture was shaped into circular disks approximately 4 cm in diameter and 0.4 cm thick, with each piece weighing between 2.5 and 4 grams. These baits were then dried in an oven at 45°C for 24 hours. A list of the insecticides incorporated into the bait formulations is provided in Table 1 . Table 1 Insecticides incorporated into the toxic baits used in the study on Microcerotermes diversus . Insecticide Commercial name Formulation Company Concentration (L/L) chlorfluazuron Atabron® 5% EC Ishihara Sangyo Kaisha, Ltd. 0.001, 0.002, 0.01 diflubenzuron - 25% WP Melli Shimi Keshavarz 0.001, 0.002, 0.01 cyromazine - 75% WP Shandong Harvest Chemical Co., Ltd. 0.001, 0.002, 0.01 etoxazole - 10% SC Shijiazhuang Luofeng Chemical Co., Ltd. 0.001, 0.002, 0.01 A volume of 3 mL of the determined concentration for each insecticide was added per 100 grams of bait ingredients to produce a toxic bait disk. For the control bait disks, no insecticide was used in the bait preparation. A bait disk containing the determined concentration of each insecticide and another bait disk without insecticide (as a control disk) were placed 10 cm apart in a rectangular plastic container (15 × 20 cm, 5 cm high). Since termite feeding activity is more effective in a soil environment, which also reduces aggressive behaviors, a 20% clay suspension was prepared and spread uniformly across the bottom of the containers to create a consistent soil layer. For each free choice test, 30 worker termites were released at an equal distance between the two bait disks. After 72 hours, the number of live termites present on each bait disk was recorded. Environmental conditions throughout these tests were maintained at 30°C, 70% relative humidity, and in complete darkness. In the feeding tests (non-choice tests), the aforementioned bait disks were weighed with a precision balance before being placed in the containers. After the designated period (72 hours), the live termites were counted, and the bait disks were re-weighed to measure consumption. All non-choice and free-choice tests were conducted using a completely randomized design with seven replications. Means were compared using Student's t-test with SPSS software (version 16). The normality of the data was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test. For data that were not normally distributed, a base-10 logarithmic transformation was applied. Results Table 2 presents the results of the free-choice tests for the different insecticides. The results of this study revealed that the insecticides chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron caused significant avoidance of toxic baits by M. diversus worker termites, reducing settlement on treated baits by 44.15% to 72.34% compared to the control. In contrast, cyromazine at low concentrations (0.001% and 0.002%) not only lacked repellent effects but also significantly increased the attractiveness of the bait, resulting in 41.15% and 23.52% greater settlement, respectively, compared to the control. However, at the highest concentration tested (0.01%), it exhibited repellent properties, reducing settlement by 30.98%. Table 2 Mean ± SE of settled termite in treated and control baits Treatment Concentration Treated bait Control t (df=6) P-value chlorfluazuron 0.001 10.75 ± 0.47 19.25 ± 0.47 -12.55 < 0.001 chlorfluazuron 0.002 9.00 ± 0.40 21.00 ± 0.40 -20.78 < 0.001 chlorfluazuron 0.01 6.5 ± 0.64 23.5 ± 0.64 -18.82 < 0.001 diflubenzuron 0.001 8.00 ± 0.40 21.75 ± 0.25 -28.72 < 0.001 diflubenzuron 0.002 5.75 ± 0.47 24.25 ± 0.47 -27.32 < 0.001 diflubenzuron 0.01 3.75 ± 0.85 26.25 ± 0.85 -18.63 < 0.001 cyromazine 0.001 19.25 ± 1.31 10.75 ± 1.31 4.57 0.004 cyromazine 0.002 17.00 ± 0.40 13.00 ± 0.40 6.92 < 0.001 cyromazine 0.01 12.25 ± 0.85 17.75 ± 0.85 -4.55 0.004 etoxazole 0.001 20.75 ± 0.85 9.25 ± 0.85 9.52 < 0.001 etoxazole 0.002 20.50 ± 0.86 9.50 ± 0.86 8.98 < 0.001 etoxazole 0.01 15.50 ± 1.32 14.5 ± 1.32 0.53 0.612 The insecticide etoxazole displayed a distinct behavior at all concentrations tested. It did not show repellent effects; rather, it significantly increased termite settlement (by 55.42%) on the treated baits, indicating its relative attractant properties for worker termites. The results of termite consumption of the insecticide-treated baits (no-choice test) are shown in Table 3 . The insecticides chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron generally had a negative impact on feeding behavior. The weight loss of disks treated with these insecticides showed no significant difference from the control disks. These results indicate a lack of termite preference for feeding on baits containing these compounds. Table 3 Mean ± SE of settled termite in treated and control baits Treatment Concentration Treated bait Control t (df=6) P-value Chlorfluazuron 0.001 0.53 ± 0.10 0.59 ± 0.02 -2.05 0.085 Chlorfluazuron 0.002 0.51 ± 0.01 0.59 ± 0.01 -4.42 0.004 Chlorfluazuron 0.01 0.52 ± 0.21 0.64 ± 0.14 -0.44 0.67 Diflubenzuron 0.001 0.58 ± 0.06 0.59 ± 0.01 -0.03 0.97 Diflubenzuron 0.002 0.62 ± 0.24 0.53 ± 0.14 0.31 0.761 Diflubenzuron 0.01 0.41 ± 0.22 0.78 ± 0.03 -1.62 0.155 Cyromazine 0.001 0.42 ± 0.005 0.21 ± 0.01 23.57 < 0.001 Cyromazine 0.002 0.40 ± 0.01 0.21 ± 0.01 15.01 < 0.001 Cyromazine 0.01 0.25 ± 0.01 0.27 ± 0.01 -1.34 0.228 Etoxazole 0.001 0.48 ± 0.01 0.20 ± 0.02 8.68 < 0.001 Etoxazole 0.002 0.44 ± 0.01 0.20 ± 0.01 21.17 < 0.001 Etoxazole 0.01 0.32 ± 0.02 0.27 ± 0.02 1.35 0.223 For cyromazine and etoxazole, a significant reduction in the weight of the treated disks was recorded at low concentrations (0.001% and 0.002%), with decreases of 47.50% and 58.33%, respectively, indicating active termite feeding. However, at the high concentration (0.01%), no significant difference from the control was observed. This is likely due to the feeding-deterrent effect of these higher concentrations on termite behavior. Discussion These findings suggest that the behavioral effects of insecticides on termites can depend on various factors, including the type of compound and its concentration. While some compounds, such as chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron, are repellent at all concentrations, others like cyromazine may exhibit different behaviors at lower concentrations. Etoxazole was identified as a compound with attractant properties, which could be useful in the design of toxic baits. Potentials of some CSIs to apply in toxic baits against subtranean termites were evaluated. The potential of certain CSIs for use in toxic baits against subterranean termites has been evaluated. For instance, in laboratory tests, lufenuron caused higher mortality in Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki compared to diflubenzuron and noviflumuron, with no feeding deterrence observed. Overall, lufenuron performed as well or better than the other CSIs in terms of bait consumption and effectiveness (Gautam and Henderson, 2014 ). A similar investigation was conducted on Reticulitermes flavipes Kollar, in which workers were exposed for 7 days to one of five CSIs—diflubenzuron, hexaflumuron, lufenuron, noviflumuron, or novaluron—formulated in commercially available bait matrices (Lewis and Forschler, 2017 ). Following repeated failures in field trials involving metabolic inhibitors, researchers reached a critical realization: for a bait toxicant to be truly effective against termites, it must not only act slowly and remain non-repellent—allowing uninterrupted feeding—but its time-to-lethality must also be independent of the dose consumed (Su et al., 1995 ). This insight shifted the paradigm in termite control strategy, emphasizing the need for a mechanism that decouples mortality timing from dosage (Su, 2025 ). This led to the laboratory identification of the CSIs as the highly promising candidates. CSIs disrupt the biochemical pathways essential for molting—the process by which insects shed and regenerate their exoskeletons. Crucially, once a termite ingests a lethal quantity of a CSI, death is not immediate; instead, it occurs precisely at the moment the insect attempts to molt. Because the timing of molting is physiologically determined and varies individually among termites—dictated by internal developmental cues rather than external toxin concentration—the interval between ingestion and death remains remarkably consistent, regardless of how much toxin was consumed. In essence, CSIs transform the termite’s own biological clock into the executioner, ensuring colony-wide mortality without triggering behavioral avoidance or resistance mechanisms (Su, 2025 ). A landmark field evaluation conducted by Su ( 1994 ) demonstrated that hexaflumuron-based baits could successfully eradicate entire field colonies of C. formosanus and R. flavipes . This breakthrough catalyzed widespread adoption and further validation: between 1994 and 2003, 34 independent field studies using hexaflumuron baits reported the elimination of at least 158 out of 165 targeted colonies or populations — a remarkable 96% success rate. These trials spanned 13 termite species across 15 U.S. states and extended internationally to Australia, Japan, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the Cayman Islands, and Malaysia, underscoring hexaflumuron’s broad-spectrum efficacy and global applicability (Su, 2023 ). In contrast, another CSI, diflubenzuron — formulated into commercial bait products such as Labyrinth and Advance — presented significant limitations. Early laboratory investigations revealed that even at very low concentrations (as little as 2 ppm), diflubenzuron acted as a feeding deterrent to C. formosanus , suppressing consumption before a lethal dose could be ingested. In fact, concentrations exceeding 1,000 ppm were required to induce substantial mortality — a level practically unattainable under field conditions. For R. flavipes , the feeding deterrent threshold (31.3 ppm) was higher than its lethal threshold (7.8 ppm), suggesting that, in theory, diflubenzuron might still be effective against this species. However, this theoretical advantage failed to translate into real-world results. A pivotal field study by Osbrink et al. ( 2011 ) in New Orleans found no measurable impact of diflubenzuron baits on populations of either C. formosanus or R. flavipes , concluding that the product “…did not have any observable effect…” on these termite species under actual infestation conditions. This stark contrast highlights a crucial principle in termite bait design: efficacy depends not only on biochemical lethality, but also on behavioral compatibility — specifically, the absence of feeding deterrence and the alignment of toxic action with the insect’s natural physiology. Hexaflumuron succeeded because it met both criteria; diflubenzuron, despite its mode of action, failed due to its repellency and mismatched dose-response dynamics. One of the most perplexing observations during the final phases of termite colony collapse induced by the CSI baits in field settings was the conspicuous absence of visibly affected individuals — particularly workers exhibiting the characteristic “jackknife” posture — at bait stations or foraging areas. Given that CSIs cause death specifically during ecdysis (molting), and that affected termites often display this distinctive curled, rigid posture as a result of failed molting, their absence from feeding sites was both unexpected and scientifically intriguing. The puzzling absence of CSI-affected, jackknife-pose termites at bait stations led researchers to hypothesize that termites molt not in foraging areas, but in a protected central zone of the colony — likely near the royal chamber. To test this, Kakkar et al. ( 2016 ) developed a method to identify recently molted workers (0–36 hours post-ecdysis) by examining mouthpart sclerotization. Analysis of preserved specimens (Su et al., 2017 ) confirmed that pre-molt, molting, and post-molt workers were consistently found near the queen, king, eggs, and brood — indicating a deliberate return to the nest core for molting. This behavior likely evolved to safeguard vulnerable molting individuals and protect the brood. Crucially, it also explains why CSI-induced deaths go unseen: termites consume bait in the field, distribute it via trophallaxis, and die *inside the nest* during molting — rendering colony collapse “invisible” to observers at bait sites. This hidden mortality is key to the delayed, yet highly effective, action of CSI baits (Su, 2025 ). Conclusion This study demonstrates significant variability in the behavioral responses of M. diversus workers to different CSIs insecticides incorporated into baits. Chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron exhibited strong repellent and antifeedant effects across all tested concentrations, rendering them unsuitable for effective toxic baiting against this species. In contrast, etoxazole consistently showed attractant properties, significantly increasing termite settlement on treated baits. Cyromazine displayed concentration-dependent effects, acting as an attractant at low concentrations (0.001 and 0.002) but becoming repellent at the highest concentration (0.01). Feeding tests confirmed that etoxazole and low-dose cyromazine stimulated significant consumption, a critical factor for bait success. These findings align with the fundamental principle that effective CSI baits must be non-repellent and allow uninterrupted feeding to ensure sufficient toxin ingestion and subsequent horizontal transfer via trophallaxis. The unique mode of action of CSIs, causing mortality during molting within the protected nest environment, further underscores the importance of behavioral acceptance for achieving colony-wide elimination. Etoxazole and low-concentration cyromazine emerge as promising candidates for developing effective toxic baits against M. diversus, offering potential for improved, environmentally sustainable termite control in affected regions like Khuzestan Province. Future research should validate these laboratory findings under field conditions. Declarations Funding: This study was funded by NISOC and Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan. Acknowledgement This research was supported by the National Iranian South Oilfields Company (NISOC), for which we express our deepest gratitude. Competing of interests : The authors (Fatemeh Yarahmadi and Ali Rajabpour) are associate editor of Journal of Plant Disease and Protection.. 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J Econ Entomol 118(3):1008–1013 Su NY, Osbrink W, Kakkar G, Mullins A, Chouvenc T (2017) Foraging distance and population size of juvenile colonies of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in laboratory extended arenas. J Econ Entomol 110(4):1728–1735 Su NY, Scheffrahn RH, Ban PM (1995) Effects of sulfluramid-treated bait blocks on field colonies of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J Econ Entomol 88(5):1343–1348 Verma M, Sharma S, Prasad R (2009) Biological alternatives for termite control: A review. Inter J Biodet Biodegr 63(8):959–972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2009.05.009 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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12:45:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":492151,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8067698/v1/fa6d26a4-48af-4f57-97bd-623b76babe3e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Repellency and antifeedant effects of selected chitin synthesis inhibitor insecticides on the termite Microcerotermes diversus under laboratory conditions","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eToxic baits incorporating specifically formulated chemical compounds are increasingly recognized as a more effective and environmentally sustainable strategy for termite control across diverse ecological and structural settings (Su, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This method leverages the social behavior of termites, particularly their trophallactic activity\u0026mdash;where individuals regurgitate and exchange food with nestmates\u0026mdash;to disseminate the active insecticidal ingredients throughout the colony. As a result, even reproductive individuals such as queens and kings, which are often hidden deep within the colony and difficult to target directly, ingest lethal doses of the toxin. This systemic transfer ultimately leads to the disruption of colony dynamics and, eventually, colony collapse (Verma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). For such baiting systems to be successful, however, the insecticides employed must not exhibit repellent or antifeedant properties. If termites detect and avoid the toxicant, it prevents both consumption and horizontal transfer, thereby undermining the efficacy of the entire baiting strategy (Lee and Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong the various termite species, \u003cem\u003eMicrocerotermes diversus\u003c/em\u003e Silvestri (Blattoidea: Termitidae) is considered one of the most economically damaging wood-destroying pests in the tropical regions of Iran. It is particularly prevalent and destructive in Khuzestan Province, where it poses a significant threat to both agricultural and structural wooden resources (Habibpour et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Cheraghi, 2013). The worker caste of this species primarily feeds on different parts of palm trees, excavating narrow galleries within the wood of living trees or infesting household wooden structures and furniture. These galleries are often filled with fine granular frass, a characteristic sign of their feeding and nesting activity (Habibpour et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChitin Synthesis Inhibitors (CSIs) are a vital class of insecticides widely used in agriculture, public health, and urban pest management due to their high specificity and low mammalian toxicity. These compounds interfere with the biosynthesis of chitin, a structural polysaccharide essential for the formation of the insect\u0026rsquo;s exoskeleton and the peritrophic matrix in the midgut (Marx, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e). By inhibiting the enzyme chitin synthase, CSIs disrupt the production of new cuticle during critical developmental stages such as molting and metamorphosis, leading to malformed exoskeletons, developmental abnormalities, or death during ecdysis (Leighton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e). Because these effects primarily target immature insect stages, CSIs act as insect growth regulators (IGRs), making them particularly effective in long-term pest population suppression while minimizing harm to non-target organisms. Their unique mode of action also makes them valuable tools for managing pesticide-resistant pest populations (Muzzarelli and Marks, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to evaluate the repellency and antifeedant properties of four CSIs\u0026mdash;chlorfluazuron, diflubenzuron, cyromazine, and etoxazole\u0026mdash;against \u003cem\u003eM. diversus\u003c/em\u003e. The findings may contribute to the development of effective toxic baits for termite control.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe termite colony used in this study was obtained from a field laboratory affiliated with the Department of Plant Protection at Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan (31\u0026deg;35'56.565\"N, 48\u0026deg;53'23.528\"E), located in Bavi County, Khuzestan Province. The colony's homogeneity was confirmed through aggressive behavior assays following the method described by Cl\u0026eacute;ment (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). Workers were gently gathered using a fine brush and transferred to the laboratory in closed containers that included pieces of date palm wood and soil from their original habitat to maintain environmental consistency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrior to experimentation, the termites were allowed to acclimate for 24 hours under controlled conditions of total darkness, 27\u0026deg;C temperature, and 60% relative humidity, in order to minimize stress-related agitation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor bait preparation, date palm rachis was processed into fine particles (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3 mm) and mixed with a clay-water binder in an 80:20 ratio (wood to clay). To improve the bait\u0026rsquo;s appeal to termites, 5% glucose and cellulose, along with 3% sodium bicarbonate, were added to the blend. The resulting mixture was shaped into circular disks approximately 4 cm in diameter and 0.4 cm thick, with each piece weighing between 2.5 and 4 grams. These baits were then dried in an oven at 45\u0026deg;C for 24 hours. A list of the insecticides incorporated into the bait formulations is provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInsecticides incorporated into the toxic baits used in the study on \u003cem\u003eMicrocerotermes diversus\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInsecticide\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommercial name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormulation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompany\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcentration (L/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003echlorfluazuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAtabron\u0026reg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5% EC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIshihara Sangyo Kaisha, Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001, 0.002, 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ediflubenzuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25% WP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMelli Shimi Keshavarz\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001, 0.002, 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecyromazine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75% WP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShandong Harvest Chemical Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001, 0.002, 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eetoxazole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10% SC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShijiazhuang Luofeng Chemical Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001, 0.002, 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA volume of 3 mL of the determined concentration for each insecticide was added per 100 grams of bait ingredients to produce a toxic bait disk. For the control bait disks, no insecticide was used in the bait preparation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA bait disk containing the determined concentration of each insecticide and another bait disk without insecticide (as a control disk) were placed 10 cm apart in a rectangular plastic container (15 \u0026times; 20 cm, 5 cm high). Since termite feeding activity is more effective in a soil environment, which also reduces aggressive behaviors, a 20% clay suspension was prepared and spread uniformly across the bottom of the containers to create a consistent soil layer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor each free choice test, 30 worker termites were released at an equal distance between the two bait disks. After 72 hours, the number of live termites present on each bait disk was recorded. Environmental conditions throughout these tests were maintained at 30\u0026deg;C, 70% relative humidity, and in complete darkness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the feeding tests (non-choice tests), the aforementioned bait disks were weighed with a precision balance before being placed in the containers. After the designated period (72 hours), the live termites were counted, and the bait disks were re-weighed to measure consumption.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll non-choice and free-choice tests were conducted using a completely randomized design with seven replications. Means were compared using Student's t-test with SPSS software (version 16). The normality of the data was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test. For data that were not normally distributed, a base-10 logarithmic transformation was applied.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the results of the free-choice tests for the different insecticides. The results of this study revealed that the insecticides chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron caused significant avoidance of toxic baits by \u003cem\u003eM. diversus\u003c/em\u003e worker termites, reducing settlement on treated baits by 44.15% to 72.34% compared to the control. In contrast, cyromazine at low concentrations (0.001% and 0.002%) not only lacked repellent effects but also significantly increased the attractiveness of the bait, resulting in 41.15% and 23.52% greater settlement, respectively, compared to the control. However, at the highest concentration tested (0.01%), it exhibited repellent properties, reducing settlement by 30.98%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE of settled termite in treated and control baits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcentration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreated bait\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et \u003csub\u003e(df=6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-18.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ediflubenzuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-28.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ediflubenzuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-27.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ediflubenzuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-18.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecyromazine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecyromazine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecyromazine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eetoxazole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eetoxazole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eetoxazole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.612\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe insecticide etoxazole displayed a distinct behavior at all concentrations tested. It did not show repellent effects; rather, it significantly increased termite settlement (by 55.42%) on the treated baits, indicating its relative attractant properties for worker termites.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of termite consumption of the insecticide-treated baits (no-choice test) are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The insecticides chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron generally had a negative impact on feeding behavior. The weight loss of disks treated with these insecticides showed no significant difference from the control disks. These results indicate a lack of termite preference for feeding on baits containing these compounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE of settled termite in treated and control baits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcentration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreated bait\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et \u003csub\u003e(df=6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChlorfluazuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.085\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChlorfluazuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChlorfluazuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiflubenzuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiflubenzuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.761\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiflubenzuron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.155\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCyromazine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCyromazine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCyromazine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEtoxazole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEtoxazole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEtoxazole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.223\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor cyromazine and etoxazole, a significant reduction in the weight of the treated disks was recorded at low concentrations (0.001% and 0.002%), with decreases of 47.50% and 58.33%, respectively, indicating active termite feeding. However, at the high concentration (0.01%), no significant difference from the control was observed. This is likely due to the feeding-deterrent effect of these higher concentrations on termite behavior.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThese findings suggest that the behavioral effects of insecticides on termites can depend on various factors, including the type of compound and its concentration. While some compounds, such as chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron, are repellent at all concentrations, others like cyromazine may exhibit different behaviors at lower concentrations. Etoxazole was identified as a compound with attractant properties, which could be useful in the design of toxic baits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotentials of some CSIs to apply in toxic baits against subtranean termites were evaluated. The potential of certain CSIs for use in toxic baits against subterranean termites has been evaluated. For instance, in laboratory tests, lufenuron caused higher mortality in \u003cem\u003eCoptotermes formosanus\u003c/em\u003e Shiraki compared to diflubenzuron and noviflumuron, with no feeding deterrence observed. Overall, lufenuron performed as well or better than the other CSIs in terms of bait consumption and effectiveness (Gautam and Henderson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). A similar investigation was conducted on \u003cem\u003eReticulitermes flavipes\u003c/em\u003e Kollar, in which workers were exposed for 7 days to one of five CSIs\u0026mdash;diflubenzuron, hexaflumuron, lufenuron, noviflumuron, or novaluron\u0026mdash;formulated in commercially available bait matrices (Lewis and Forschler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing repeated failures in field trials involving metabolic inhibitors, researchers reached a critical realization: for a bait toxicant to be truly effective against termites, it must not only act slowly and remain non-repellent\u0026mdash;allowing uninterrupted feeding\u0026mdash;but its time-to-lethality must also be independent of the dose consumed (Su et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). This insight shifted the paradigm in termite control strategy, emphasizing the need for a mechanism that decouples mortality timing from dosage (Su, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). This led to the laboratory identification of the CSIs as the highly promising candidates. CSIs disrupt the biochemical pathways essential for molting\u0026mdash;the process by which insects shed and regenerate their exoskeletons. Crucially, once a termite ingests a lethal quantity of a CSI, death is not immediate; instead, it occurs precisely at the moment the insect attempts to molt. Because the timing of molting is physiologically determined and varies individually among termites\u0026mdash;dictated by internal developmental cues rather than external toxin concentration\u0026mdash;the interval between ingestion and death remains remarkably consistent, regardless of how much toxin was consumed. In essence, CSIs transform the termite\u0026rsquo;s own biological clock into the executioner, ensuring colony-wide mortality without triggering behavioral avoidance or resistance mechanisms (Su, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA landmark field evaluation conducted by Su (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that hexaflumuron-based baits could successfully eradicate entire field colonies of \u003cem\u003eC. formosanus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eR. flavipes\u003c/em\u003e. This breakthrough catalyzed widespread adoption and further validation: between 1994 and 2003, 34 independent field studies using hexaflumuron baits reported the elimination of at least 158 out of 165 targeted colonies or populations \u0026mdash; a remarkable 96% success rate. These trials spanned 13 termite species across 15 U.S. states and extended internationally to Australia, Japan, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the Cayman Islands, and Malaysia, underscoring hexaflumuron\u0026rsquo;s broad-spectrum efficacy and global applicability (Su, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, another CSI, diflubenzuron \u0026mdash; formulated into commercial bait products such as Labyrinth and Advance \u0026mdash; presented significant limitations. Early laboratory investigations revealed that even at very low concentrations (as little as 2 ppm), diflubenzuron acted as a feeding deterrent to C. \u003cem\u003eformosanus\u003c/em\u003e, suppressing consumption before a lethal dose could be ingested. In fact, concentrations exceeding 1,000 ppm were required to induce substantial mortality \u0026mdash; a level practically unattainable under field conditions. For \u003cem\u003eR. flavipes\u003c/em\u003e, the feeding deterrent threshold (31.3 ppm) was higher than its lethal threshold (7.8 ppm), suggesting that, in theory, diflubenzuron might still be effective against this species. However, this theoretical advantage failed to translate into real-world results. A pivotal field study by Osbrink et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) in New Orleans found no measurable impact of diflubenzuron baits on populations of either \u003cem\u003eC. formosanus\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eR. flavipes\u003c/em\u003e, concluding that the product \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;did not have any observable effect\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo; on these termite species under actual infestation conditions. This stark contrast highlights a crucial principle in termite bait design: efficacy depends not only on biochemical lethality, but also on behavioral compatibility \u0026mdash; specifically, the absence of feeding deterrence and the alignment of toxic action with the insect\u0026rsquo;s natural physiology. Hexaflumuron succeeded because it met both criteria; diflubenzuron, despite its mode of action, failed due to its repellency and mismatched dose-response dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne of the most perplexing observations during the final phases of termite colony collapse induced by the CSI baits in field settings was the conspicuous absence of visibly affected individuals \u0026mdash; particularly workers exhibiting the characteristic \u0026ldquo;jackknife\u0026rdquo; posture \u0026mdash; at bait stations or foraging areas. Given that CSIs cause death specifically during ecdysis (molting), and that affected termites often display this distinctive curled, rigid posture as a result of failed molting, their absence from feeding sites was both unexpected and scientifically intriguing. The puzzling absence of CSI-affected, jackknife-pose termites at bait stations led researchers to hypothesize that termites molt not in foraging areas, but in a protected central zone of the colony \u0026mdash; likely near the royal chamber. To test this, Kakkar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) developed a method to identify recently molted workers (0\u0026ndash;36 hours post-ecdysis) by examining mouthpart sclerotization. Analysis of preserved specimens (Su et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) confirmed that pre-molt, molting, and post-molt workers were consistently found near the queen, king, eggs, and brood \u0026mdash; indicating a deliberate return to the nest core for molting. This behavior likely evolved to safeguard vulnerable molting individuals and protect the brood. Crucially, it also explains why CSI-induced deaths go unseen: termites consume bait in the field, distribute it via trophallaxis, and die *inside the nest* during molting \u0026mdash; rendering colony collapse \u0026ldquo;invisible\u0026rdquo; to observers at bait sites. This hidden mortality is key to the delayed, yet highly effective, action of CSI baits (Su, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates significant variability in the behavioral responses of \u003cem\u003eM. diversus\u003c/em\u003e workers to different CSIs insecticides incorporated into baits. Chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron exhibited strong repellent and antifeedant effects across all tested concentrations, rendering them unsuitable for effective toxic baiting against this species. In contrast, etoxazole consistently showed attractant properties, significantly increasing termite settlement on treated baits. Cyromazine displayed concentration-dependent effects, acting as an attractant at low concentrations (0.001 and 0.002) but becoming repellent at the highest concentration (0.01). Feeding tests confirmed that etoxazole and low-dose cyromazine stimulated significant consumption, a critical factor for bait success. These findings align with the fundamental principle that effective CSI baits must be non-repellent and allow uninterrupted feeding to ensure sufficient toxin ingestion and subsequent horizontal transfer via trophallaxis. The unique mode of action of CSIs, causing mortality during molting within the protected nest environment, further underscores the importance of behavioral acceptance for achieving colony-wide elimination. Etoxazole and low-concentration cyromazine emerge as promising candidates for developing effective toxic baits against M. diversus, offering potential for improved, environmentally sustainable termite control in affected regions like Khuzestan Province. Future research should validate these laboratory findings under field conditions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was funded by NISOC and Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by the National Iranian South Oilfields Company (NISOC), for which we express our deepest gratitude.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCompeting of interests\u003c/b\u003e: The authors (Fatemeh Yarahmadi and Ali Rajabpour) are associate editor of Journal of Plant Disease and Protection..\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCheraghi A, Habibpour B, Mossadegh MS (2013) Application of bait treated with the entomopathogenic fungus \u003cem\u003eMetarhizium anisopliae\u003c/em\u003e (Metsch.) Sorokin for the control of \u003cem\u003eMicrocerotermes diversus\u003c/em\u003e Silv. Psyche: 865102. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1155/2013/865102\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1155/2013/865102\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCl\u0026eacute;ment JL (1986) Open and closed societies in \u003cem\u003eReticulitermes\u003c/em\u003e termites (Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae): geographic and seasonal variations. Sociobiol 11(3):311\u0026ndash;323\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGautam BK, Henderson G (2014) Comparative evaluation of three chitin synthesis inhibitor termite baits using multiple bioassay designs. 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J Econ Entomol 87(2):389\u0026ndash;397\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSu NY (2019) Development of baits for population management of subterranean termites. Ann Rev Entomol 64(1):115\u0026ndash;130. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-011118-112429\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1146/annurev-ento-011118-112429\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSu NY (2025) An overview of the development of termite baits in the past 3 decades. J Econ Entomol 118(3):1008\u0026ndash;1013\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSu NY, Osbrink W, Kakkar G, Mullins A, Chouvenc T (2017) Foraging distance and population size of juvenile colonies of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in laboratory extended arenas. J Econ Entomol 110(4):1728\u0026ndash;1735\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSu NY, Scheffrahn RH, Ban PM (1995) Effects of sulfluramid-treated bait blocks on field colonies of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J Econ Entomol 88(5):1343\u0026ndash;1348\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVerma M, Sharma S, Prasad R (2009) Biological alternatives for termite control: A review. Inter J Biodet Biodegr 63(8):959\u0026ndash;972. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2009.05.009\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.ibiod.2009.05.009\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Termite baiting, insect growth regulator, wood pest, molting disruption","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8067698/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8067698/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated the repellency and antifeedant effects of four chitin synthesis inhibitor (CSI) insecticides\u0026mdash;chlorfluazuron, diflubenzuron, cyromazine, and etoxazole\u0026mdash;against \u003cem\u003eMicrocerotermes diversus\u003c/em\u003e, a destructive termite species in tropical Iran. Laboratory free-choice and no-choice feeding tests were conducted using bait disks treated with varying concentrations (0.001, 0.002, 0.01) of each insecticide. Results showed that chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron exhibited significant repellent properties, reducing termite settlement on treated baits by 44.15\u0026ndash;72.34% compared to controls. Conversely, cyromazine at low concentrations (0.001 and 0.002) increased bait attractiveness by 41.15% and 23.52%, respectively, though it became repellent at 0.01 concentration. Etoxazole demonstrated attractant properties at all tested concentrations, increasing termite settlement by up to 55.42%. Feeding tests confirmed that chlorfluazuron and diflubenzuron negatively impacted feeding behavior, while cyromazine and etoxazole stimulated significant consumption at lower concentrations. These findings suggest that etoxazole and low concentrations of cyromazine may be promising candidates for termite bait formulations due to their non-repellent and potentially attractant properties.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Repellency and antifeedant effects of selected chitin synthesis inhibitor insecticides on the termite Microcerotermes diversus under laboratory conditions","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-24 07:50:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8067698/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"31b48015-efd3-4c7c-bc69-74a7dde72d00","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 24th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-28T20:42:25+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-24 07:50:34","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8067698","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8067698","identity":"rs-8067698","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}