Surviving in a changing world: A systematic review of research trends and threats to the mysterious rusty-spotted cat

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Despite its Near Threatened status on the IUCN Red List, research on this elusive species remains fragmented, focusing mainly on species distribution through incidental camera-trap data. With the development of tailored, evidence-based conservation strategies requiring sufficient knowledge of the species' biology and threats, we aim to summarize critical knowledge gaps and provide recommendations for filling them. We systematically reviewed the existing literature to assess the state of research on the species, identify key research trends, and highlight areas requiring urgent attention. Additionally, we mapped 121 occurrence records and delved into 15 conservation projects to understand current monitoring and conservation efforts throughout its range. Our findings from 52 studies indicate that most studies focus on habitat preferences and distribution, with limited research on biology, genetics, disease, and threats to the species. Major threats identified include habitat loss, fragmentation, road mortality, and potential disease risks. Occurrence records are heterogeneous in terms of the methods employed but do identify potential species range expansions in India. Most conservation projects stem from India, however, efforts in Nepal and Sri Lanka have increased in recent years, reinforcing the growing conservation importance of this species. The review underscores the need for standardized monitoring protocols, long-term targeted research, and collaborative conservation efforts across the species’ range. By addressing these gaps, we envisage the development of more robust research and conservation strategies for the rusty-spotted cat in the future. Wildlife Biology Conservation strategies Felid Literature review Occurrence records South Asia Threat assessment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Introduction Species under growing pressure due to anthropogenic-induced local and global threats are increasingly in need of tailored conservation strategies that aim to counter and alleviate their threat-induced impacts. However, for these strategies to be accurate, and thus effective, the availability of biological knowledge on these species and the threats they face is necessary (Williams et al. 2020 ). Gathering and summarizing this knowledge following a systematic approach can provide the basis for evidence-based strategies and how best to fill key knowledge gaps for more accurate evaluation of their conservation status (McIntosh et al. 2018 ). The rusty-spotted cat, Prionailurus rubiginosus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831), is the world’s smallest wild felid and is endemic to India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal (Langle 2019 ). The species was initially listed as Vulnerable in the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List up until 2008, but was downgraded in 2014 to Near-Threatened due to evidence of new occurrence records from different geographic regions (Khan & Mukherjee 2008, Mukherjee et al. 2016 ). The species is protected in India under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972), and is listed as ‘Endangered’ in the National Red List of Sri Lanka, whereas, due to a lack of detailed information regarding its population and potential threats, the national status remains classified as ‘Data Deficient’ in Nepal (Mukherjee et al. 2016 , Amin et al. 2018 ). These classifications are based on limited data, likely as a result of its secretive nature and small size, which inhibit research on their biology and ecology. Due to the spike in interest in the species in recent years, our understanding of its range, population abundance, and threats has started to paint more light on the status of the species. With new information, the species distribution is more widespread than originally thought (Mukherjee & Koparde 2014 , Sharma & Dhakad 2020 ) as it was previously restricted to India and Sri Lanka, but now includes Nepal (Lamichhane et al. 2016 ). The distribution of the rusty-spotted cat suggests that it has wide habitat requirements ranging from grassland to tropical forest and low scrubland to mountain tops (Langle 2019 ). It is found to inhabit moist and dry deciduous forests, tropical thorn forests, scrub forests, grasslands, arid shrublands, rocky areas, and hill slopes (Sunquist & Sunquist 2002 ). Additionally, it has been frequently reported to be found in teak, bamboo, grassy, and dry thorny vegetation (POCOCK 1941 , Pathak 1990 , Worah 1990 ) and also amid agricultural regions and human settlements (Nowell & Jackson 1996 , Mukherjee 1998 , Kettle & Watson 2004). It is suggested that populations are declining due to habitat loss and fragmentation of their natural habitats (Mukherjee & Koparde 2014 , Sharma & Dhakad 2020 ). Moreover, deforestation, the spread of cultivation and grazing lands, land conversion, and road-kills are considered the major threats in India and Sri Lanka (Vimalrai et al. 2019, Sanath Kumar et al. 2021). In Nepal, they have only been recorded in protected areas, and hence the threats are largely unknown (Lamichhane et al. 2016 ), but likely similar to those of India. Rusty-spotted cats are known to be hunted for the fur trade, as a result of being livestock pests, and occasionally for consumption (Van Gruisen & Inclair 1992). Due to this, the species is included in CITES Appendix I in India and Appendix II in Sri Lanka and Nepal, with hunting and trade banned in these countries (Mukherjee et al. 2016 ). Despite these new insights, the current level of information on rusty-spotted cats is not only limited but also incidental, which makes it difficult to predict the population size of this species with certainty. Despite its improving IUCN status (Khan & Mukherjee 2008, Mukherjee et al. 2016 ), there remains limited information regarding its ecological characteristics and local population abundance (Nowell & Jackson 1996 ). Likewise, the species-focused conservation management plans are yet to be prepared in its range countries. To reach this point, there is a need to evaluate the availability, nature, and focus of previous studies on the rusty-spotted cat to identify research gaps and trends and better inform future research for conservation. Hence, this systematic literature review aimed to describe current research trends, identify major thematic research fields, and reveal key research gaps that require urgent attention. With recent range expansions noted for the species and sightings often incidental, this study also aims to map and summarize published occurrence records in order to identify regions of interest for monitoring. Finally, the systematic review and mapping outcomes are used to shape our suggestions on future research priorities and conservation actions in order to better protect the species. Methods Literature search and search strategies We conducted a systematic review of the literature following the methods from Pickering and Byrne ( 2014 ) and Collaboration for Environmental Evidence (2018). All data were searched for and extracted until December 2022. The data were separated into three different types, (i) scientific articles, (ii) occurrence records, and (iii) conservation projects (see Supplementary File S1 for the PRISMA diagram). For scientific articles, we searched for peer-reviewed articles published in the English language using four literature databases: Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, and Research Gate. Literature was searched using the following both Boolean operators [Rusty-spotted cat] OR [ Prionailurus rubiginosus ] AND [country name] ("Nepal”, “Sri Lanka", and "India”) within the entire article (all text) with no start date restrictions. Moreover, occurrence records through sightings data (material observations, human observations, camera traps, photographs, road kills) on the rusty-spotted cat from its range countries were extracted through the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) website ( https://www.gbif.org/ ) and author XX’s personal database. Finally, we extracted the data on conservation projects on rusty-spotted cats from The Rufford Foundation ( https://www.rufford.org/ ), The Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund ( https://www.speciesconservation.org/ ), and the Rusty-spotted Cat Working Group ( https://rustyspottedcatwg.org/ ). These were used to identify conservation priorities. We found a total of 15 conservation projects (fiver each per organization), 121 sightings records, and 72 articles (66 in Google Scholar and 6 in Web of Science). Searches in Research Gate and Scopus did not yield any relevant studies that were not already found in Google Scholar and Web of Science and were therefore not considered further. Screening and Eligibility Criteria A total of 72 articles were screened at both title and abstract and then full-texts by a single author to avoid reviewer-based inconsistencies. Articles were included in the review when they met the following eligibility criteria: (a) either titles and abstracts of articles indicated that the primary focus of the paper was the rusty-spotted cat, or articles that did not have a rusty-spotted cat as a primary focus of the study but the content of the articles included the species, (b) articles were in English, and (c) were peer-reviewed. We focused on peer-reviewed articles that were published in academic journals because they provided the highest level of quality control and scientific credibility (Fox & Diezmann 2007 ) and helped ensure uniformity in research standards and methodological details, including consistency in sampling and analytical methods (Ballantyne & Pickering 2015 ). Articles that contained abstracts only due to accessibility restrictions (n = 3), but with sufficient reviewable information, was also included in this process. After screening at the title and abstract level, a total of 58 articles met the above criteria. After full-text reading and duplicate removal, we found 52 relevant articles across the two databases; 46 articles were found only in Google Scholar, and 6 articles were found only in Web of Science. These 52 articles made up the basis for our corpus which we coded and analyzed (Supplementary File S2). All 121 sightings records and 15 conservation records were kept since no eligibility criteria were needed for these (Appendix S2). Data coding and analysis Data coding on scientific literature We coded a total of 13 variables for scientific literature, focusing on article metadata, classification of study area and species, and study thematic area (Table 1 ). For the study thematic area, we adopted some of the coding of thematic areas from Karki et al ( 2021 ). We categorized the thematic areas into eight broad categories: Biology; Habitat and Distribution; Genetics; Threats; Human Dimensions of Conservation; Disease; Taxonomy and Phylogeny; and Capture and Handling (Table 2 ). Moreover, the name of the journal and the citations received until December 2022 for each article were noted using Google Scholar. Data analysis We constructed the data coding spreadsheet using Microsoft Excel (Professional Plus Version 2013) and all the information on the above-mentioned variables was entered. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as graphs to interpret and present the coded results. To evaluate the trends in publications we applied Kendell’s tau b coefficient and linear regression using R studio software v 1.2.5042 (R core team 2018). To provide an overview of relevant terms used in the title and abstracts of the 52 publications and how they link with one another, we used to text-mine with VOSviewer v1.6.20 (van Eck & Waltman 2010 ), which constructs co-occurrence networks of relevant terms. We extracted all terms that were used in more than one publication (binary counting), and instead of filtering through the relevance score, we used a manually curated thesaurus file of the most relevant terms based upon an initial network (Supplementary file S3). This allowed us to combine multiple terms used for the rusty-spotted cat and decide which terms were irrelevant to the co-occurrence network. The analysis was also run for bibliographic data looking at authorship and their connections. To provide an account of current known occurrence records of the rusty-spotted cat across its range, we used QGIS version 3.36.2 to map camera trap, photographs, material citations (a reference to or citation of one, a part of, or multiple specimens in scholarly publications), human observations, roadkill, and locations of known sanctuary’s housing the species. These data and categories were extracted from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and merged with XX’s personal database, while the species range was taken from the IUCN’s Red-List of Threatened Species (2014). To provide an overview of conservation projects we extracted information date of project start, and location for descriptive statistics. Table 1 Basis of analysis (the table shows the variables or factors that were used to analyze the research trend of the rusty-spotted cat from 1956–2022) S.N. Variables/Subjects Category of Analysis 1. Year of Publication Each publication from 1956 to 2022 AD 2. Study area Classification Range and Non- range country of Rusty-spotted cat 3. Thematic Focus Biology, Habitat and distribution, Genetics, Threats, Human dimensions of conservation, Disease, Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Capture and handling (see Table 2 ) 4. Species Focus Research carried out in wild or captivity 5. Land Tenure Research carried out inside protected area or outside protected area 6. Study methods Non- invasive, Invasive, Both 7. Study Type Empirical study, Secondary analysis, Both 8. Research Approach Camera trapping, Camera trapping and transect walk, Diagnosis and treatment, Habitat modelling, Laboratory analysis, Secondary data and camera trapping 9. Study duration 1–6 month, 7–12 month, 1–2 year, 2–3 year, more than 3 years 10. Addressed Threats Habitat loss and fragmentation, Lack of awareness, Lack of phylogenetic analysis, Road kills, Human interventions, Forest fire, Climate change, Disease and pathogens 11. Lead Author Assumed Gender (Male or Female) 12. Primary affiliation of lead author Universities/Colleges, Research institutes, Governmental organizations, Non-governmental organizations, Zoological park 13. Funding sources National funding, International funding, both, Self-funding Table 2 Description of thematic areas covered in this study. Themes Description Biology Studies on biological aspects including morphology, anatomy, physiology, general behavior, reproduction, metabolism, and also includes diet and food dynamics & ethology Habitat and distribution Habitat and distribution patterns, habitat suitability, habitat selection, population status, and trends Genetics Studies relating to genetic variability, genetic diversity, and genetic trends Threats Factors affecting rusty-spotted cat survival, including, road kills, habitat loss and fragmentation, and poaching Human dimensions of conservation Human interventions on conservation, different stakeholders carrying conservation initiatives, conservation projects Disease Pathology, pathogens, parasites, causes, and treatments Taxonomy and Phylogeny Classification, nomenclature, evolution, and phylogeny Capture and handling Capture and handling, translocation, and chemical immobilization Results Publishing metadata (journals, authors, affiliations, and funding) In terms of journal representation, CAT News (the journal of the IUCN Species Survival Commission Cat Specialist Group), had the highest number of articles on rusty-spotted cats (n = 13), followed by The Journal of Threatened Taxa (n = 10) and then Proceeding of the Zoological Society and Nature Conservation and Research in which two articles were published. The selected articles (n = 52) were cited 712 times up until December 2022. The average citation per paper was 13.70 (range 0 − 320). The highest number of citations (n = 320) was received by a paper published in 1997 by the Journal of Molecular Evolution (Johnson & O’Brien 1997), which focused on the research performed on the relative evolutionary rates of two genes from multiple individuals of the 35 species of the Felidae family. The majority of studies were supported by funding sources; however, 12% (n = 6) of the total studies were not funded. Of those that were funded (n = 46), a total of 74% (n = 34) were supported by national funding, while 15% (n = 7) were supported by international funding. Moreover, 11% (n = 5) of the studies were supported by both national and international funding sources. Research on the rusty-spotted cat is led by male authors (n = 41), with 3.7x more male lead authors than female lead authors (n = 11). Based on the affiliation of the first authors (Fig. 1 ), universities/ colleges had the highest contribution (n = 26, 50%) towards research on the rusty-spotted cat. This was followed by research institutes (n = 10, 19%), governmental organizations (n = 8, 15%), non-governmental organizations (n = 6, 12%), and zoological parks (n = 2, 4%). Publication Trends on the Rusty-Spotted Cat The publication timeline for research articles on the rusty-spotted cat reveals a notable trend in recent years (Fig. 2 ). While there was a single article published in 1956, being the oldest we could find (Deraniyagala 1956 ), research activity remained relatively sporadic until the late 1990s. Subsequently, there was a steady increase in publications, with the most significant growth observed in the past decade. Notably, from 2010 onwards, there has been a consistent rise in the number of articles published annually, peaking in 2020 with 7 publications. The Kendall’s Tau-b coefficient analysis of research articles publication trends on the rusty-spotted cat from 1956 to 2022 revealed a significant positive increase over time and indicates a moderate to strong positive correlation between the year and the number of articles published (τ = 0.597, p = 0.003). Linear analysis further supports these findings, with the number of articles increasing by approximately 0.065 per year (β = 0.065, p = 0.048). In terms of the range countries of rusty-spotted cats, India (n = 34) dominated the rusty-spotted cat studies, while Sri Lanka (n = 8) and Nepal (n = 6) were less represented. Similar results could be found with the VOSviewer co-occurrence network analysis (see section; research overview). We identified two studies that were conducted outside rusty-spotted cat range countries, both of them were on captive individuals in the USA. Only one study was conducted in all three range countries of rusty-spotted cats, while another was conducted in both Sri Lanka and India. Research overview The text-mining analysis using VOSviewer on titles and abstracts revealed that a total of 133 terms were identified as relevant and clustered into five different clusters (Fig. 3a). The resultant network from these terms provides an overview of the research conducted and the links between research themes (see section; thematic fields). Furthest from the central network is the green cluster which is linked to studies focusing on captive breeding with terms like “husbandry”, “diet”, and “breeding”. The central cluster (red, purple, blue, and yellow sub-clusters) is around field studies and conservation status with terms like “status”, “habitat”, “camera trapping survey”, “sighting” and various regions in all three range-states (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal). However, Sri Lanka is fitting between these central clusters and the green cluster, which suggests that breeding studies have a link to this country. All four sub-clusters within the central cluster are intermingled around the term “India” with no major link between themes and colours apart from some variation in observations and regions of the species range (confirming India's significant role in publications on the species). The cluster with the most word occurrences, purple, is seemingly linked to the distribution and occurrence of the rusty-spotted cat (the three range countries, “camera trapping survey” and “record”), suggesting a large percentage of articles focusing on this. The largest cluster, red, is linked to the conservation status and habitat preference with terms like “status”, “habitat”, and “protected area”. The blue cluster is mainly linked to the taxonomy of the species with terms like “Mammalia”, “order Carnivora” and “Felidae” being central. Finally, the yellow cluster may be associated with study types other than camera trapping (“field study”, coprological survey”) with the monitoring of other wildlife (“small Indian civet”, “reptile” “monitoring”). In terms of articles through time, the breeding and captivity-based studies are linked to earlier studies on RSC than those on ecology, distribution, and conservation (Fig. 3b). Sri Lankan studies are also older than those focusing on Nepal and India. In terms of co-author clustering, there has been little cross-team collaboration with very few authors publishing multiple papers (10 authors have published more than twice; Supplementary file S4). Thematic Fields Following the direct coding approach, we found similar results to text-mining analyses. A majority of the studies were focused on the Habitat and Distribution theme (n = 32), followed by Biology (n = 7), and Human Dimensions of Conservation (n = 4). There is an equal focus (n = 2) in Genetics, Disease, Taxonomy & Phylogeny, Capture & Handling themes. Whereas, only one paper was based on threats (Fig. 4 ). The analysis of land tenure for the rusty-spotted cat research shows a clear distribution of research locations: the majority of research was conducted within protected areas (n = 23), constituting 64% of the total research efforts, indicating a strong emphasis on preserving the species in its natural habitat. Meanwhile, 29% of the research (wild, n = 11) occurred outside protected areas, potentially reflecting concerns for populations in less controlled environments. In captivity (n = 6), only 4% of the research took place within protected areas (n = 2), while 7% was conducted outside protected areas (n = 4). Moreover, 7% of the research was carried out in both wild and captive settings, likely enabling a comparative understanding of the species across different contexts. Global distribution of rusty-spotted cat occurrence records The sightings-based mapping analysis suggests that rusty-spotted cat observations have occurred across its entire, currently recognized range (Fig. 5 ). There are confirmed camera trap records on the eastern side of Orissa, India, as well as roadkill and photograph records on the western side of Gujarat, India that fall outside of this range. The majority of occurrence records are linked to camera trapping and human observations. Regional preferences exist for certain sighting tools, such as human observations in Maharashtra (India) and Sri Lanka and camera trapping in Orissa (India). Research methods and approaches The data on rusty-spotted cat research approaches reveals a diversified methodology employed in the study of this elusive species. Camera trapping emerges as the most prevalent method, constituting 33% (n = 17) of the research efforts, enabling the non-invasive observation of their behavior and distribution. A smaller proportion of studies combined camera trapping with transect walks (2%, n = 1), while others focused on diagnosis and treatment of diseases and infections (10%, n = 5), habitat modeling (2%, n = 1), and laboratory analysis (4%, n = 2) to deepen our understanding of the species' health and habitat preferences. A significant portion of the research drew upon secondary data sources (13%, n = 7), underscoring the importance of pre-existing information. The combination of secondary data with camera trapping (19%, n = 10) offered a holistic approach to the study. Sign surveys (17%, n = 9) also played a role in data collection (Fig. 6 ). The duration of study data shows that the majority of studies (n = 22) have a short-term focus, lasting 1 to 6 months, while a small number of studies (n = 3) extend from 7 to 12 months of research duration. A few studies fall within 1–2 years (n = 4), and five studies span 2–3 years. Notably, 17 studies surpass 3 years in duration for their research. Conservation projects Of the 15 conservation projects found, India had the majority (n = 7, 47%, of the total), spanning from 2009 to 2022. Nepal followed contributing 33% of the projects (n = 5), primarily in the period from 2016 to 2022. Sri Lanka had less projects (n = 3, 20%), which were concentrated in recent years (2014, 2018, 2021). Discussion Considering the importance of determining the research trends and gaps for better-informed conservation management of the endangered and illusive rusty-spotted cat, we employed a systematic review method (McIntosh et al. 2018 , Williams et al. 2020 ). The method yielded 52 articles related to the species, much lower than similarly elusive and endangered species in the region, like pangolin (Heighton & Gaubert 2021 ), greater one-horned rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis ; Pant et al. 2020 ), and red panda ( Ailurus fulgens ; Karki et al. 2021 ). This lack of research interest is likely a result of the species being less iconic when compared to the aforementioned elusive species. Studies focusing on the rusty-spotted cat’s popularization and public interest could help guide further interest in the species, both in research and conservation (Olmedo et al. 2020 , Heighton & Gaubert, 2021 ). Publication and affiliation of lead authors Most articles focused on sightings and thus fell more into journals that allow for short communication formats, such as CAT News and Journal of Threatened Taxa. However, there are some studies (Johnson & O'Brien 1997, Silva et al. 2020 ) that are published in high-ranking journals and receive more citations. Limited publications in high-impact journals and longer formats suggest that research on this species is still in its infancy, that its illusive nature deems it difficult to study broader topics, or that it is not seen as a key species for research. This highlights the need for increased effort and a focus on elevating the quality of studies to contribute meaningfully to the broader scientific discourse on this rare species. The dominance of male authors as lead authors suggests a high level of gender inequality concerning rusty-spotted cat research. Representation of women as authors of publications is common across other research disciplines and varies according to the countries or regions (Cummings & Hoebink 2017 ). As is the case for the red panda (Karki et al. 2021 ), universities, colleges, and research institutes seem to prioritize academic research on rusty-spotted cats over governmental departments, NGOs, and zoological parks. This is likely a result of these research entities having mandates, specialized resources, and expertise for academia, while most governmental departments and NGOs may be involved in monitoring, conservation efforts, and policy-making (Karki et al. 2021 ). NGOs may also be limited in resources and funding for research activities, whereas zoological parks focus mostly on captive breeding, habitat preservation, and public awareness. These entities are also not necessarily mandated to publish results as their data is used for internal processes rather than for academia. The lower contribution of these entities highlights the need to strengthen their capacity and collaboration in research activities, or at least provide more accessible platforms for information sharing. However, the fact that government departments were the third largest contributor to research suggests their interest in the species and the capacity to publish these data. It is worth noting that these results may be biased due to our aim not to focus on grey literature and non-peer-reviewed reports. Research trends on rusty-spotted cats The significant increase in the research effort on rusty-spotted cats in recent years fits within the general trend of research on threatened species. Bist et al. ( 2021 ) reported a significant rise in mammal-focused research articles in Nepal from 2000 to 2019, whilst, Heighton and Gaubert ( 2021 ) noted the same for pangolin research from the early 2000s. We suspect that such research trends for the rusty-spotted cat fall within these trends of increased scientific research (Bornmann & Mutz 2015 ) and as a result of technological advancements such as camera traps, increased conservation awareness, and new occurrence records from different regions (enlarging its range), particularly from India and Nepal (Lamichhane et al. 2016 , Yadav et al. 2021 ). This analysis portrays a promising trajectory of research activity on the rusty-spotted cat, reflecting growing awareness of its conservation significance and the need for ongoing scientific exploration. Additionally, although it is a short period, the consistent number of publications in 2021 and 2022 further suggests a sustained commitment to advancing knowledge on this species. The growing scientific interest and awareness regarding the conservation and study of lesser-known mammal species, including the rusty-spotted cat, may open avenues for increased funding, resources, and public awareness (Male & Bean 2005 , Mair et al. 2018 ). As a consequence of growing research and sightings of rusty-spotted cats in recent years, it has been reclassified from Vulnerable to Near-threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List in 2014 (Khan & Mukherjee 2008, Mukherjee et al. 2016 ). Among the rusty-spotted cat range countries, research was found to be dominated by India compared to Sri Lanka and Nepal. Previously, the known distribution of the rusty-spotted cat was restricted to Sri Lanka and India, so more publications are seen from these two countries. But, with the recent claim of the species being recorded in western Terai (Lamichhane et al. 2016 ) and Shuklaphanta National Park (Adhikari et al. 2019 ) of Nepal, research on the rusty-spotted cat has slowly gained momentum in Nepal after 2016. The political insurgency in Nepal, which extended from 1995 to 2004 and led to significant unrest across the country, might have curbed research efforts and reduced the number of published studies (Bhattarai et al. 2017 ). Increasing momentum has been especially apparent since 2009, with increased efforts on nationally important projects on large carnivores (Bist et al. 2021 ). Despite being range countries, the limited number of publications from Sri Lanka and Nepal suggests a potential gap in understanding the rusty-spotted cat’s ecology and behavior in these regions, particularly since they contain habitats that are dissimilar to many of those found in India. Moreover, with evidence of occurrence sightings outside the current rusty-spotted cats’ range, particularly east and west of India, more effort is required to better understand the full extent of its range. This is not surprising given the very recent discovery of the species in Nepal (Lamichhane et al. 2016 , Adhikari et al. 2019 ) and other parts of its range (Nayak et al. 2017 , Rabari et al. 2022 ). Thematic area Habitat and distribution was the most studied thematic field for rusty-spotted cats, fitting the overall trend for conservation research (Mair et al. 2018 ). This benefits the species as knowledge of its general biology and ecology allows for more specialized monitoring programs that provide the necessary data for tracking the monitoring parameters most relevant to the species' protection and recovery (Campbell et al. 2002 ). The area covered for studies related to the habitat and distribution patterns of rusty-spotted cats is across India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. Majority of studies are related to habitat and distribution patterns (Deraniyagala 1956 , Mukherjee et al. 2016 , Yadav et al. 2021 , Rabari et al. 2022 ), habitat suitability (Bora et al. 2020 ), habitat selection (Kalle et al. 2014 ), and population status and trends (Gajera & Dharaiya 2011 , Chatterjee et al. 2020 , Chaudhary et al. 2022 ). However, most of these studies were primarily based on occasional sightings and observations during the research of other species (Nayak et al. 2017 ). The increased efforts on regionally important projects including camera trap surveys for the Bengal tiger ( Panthera tigris ), monitoring of the one-horned rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis) , and studies on the Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus) in Nepal, as well as the opening of 50 tiger reserves with the tiger as an umbrella species in India, may result in additional incidental sightings of rusty-spotted cats. These initiatives may play a role in better understanding and protecting the habitat and distribution of the species. Biology was the second most studied thematic area. Within this field, limited research exists on the rusty-spotted cat’s morphology (Miththapala 2017 ), physiology (Silva et al. 2020 ), general behavior (Jayaratna et al. 2015, Basak et al. 2018 ), and reproduction (Mellen, 1993 , DMOCH 1997 ). However, there is a notable absence of studies focusing on anatomy, metabolism, diet, food dynamics, and ethology. This lack of research underscores an urgent need for these studies to be conducted in the wild, as they are crucial for informing ex-situ conservation strategies such as captive breeding and rehabilitation (Hua et al. 2015 , Reeves et al. 2020 ). The behavioral ecology of the species, both in captivity and in the wild, will provide guidelines for captive breeding programs (Jayaratna et al. 2015), if required in the future (Reeves et al. 2020 ). This includes environmental-enrichment programs which can be designed to encourage activities and time budgets similar to those observed in the wild (Hutchins & Kreger 2006 ). The lack of interdisciplinary research and socio-political research related to the rusty-spotted cat is a barrier to the successful implementation of conservation mitigation methods which rely heavily on these research aspects (Mair et al. 2018 ). However, some studies do relate to human interventions in conservation (Aryal et al. 2018 , Habib et al. 2020 ), and different stakeholders carrying out conservation initiatives (Mukherjee et al. 2021 ). There are also numerous conservation projects running in rusty-spotted cat range countries which suggests a drive for the better understanding and conserving of the species in the region. In terms of conservation projects on the species, India accounts for half, suggesting a long-standing interest in and commitment to the species. For Sri Lanka and Nepal, this interest is more recent, likely as a result of the more recent discovery of its distribution and the fact that India is more developed with a larger population (Lakshmana 2013 ). These conservation projects underscore the importance of understanding and safeguarding the rusty-spotted cat in its natural habitat, while actively involving local communities in conservation activities throughout the region which is key to conservation success (Mair et al. 2018 ). There is a significant lack of studies on the genetics, taxonomy, and phylogeny of the rusty-spotted cat. We identified only two articles primarily related to genetics, with one conducted in the USA focusing on reconstructing the molecular phylogeny of the Felidae family and identifying significant evolutionary clades (Johnson & O’Brien 1997), and the other centered on monitoring felids in general in India (Mukherjee et al. 2010 ). This suggests that our current understanding of rusty-spotted cat genetics is not sufficient to guide this species population management for maintaining genetic variability, identifying conservation units, guiding genetic restoration if needed, and understanding the general population structure and evolution (Kardos 2021 ). Genetic diversity plays a vital role in adaptive capacity, which is crucial to the long-term survival of any species, especially under global climate change (Nicotra et al. 2015 ). Two studies (Murkhejee et al. 2016, Langle 2019 ) help to better understand the species taxonomy and phylogeny, which is a necessary gateway to the population genetics output above and the identification of any possible cryptic species that may require protection. Moreover, taxonomy enhances ecological studies' authenticity, improves simulation modeling accuracy, and provides insights into the species' origins, diversification, and evolutionary history through the integration of morphological, molecular, and developmental information (Tahseen 2014 ). There are very limited studies conducted on the pathology, pathogens, parasites, causes, and treatments of rusty-spotted cats. A coprological survey was carried out in Sri Lanka to determine the gastrointestinal (GI) parasites of wild and captive cats (Kobbekaduwa et al. 2017 ) and similar research was carried out with captive wild animals in the Kanpur Zoological Park in India (Niranjan et al. 2020 ). These findings indicate that current research on epidemiological baselines is insufficient to prevent future epidemics within populations. Identifying infectious disease threats or toxic agents can guide zoning and land use decisions, and help gather local and international support for conservation efforts (Deem 2008). Among the listed thematic areas, threats were the least prioritized for rusty-spotted cats. Out of the total research articles we reviewed, only one study was found to be primarily focused on threats to species (Adhikari et al. 2019 ). This is a significant cause for concern considering that understanding threats not only provides the basis for better determination of how threatened the species may be (IUCN Red List status), but also how to better protect the species through conservation management aimed at litigating the major threats. Assessing threats is essential for setting conservation priorities and ensuring that areas needing urgent action are addressed through action planning, thus making conservation efforts more effective and efficient (Rao et al. 2007 ). Based on Adhikari et al ( 2019 ) and the results from the 51 other publications we extracted during our review on the rusty-spotted cat, we suggest some major threats. Habitat loss and fragmentation emerge as the predominant threats to the species. Additionally, road kills represent a significant threat, as is the case of the rusty-spotted cat road kill record in Shuklaphanta National Park, Nepal (Adhikari et al. 2019 ), highlighting the pressing need for measures to mitigate the impact of roads and transportation infrastructure on these feline populations. Moreover, roads impact the ecological landscape by causing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation, which disrupt natural processes and alter community structures and population dynamics (Underhill & Angold 2000). Diseases and pathogens related to the species are another threat to their conservation, emphasizing the importance of wildlife health monitoring and research. Research method and approach The heterogeneity in types of observations across the region, from solely camera trapping in Orissa India to solely human observations in Sri Lanka, is of key concern. Non-standardized approaches to monitoring carnivores such as the rusty-spotted cat hinder regional population estimates and ecological insights (Karanth et al. 2011 ), preventing the employment of landscape-based, regional conservation solutions. With regards to methodology in our rusty-spotted cat literature, most studies used camera trapping methods, likely since camera traps are widely used to monitor wildlife. This is because they are easy to set up, do not require large amounts of man hours (like transects do), and limit the stress of studied animals due to human interference (Karanth & Nichols 2017 ). Moreover, this method can cover large areas, providing comprehensive data on species distribution, abundance, and habitat use which is crucial for conservation planning and management (Rowcliffee et al. 2008). However, these studies are often not targeted to the rusty-spotted cat, but rather other animals, and as a consequence, scientists are limited in the conclusions they can make from these occasional sightings (Bist et al. 2021 ). We, therefore, require studies focusing solely on this species whereby camera traps are set up to target the species, and thus enhance our understanding of its behavior, ecology, and distribution in the wild. In our review, most studies of rusty-spotted cats used primary sources of information rather than secondary data. This may be due to the limited number of peer-reviewed publications and the lack of secondary data available to concerned authorities. Most studies were conducted within a short period ranging from 1–6 months, which might be due to less availability of funding resources for long-term research projects (Burton et al. 2015 ). However, some studies may require shorter durations such as those focusing on seasonal changes, breeding behaviors, or short-term impacts of environmental factors (Karsch & Foster 1981 ). We encourage longer-term studies to better understand the rusty-spotted cat’s ecology, behavior, and population dynamics over time. Moreover, effective collaborative efforts among researchers and institutions to share resources and data might enable longer and more comprehensive studies of species in the future. Conclusions From our review, we found a large bias in the number of publications and conservation projects across the species range countries. The same can be said for research themes, with the majority of studies related to species habitat and distribution through often non-targeted camera trap surveys. Research trends of the rusty-spotted cat increased after the late 1990s in Nepal, India, and Sri Lanka, most of which were focused within the protected areas and on wild rusty-spotted cat populations. However, there are many research gaps, specifically in its biology, habitat modeling, genetics, diseases, taxonomy, and threats. Based on these results, we suggest some recommendations in priority areas of research that will aim to fill key gaps and allow us to better understand the biology, ecology, and threats associated with the species. We hope that by filling these major research gaps, we can better determine the threatened status of the rusty-spotted cat and provide more informed management solutions. Recommendations 1) Research focused on the threats and biology of rusty-spotted cats is needed to better understand their threatened status and how to best develop robust, targeted conservation management measures and plans. 2) Rusty-spotted cat studies should focus on areas where there is a newly identified extension of the species range (Nepal, for example). This may help expand our knowledge of the species across new habitats and therefore new population dynamics and behaviors. 3) A standardized monitoring protocol that is targeted for the rusty-spotted cat (i.e. camera trapping designed for the species) should be developed and employed across the species range to better grasp regional population estimates and trends as well as the variation in its ecology and threats across various habitats. 4) More long-term monitoring studies that focus directly on rusty-spotted cats are needed. The over-reliance on short-term studies in small areas can only provide a snapshot into the lives of rusty-spotted cats and likely shows local contexts, not regional trends and understanding. 5) The need for multi-partner collaborations including research (universities), governmental (national agencies), and non-governmental (NGOs) stakeholders. These collaborations can allow for a better alignment of research with key national and regional strategies, have a larger influence on the implementation of these strategies, and provide the necessary expertise required for research. References Adhikari D, Joshi PR, Poudyal LP, Sigdel P, Poudel S, Shah GB, Sanderson JG, Chaudhary S, Dahal S (2019) Road-kill record of a rusty-spotted cat in Shuklaphanta National park, Nepal. Cat News 69:29–30 Amin R, Baral HS, Lamichhane BR, Poudyal LP, Lee S, Jnawali SR, Acharya KP, Upadhyaya GP, Pandey MB, Shrestha R et al (2018) The status of Nepal’s mammals. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5738983","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Systematic Review","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":396031269,"identity":"f83f9c6b-607e-446a-9c7b-9cb81ff29b6a","order_by":0,"name":"Bishal Bhandari","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-8219-7443","institution":"Agriculture and Forestry University, Nepal","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bishal","middleName":"","lastName":"Bhandari","suffix":""},{"id":396032744,"identity":"9a1765b7-0766-4085-95c2-d2e0c4a04421","order_by":1,"name":"Vidyaman Thapa","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8728-5691","institution":"University of New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vidyaman","middleName":"","lastName":"Thapa","suffix":""},{"id":396032745,"identity":"e5b2c564-3bf7-450c-b1fd-845b6d483059","order_by":2,"name":"Prakash Mahatara","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0769-8486","institution":"Agriculture and Forestry University, Nepal","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Prakash","middleName":"","lastName":"Mahatara","suffix":""},{"id":396032746,"identity":"baab7cd4-b14e-4738-90b3-e97d35090f1d","order_by":3,"name":"Nabin Dhakal","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6293-1892","institution":"Agriculture and Forestry University, Nepal","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nabin","middleName":"","lastName":"Dhakal","suffix":""},{"id":396032747,"identity":"415e63cf-3a0c-4568-9f55-2353c9073864","order_by":4,"name":"Dhirajan Pariyar","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5045-0320","institution":"Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, Nepal","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dhirajan","middleName":"","lastName":"Pariyar","suffix":""},{"id":396032748,"identity":"57853cbb-e3f9-435a-86ad-bb1193c0c237","order_by":5,"name":"Shushma Gosai","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-5469-7888","institution":"Agriculture and Forestry University, Nepal","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shushma","middleName":"","lastName":"Gosai","suffix":""},{"id":396032749,"identity":"53e6933e-dba8-4b29-a0e7-f39ba600a534","order_by":6,"name":"Sean P. Heighton","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7183-9140","institution":"Mission pour l’expertise scientifique (MPES) – CNRS : MOY1698 ; UMR BOREA, Université de Caen Normandie, Caen, France","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sean","middleName":"P.","lastName":"Heighton","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-12-31 04:05:58","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5738983/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5738983/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":72840413,"identity":"70431a74-2f19-4a5b-8a6b-44ded3b7b4cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-02 18:02:48","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":66235,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA pie chart showing the primary affiliation of lead authors from the 52 coded articles.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5738983/v1/115dc566786355657895d665.png"},{"id":72840909,"identity":"d6e32ec1-8121-4f40-808e-3a5e97c25246","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-02 18:10:48","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":68237,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNumber of publications on rusty-spotted cat by year between 1956 and 2022.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5738983/v1/86f4369fc3160698fd39b6db.png"},{"id":72840420,"identity":"845cde3c-8ad0-4f92-9caa-8eed414eb401","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-02 18:02:48","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":561986,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVOSviewer co-occurrence network of terms and their links extracted from title and abstracts of the 52 articles resulting in 133 terms. Terms are distributed through (a) five, color-coded term clusters and (b) across time.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5738983/v1/4f462cdc5fa1f008df141d97.png"},{"id":72840416,"identity":"ee9d243e-8403-4faf-b62a-1014dd0c28dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-02 18:02:48","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41542,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThematic area focused on past literature on the rusty-spotted cat.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5738983/v1/667d66d758b0a4f6bf9a6e42.png"},{"id":72840422,"identity":"75c8f32a-7eba-41b2-9567-19ff3427f190","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-02 18:02:48","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":131189,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOccurrence records of the rusty-spotted cat across its currently recognized range (IUCN Red-List of Threatened Species - 2014).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5738983/v1/130a73c55b152268808f7061.jpg"},{"id":72840419,"identity":"5bf66197-129e-4fd8-a294-98ea9977bb09","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-02 18:02:48","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":104766,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA pie chart of the percentage of research methodology used in articles.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5738983/v1/88c5f0d5f7a50e8e78009937.png"},{"id":72842056,"identity":"db5b796f-002b-4a53-900b-0ecfb1375b5c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-02 18:26:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1562129,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5738983/v1/b3e2030a-60f4-4b32-9d4a-ca977936d65b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSurviving in a changing world: A systematic review of research trends and threats to the mysterious rusty-spotted cat\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSpecies under growing pressure due to anthropogenic-induced local and global threats are increasingly in need of tailored conservation strategies that aim to counter and alleviate their threat-induced impacts. However, for these strategies to be accurate, and thus effective, the availability of biological knowledge on these species and the threats they face is necessary (Williams et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Gathering and summarizing this knowledge following a systematic approach can provide the basis for evidence-based strategies and how best to fill key knowledge gaps for more accurate evaluation of their conservation status (McIntosh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe rusty-spotted cat, \u003cem\u003ePrionailurus rubiginosus\u003c/em\u003e (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831), is the world\u0026rsquo;s smallest wild felid and is endemic to India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal (Langle \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The species was initially listed as Vulnerable in the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List up until 2008, but was downgraded in 2014 to Near-Threatened due to evidence of new occurrence records from different geographic regions (Khan \u0026amp; Mukherjee 2008, Mukherjee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The species is protected in India under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972), and is listed as \u0026lsquo;Endangered\u0026rsquo; in the National Red List of Sri Lanka, whereas, due to a lack of detailed information regarding its population and potential threats, the national status remains classified as \u0026lsquo;Data Deficient\u0026rsquo; in Nepal (Mukherjee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, Amin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). These classifications are based on limited data, likely as a result of its secretive nature and small size, which inhibit research on their biology and ecology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the spike in interest in the species in recent years, our understanding of its range, population abundance, and threats has started to paint more light on the status of the species. With new information, the species distribution is more widespread than originally thought (Mukherjee \u0026amp; Koparde \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Sharma \u0026amp; Dhakad \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) as it was previously restricted to India and Sri Lanka, but now includes Nepal (Lamichhane et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The distribution of the rusty-spotted cat suggests that it has wide habitat requirements ranging from grassland to tropical forest and low scrubland to mountain tops (Langle \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It is found to inhabit moist and dry deciduous forests, tropical thorn forests, scrub forests, grasslands, arid shrublands, rocky areas, and hill slopes (Sunquist \u0026amp; Sunquist \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, it has been frequently reported to be found in teak, bamboo, grassy, and dry thorny vegetation (POCOCK \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1941\u003c/span\u003e, Pathak \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e, Worah \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e) and also amid agricultural regions and human settlements (Nowell \u0026amp; Jackson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e, Mukherjee \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e, Kettle \u0026amp; Watson 2004).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is suggested that populations are declining due to habitat loss and fragmentation of their natural habitats (Mukherjee \u0026amp; Koparde \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Sharma \u0026amp; Dhakad \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, deforestation, the spread of cultivation and grazing lands, land conversion, and road-kills are considered the major threats in India and Sri Lanka (Vimalrai et al. 2019, Sanath Kumar et al. 2021). In Nepal, they have only been recorded in protected areas, and hence the threats are largely unknown (Lamichhane et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), but likely similar to those of India. Rusty-spotted cats are known to be hunted for the fur trade, as a result of being livestock pests, and occasionally for consumption (Van Gruisen \u0026amp; Inclair 1992). Due to this, the species is included in CITES Appendix I in India and Appendix II in Sri Lanka and Nepal, with hunting and trade banned in these countries (Mukherjee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these new insights, the current level of information on rusty-spotted cats is not only limited but also incidental, which makes it difficult to predict the population size of this species with certainty. Despite its improving IUCN status (Khan \u0026amp; Mukherjee 2008, Mukherjee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), there remains limited information regarding its ecological characteristics and local population abundance (Nowell \u0026amp; Jackson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). Likewise, the species-focused conservation management plans are yet to be prepared in its range countries. To reach this point, there is a need to evaluate the availability, nature, and focus of previous studies on the rusty-spotted cat to identify research gaps and trends and better inform future research for conservation. Hence, this systematic literature review aimed to describe current research trends, identify major thematic research fields, and reveal key research gaps that require urgent attention. With recent range expansions noted for the species and sightings often incidental, this study also aims to map and summarize published occurrence records in order to identify regions of interest for monitoring. Finally, the systematic review and mapping outcomes are used to shape our suggestions on future research priorities and conservation actions in order to better protect the species.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLiterature search and search strategies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted a systematic review of the literature following the methods from Pickering and Byrne (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and Collaboration for Environmental Evidence (2018). All data were searched for and extracted until December 2022. The data were separated into three different types, (i) scientific articles, (ii) occurrence records, and (iii) conservation projects (see Supplementary File S1 for the PRISMA diagram). For scientific articles, we searched for peer-reviewed articles published in the English language using four literature databases: Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, and Research Gate. Literature was searched using the following both Boolean operators [Rusty-spotted cat] OR [\u003cem\u003ePrionailurus rubiginosus\u003c/em\u003e] AND [country name] (\"Nepal\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Sri Lanka\", and \"India\u0026rdquo;) within the entire article (all text) with no start date restrictions. Moreover, occurrence records through sightings data (material observations, human observations, camera traps, photographs, road kills) on the rusty-spotted cat from its range countries were extracted through the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) website (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.gbif.org/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.gbif.org/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) and author XX\u0026rsquo;s personal database. Finally, we extracted the data on conservation projects on rusty-spotted cats from The Rufford Foundation (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.rufford.org/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.rufford.org/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), The Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.speciesconservation.org/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.speciesconservation.org/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), and the Rusty-spotted Cat Working Group (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://rustyspottedcatwg.org/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://rustyspottedcatwg.org/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). These were used to identify conservation priorities. We found a total of 15 conservation projects (fiver each per organization), 121 sightings records, and 72 articles (66 in Google Scholar and 6 in Web of Science). Searches in Research Gate and Scopus did not yield any relevant studies that were not already found in Google Scholar and Web of Science and were therefore not considered further.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eScreening and Eligibility Criteria\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 72 articles were screened at both title and abstract and then full-texts by a single author to avoid reviewer-based inconsistencies. Articles were included in the review when they met the following eligibility criteria: (a) either titles and abstracts of articles indicated that the primary focus of the paper was the rusty-spotted cat, or articles that did not have a rusty-spotted cat as a primary focus of the study but the content of the articles included the species, (b) articles were in English, and (c) were peer-reviewed. We focused on peer-reviewed articles that were published in academic journals because they provided the highest level of quality control and scientific credibility (Fox \u0026amp; Diezmann \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) and helped ensure uniformity in research standards and methodological details, including consistency in sampling and analytical methods (Ballantyne \u0026amp; Pickering \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Articles that contained abstracts only due to accessibility restrictions (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3), but with sufficient reviewable information, was also included in this process. After screening at the title and abstract level, a total of 58 articles met the above criteria. After full-text reading and duplicate removal, we found 52 relevant articles across the two databases; 46 articles were found only in Google Scholar, and 6 articles were found only in Web of Science. These 52 articles made up the basis for our corpus which we coded and analyzed (Supplementary File S2). All 121 sightings records and 15 conservation records were kept since no eligibility criteria were needed for these (Appendix S2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData coding and analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData coding on scientific literature\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe coded a total of 13 variables for scientific literature, focusing on article metadata, classification of study area and species, and study thematic area (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). For the study thematic area, we adopted some of the coding of thematic areas from Karki et al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). We categorized the thematic areas into eight broad categories: Biology; Habitat and Distribution; Genetics; Threats; Human Dimensions of Conservation; Disease; Taxonomy and Phylogeny; and Capture and Handling (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the name of the journal and the citations received until December 2022 for each article were noted using Google Scholar.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe constructed the data coding spreadsheet using Microsoft Excel (Professional Plus Version 2013) and all the information on the above-mentioned variables was entered. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as graphs to interpret and present the coded results. To evaluate the trends in publications we applied Kendell\u0026rsquo;s tau b coefficient and linear regression using R studio software v 1.2.5042 (R core team 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo provide an overview of relevant terms used in the title and abstracts of the 52 publications and how they link with one another, we used to text-mine with VOSviewer v1.6.20 (van Eck \u0026amp; Waltman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), which constructs co-occurrence networks of relevant terms. We extracted all terms that were used in more than one publication (binary counting), and instead of filtering through the relevance score, we used a manually curated thesaurus file of the most relevant terms based upon an initial network (Supplementary file S3). This allowed us to combine multiple terms used for the rusty-spotted cat and decide which terms were irrelevant to the co-occurrence network. The analysis was also run for bibliographic data looking at authorship and their connections.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo provide an account of current known occurrence records of the rusty-spotted cat across its range, we used QGIS version 3.36.2 to map camera trap, photographs, material citations (a reference to or citation of one, a part of, or multiple specimens in scholarly publications), human observations, roadkill, and locations of known sanctuary\u0026rsquo;s housing the species. These data and categories were extracted from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and merged with XX\u0026rsquo;s personal database, while the species range was taken from the IUCN\u0026rsquo;s Red-List of Threatened Species (2014). To provide an overview of conservation projects we extracted information date of project start, and location for descriptive statistics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasis of analysis (the table shows the variables or factors that were used to analyze the research trend of the rusty-spotted cat from 1956\u0026ndash;2022)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS.N.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables/Subjects\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory of Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear of Publication\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach publication from 1956 to 2022 AD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy area Classification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange and Non- range country of Rusty-spotted cat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThematic Focus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiology, Habitat and distribution, Genetics, Threats, Human dimensions of conservation, Disease, Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Capture and handling (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies Focus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch carried out in wild or captivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand Tenure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch carried out inside protected area or outside protected area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy methods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon- invasive, Invasive, Both\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy Type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical study, Secondary analysis, Both\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch Approach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCamera trapping, Camera trapping and transect walk, Diagnosis and treatment, Habitat modelling, Laboratory analysis, Secondary data and camera trapping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy duration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;6 month, 7\u0026ndash;12 month, 1\u0026ndash;2 year, 2\u0026ndash;3 year, more than 3 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAddressed Threats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabitat loss and fragmentation, Lack of awareness, Lack of phylogenetic analysis, Road kills, Human interventions, Forest fire, Climate change, Disease and pathogens\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLead Author\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssumed Gender (Male or Female)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary affiliation of lead author\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversities/Colleges, Research institutes, Governmental organizations, Non-governmental organizations, Zoological park\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFunding sources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational funding, International funding, both, Self-funding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription of thematic areas covered in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThemes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on biological aspects including morphology, anatomy, physiology, general behavior, reproduction, metabolism, and also includes diet and food dynamics \u0026amp; ethology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabitat and distribution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabitat and distribution patterns, habitat suitability, habitat selection, population status, and trends\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenetics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies relating to genetic variability, genetic diversity, and genetic trends\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThreats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors affecting rusty-spotted cat survival, including, road kills, habitat loss and fragmentation, and poaching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuman dimensions of conservation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuman interventions on conservation, different stakeholders carrying conservation initiatives, conservation projects\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePathology, pathogens, parasites, causes, and treatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaxonomy and Phylogeny\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClassification, nomenclature, evolution, and phylogeny\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCapture and handling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCapture and handling, translocation, and chemical immobilization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePublishing metadata (journals, authors, affiliations, and funding)\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn terms of journal representation, CAT News (the journal of the IUCN Species Survival Commission Cat Specialist Group), had the highest number of articles on rusty-spotted cats (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13), followed by The Journal of Threatened Taxa (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10) and then Proceeding of the Zoological Society and Nature Conservation and Research in which two articles were published. The selected articles (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52) were cited 712 times up until December 2022. The average citation per paper was 13.70 (range 0 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;320). The highest number of citations (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;320) was received by a paper published in 1997 by the Journal of Molecular Evolution (Johnson \u0026amp; O\u0026rsquo;Brien 1997), which focused on the research performed on the relative evolutionary rates of two genes from multiple individuals of the 35 species of the Felidae family. The majority of studies were supported by funding sources; however, 12% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6) of the total studies were not funded. Of those that were funded (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46), a total of 74% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34) were supported by national funding, while 15% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7) were supported by international funding. Moreover, 11% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5) of the studies were supported by both national and international funding sources.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch on the rusty-spotted cat is led by male authors (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;41), with 3.7x more male lead authors than female lead authors (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11). Based on the affiliation of the first authors (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), universities/ colleges had the highest contribution (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26, 50%) towards research on the rusty-spotted cat. This was followed by research institutes (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10, 19%), governmental organizations (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8, 15%), non-governmental organizations (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6, 12%), and zoological parks (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2, 4%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePublication Trends on the Rusty-Spotted Cat\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe publication timeline for research articles on the rusty-spotted cat reveals a notable trend in recent years (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). While there was a single article published in 1956, being the oldest we could find (Deraniyagala \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1956\u003c/span\u003e), research activity remained relatively sporadic until the late 1990s. Subsequently, there was a steady increase in publications, with the most significant growth observed in the past decade. Notably, from 2010 onwards, there has been a consistent rise in the number of articles published annually, peaking in 2020 with 7 publications. The Kendall\u0026rsquo;s Tau-b coefficient analysis of research articles publication trends on the rusty-spotted cat from 1956 to 2022 revealed a significant positive increase over time and indicates a moderate to strong positive correlation between the year and the number of articles published (\u0026tau;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.597, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003). Linear analysis further supports these findings, with the number of articles increasing by approximately 0.065 per year (\u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.065, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.048).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn terms of the range countries of rusty-spotted cats, India (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34) dominated the rusty-spotted cat studies, while Sri Lanka (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8) and Nepal (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6) were less represented. Similar results could be found with the VOSviewer co-occurrence network analysis (see section; research overview). We identified two studies that were conducted outside rusty-spotted cat range countries, both of them were on captive individuals in the USA. Only one study was conducted in all three range countries of rusty-spotted cats, while another was conducted in both Sri Lanka and India.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eResearch overview\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe text-mining analysis using VOSviewer on titles and abstracts revealed that a total of 133 terms were identified as relevant and clustered into five different clusters (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3a). The resultant network from these terms provides an overview of the research conducted and the links between research themes (see section; thematic fields). Furthest from the central network is the green cluster which is linked to studies focusing on captive breeding with terms like \u0026ldquo;husbandry\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;diet\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;breeding\u0026rdquo;. The central cluster (red, purple, blue, and yellow sub-clusters) is around field studies and conservation status with terms like \u0026ldquo;status\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;habitat\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;camera trapping survey\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;sighting\u0026rdquo; and various regions in all three range-states (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal). However, Sri Lanka is fitting between these central clusters and the green cluster, which suggests that breeding studies have a link to this country. All four sub-clusters within the central cluster are intermingled around the term \u0026ldquo;India\u0026rdquo; with no major link between themes and colours apart from some variation in observations and regions of the species range (confirming India's significant role in publications on the species). The cluster with the most word occurrences, purple, is seemingly linked to the distribution and occurrence of the rusty-spotted cat (the three range countries, \u0026ldquo;camera trapping survey\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;record\u0026rdquo;), suggesting a large percentage of articles focusing on this. The largest cluster, red, is linked to the conservation status and habitat preference with terms like \u0026ldquo;status\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;habitat\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;protected area\u0026rdquo;. The blue cluster is mainly linked to the taxonomy of the species with terms like \u0026ldquo;Mammalia\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;order Carnivora\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Felidae\u0026rdquo; being central. Finally, the yellow cluster may be associated with study types other than camera trapping (\u0026ldquo;field study\u0026rdquo;, coprological survey\u0026rdquo;) with the monitoring of other wildlife (\u0026ldquo;small Indian civet\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;reptile\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;monitoring\u0026rdquo;).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn terms of articles through time, the breeding and captivity-based studies are linked to earlier studies on RSC than those on ecology, distribution, and conservation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3b). Sri Lankan studies are also older than those focusing on Nepal and India. In terms of co-author clustering, there has been little cross-team collaboration with very few authors publishing multiple papers (10 authors have published more than twice; Supplementary file S4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThematic Fields\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the direct coding approach, we found similar results to text-mining analyses. A majority of the studies were focused on the Habitat and Distribution theme (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32), followed by Biology (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7), and Human Dimensions of Conservation (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4). There is an equal focus (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2) in Genetics, Disease, Taxonomy \u0026amp; Phylogeny, Capture \u0026amp; Handling themes. Whereas, only one paper was based on threats (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of land tenure for the rusty-spotted cat research shows a clear distribution of research locations: the majority of research was conducted within protected areas (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23), constituting 64% of the total research efforts, indicating a strong emphasis on preserving the species in its natural habitat. Meanwhile, 29% of the research (wild, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11) occurred outside protected areas, potentially reflecting concerns for populations in less controlled environments. In captivity (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6), only 4% of the research took place within protected areas (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2), while 7% was conducted outside protected areas (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4). Moreover, 7% of the research was carried out in both wild and captive settings, likely enabling a comparative understanding of the species across different contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eGlobal distribution of rusty-spotted cat occurrence records\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sightings-based mapping analysis suggests that rusty-spotted cat observations have occurred across its entire, currently recognized range (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). There are confirmed camera trap records on the eastern side of Orissa, India, as well as roadkill and photograph records on the western side of Gujarat, India that fall outside of this range. The majority of occurrence records are linked to camera trapping and human observations. Regional preferences exist for certain sighting tools, such as human observations in Maharashtra (India) and Sri Lanka and camera trapping in Orissa (India).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eResearch methods and approaches\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data on rusty-spotted cat research approaches reveals a diversified methodology employed in the study of this elusive species. Camera trapping emerges as the most prevalent method, constituting 33% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;17) of the research efforts, enabling the non-invasive observation of their behavior and distribution. A smaller proportion of studies combined camera trapping with transect walks (2%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1), while others focused on diagnosis and treatment of diseases and infections (10%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5), habitat modeling (2%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1), and laboratory analysis (4%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2) to deepen our understanding of the species' health and habitat preferences. A significant portion of the research drew upon secondary data sources (13%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7), underscoring the importance of pre-existing information. The combination of secondary data with camera trapping (19%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10) offered a holistic approach to the study. Sign surveys (17%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9) also played a role in data collection (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe duration of study data shows that the majority of studies (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22) have a short-term focus, lasting 1 to 6 months, while a small number of studies (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3) extend from 7 to 12 months of research duration. A few studies fall within 1\u0026ndash;2 years (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4), and five studies span 2\u0026ndash;3 years. Notably, 17 studies surpass 3 years in duration for their research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConservation projects\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOf the 15 conservation projects found, India had the majority (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7, 47%, of the total), spanning from 2009 to 2022. Nepal followed contributing 33% of the projects (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5), primarily in the period from 2016 to 2022. Sri Lanka had less projects (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3, 20%), which were concentrated in recent years (2014, 2018, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eConsidering the importance of determining the research trends and gaps for better-informed conservation management of the endangered and illusive rusty-spotted cat, we employed a systematic review method (McIntosh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, Williams et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The method yielded 52 articles related to the species, much lower than similarly elusive and endangered species in the region, like pangolin (Heighton \u0026amp; Gaubert \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), greater one-horned rhinoceros (\u003cem\u003eRhinoceros unicornis\u003c/em\u003e; Pant et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and red panda (\u003cem\u003eAilurus fulgens\u003c/em\u003e; Karki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This lack of research interest is likely a result of the species being less iconic when compared to the aforementioned elusive species. Studies focusing on the rusty-spotted cat\u0026rsquo;s popularization and public interest could help guide further interest in the species, both in research and conservation (Olmedo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Heighton \u0026amp; Gaubert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePublication and affiliation of lead authors\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost articles focused on sightings and thus fell more into journals that allow for short communication formats, such as CAT News and Journal of Threatened Taxa. However, there are some studies (Johnson \u0026amp; O'Brien 1997, Silva et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) that are published in high-ranking journals and receive more citations. Limited publications in high-impact journals and longer formats suggest that research on this species is still in its infancy, that its illusive nature deems it difficult to study broader topics, or that it is not seen as a key species for research. This highlights the need for increased effort and a focus on elevating the quality of studies to contribute meaningfully to the broader scientific discourse on this rare species. The dominance of male authors as lead authors suggests a high level of gender inequality concerning rusty-spotted cat research. Representation of women as authors of publications is common across other research disciplines and varies according to the countries or regions (Cummings \u0026amp; Hoebink \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs is the case for the red panda (Karki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), universities, colleges, and research institutes seem to prioritize academic research on rusty-spotted cats over governmental departments, NGOs, and zoological parks. This is likely a result of these research entities having mandates, specialized resources, and expertise for academia, while most governmental departments and NGOs may be involved in monitoring, conservation efforts, and policy-making (Karki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). NGOs may also be limited in resources and funding for research activities, whereas zoological parks focus mostly on captive breeding, habitat preservation, and public awareness. These entities are also not necessarily mandated to publish results as their data is used for internal processes rather than for academia. The lower contribution of these entities highlights the need to strengthen their capacity and collaboration in research activities, or at least provide more accessible platforms for information sharing. However, the fact that government departments were the third largest contributor to research suggests their interest in the species and the capacity to publish these data. It is worth noting that these results may be biased due to our aim not to focus on grey literature and non-peer-reviewed reports.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch trends on rusty-spotted cats\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe significant increase in the research effort on rusty-spotted cats in recent years fits within the general trend of research on threatened species. Bist et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) reported a significant rise in mammal-focused research articles in Nepal from 2000 to 2019, whilst, Heighton and Gaubert (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) noted the same for pangolin research from the early 2000s. We suspect that such research trends for the rusty-spotted cat fall within these trends of increased scientific research (Bornmann \u0026amp; Mutz \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and as a result of technological advancements such as camera traps, increased conservation awareness, and new occurrence records from different regions (enlarging its range), particularly from India and Nepal (Lamichhane et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, Yadav et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This analysis portrays a promising trajectory of research activity on the rusty-spotted cat, reflecting growing awareness of its conservation significance and the need for ongoing scientific exploration. Additionally, although it is a short period, the consistent number of publications in 2021 and 2022 further suggests a sustained commitment to advancing knowledge on this species. The growing scientific interest and awareness regarding the conservation and study of lesser-known mammal species, including the rusty-spotted cat, may open avenues for increased funding, resources, and public awareness (Male \u0026amp; Bean \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e, Mair et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). As a consequence of growing research and sightings of rusty-spotted cats in recent years, it has been reclassified from Vulnerable to Near-threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List in 2014 (Khan \u0026amp; Mukherjee 2008, Mukherjee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the rusty-spotted cat range countries, research was found to be dominated by India compared to Sri Lanka and Nepal. Previously, the known distribution of the rusty-spotted cat was restricted to Sri Lanka and India, so more publications are seen from these two countries. But, with the recent claim of the species being recorded in western Terai (Lamichhane et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Shuklaphanta National Park (Adhikari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) of Nepal, research on the rusty-spotted cat has slowly gained momentum in Nepal after 2016. The political insurgency in Nepal, which extended from 1995 to 2004 and led to significant unrest across the country, might have curbed research efforts and reduced the number of published studies (Bhattarai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Increasing momentum has been especially apparent since 2009, with increased efforts on nationally important projects on large carnivores (Bist et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Despite being range countries, the limited number of publications from Sri Lanka and Nepal suggests a potential gap in understanding the rusty-spotted cat\u0026rsquo;s ecology and behavior in these regions, particularly since they contain habitats that are dissimilar to many of those found in India. Moreover, with evidence of occurrence sightings outside the current rusty-spotted cats\u0026rsquo; range, particularly east and west of India, more effort is required to better understand the full extent of its range. This is not surprising given the very recent discovery of the species in Nepal (Lamichhane et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, Adhikari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and other parts of its range (Nayak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, Rabari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThematic area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabitat and distribution was the most studied thematic field for rusty-spotted cats, fitting the overall trend for conservation research (Mair et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This benefits the species as knowledge of its general biology and ecology allows for more specialized monitoring programs that provide the necessary data for tracking the monitoring parameters most relevant to the species' protection and recovery (Campbell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The area covered for studies related to the habitat and distribution patterns of rusty-spotted cats is across India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. Majority of studies are related to habitat and distribution patterns (Deraniyagala \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1956\u003c/span\u003e, Mukherjee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, Yadav et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, Rabari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), habitat suitability (Bora et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), habitat selection (Kalle et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), and population status and trends (Gajera \u0026amp; Dharaiya \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, Chatterjee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Chaudhary et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, most of these studies were primarily based on occasional sightings and observations during the research of other species (Nayak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The increased efforts on regionally important projects including camera trap surveys for the Bengal tiger (\u003cem\u003ePanthera tigris\u003c/em\u003e), monitoring of the one-horned rhinoceros (\u003cem\u003eRhinoceros unicornis)\u003c/em\u003e, and studies on the Asian elephant (\u003cem\u003eElephas maximus)\u003c/em\u003e in Nepal, as well as the opening of 50 tiger reserves with the tiger as an umbrella species in India, may result in additional incidental sightings of rusty-spotted cats. These initiatives may play a role in better understanding and protecting the habitat and distribution of the species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiology was the second most studied thematic area. Within this field, limited research exists on the rusty-spotted cat\u0026rsquo;s morphology (Miththapala \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), physiology (Silva et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), general behavior (Jayaratna et al. 2015, Basak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and reproduction (Mellen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e, DMOCH \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). However, there is a notable absence of studies focusing on anatomy, metabolism, diet, food dynamics, and ethology. This lack of research underscores an urgent need for these studies to be conducted in the wild, as they are crucial for informing ex-situ conservation strategies such as captive breeding and rehabilitation (Hua et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Reeves et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The behavioral ecology of the species, both in captivity and in the wild, will provide guidelines for captive breeding programs (Jayaratna et al. 2015), if required in the future (Reeves et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This includes environmental-enrichment programs which can be designed to encourage activities and time budgets similar to those observed in the wild (Hutchins \u0026amp; Kreger \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lack of interdisciplinary research and socio-political research related to the rusty-spotted cat is a barrier to the successful implementation of conservation mitigation methods which rely heavily on these research aspects (Mair et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, some studies do relate to human interventions in conservation (Aryal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, Habib et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and different stakeholders carrying out conservation initiatives (Mukherjee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). There are also numerous conservation projects running in rusty-spotted cat range countries which suggests a drive for the better understanding and conserving of the species in the region. In terms of conservation projects on the species, India accounts for half, suggesting a long-standing interest in and commitment to the species. For Sri Lanka and Nepal, this interest is more recent, likely as a result of the more recent discovery of its distribution and the fact that India is more developed with a larger population (Lakshmana \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). These conservation projects underscore the importance of understanding and safeguarding the rusty-spotted cat in its natural habitat, while actively involving local communities in conservation activities throughout the region which is key to conservation success (Mair et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is a significant lack of studies on the genetics, taxonomy, and phylogeny of the rusty-spotted cat. We identified only two articles primarily related to genetics, with one conducted in the USA focusing on reconstructing the molecular phylogeny of the Felidae family and identifying significant evolutionary clades (Johnson \u0026amp; O\u0026rsquo;Brien 1997), and the other centered on monitoring felids in general in India (Mukherjee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that our current understanding of rusty-spotted cat genetics is not sufficient to guide this species population management for maintaining genetic variability, identifying conservation units, guiding genetic restoration if needed, and understanding the general population structure and evolution (Kardos \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Genetic diversity plays a vital role in adaptive capacity, which is crucial to the long-term survival of any species, especially under global climate change (Nicotra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Two studies (Murkhejee et al. 2016, Langle \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) help to better understand the species taxonomy and phylogeny, which is a necessary gateway to the population genetics output above and the identification of any possible cryptic species that may require protection. Moreover, taxonomy enhances ecological studies' authenticity, improves simulation modeling accuracy, and provides insights into the species' origins, diversification, and evolutionary history through the integration of morphological, molecular, and developmental information (Tahseen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are very limited studies conducted on the pathology, pathogens, parasites, causes, and treatments of rusty-spotted cats. A coprological survey was carried out in Sri Lanka to determine the gastrointestinal (GI) parasites of wild and captive cats (Kobbekaduwa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and similar research was carried out with captive wild animals in the Kanpur Zoological Park in India (Niranjan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These findings indicate that current research on epidemiological baselines is insufficient to prevent future epidemics within populations. Identifying infectious disease threats or toxic agents can guide zoning and land use decisions, and help gather local and international support for conservation efforts (Deem 2008).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the listed thematic areas, threats were the least prioritized for rusty-spotted cats. Out of the total research articles we reviewed, only one study was found to be primarily focused on threats to species (Adhikari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This is a significant cause for concern considering that understanding threats not only provides the basis for better determination of how threatened the species may be (IUCN Red List status), but also how to better protect the species through conservation management aimed at litigating the major threats. Assessing threats is essential for setting conservation priorities and ensuring that areas needing urgent action are addressed through action planning, thus making conservation efforts more effective and efficient (Rao et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Based on Adhikari et al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and the results from the 51 other publications we extracted during our review on the rusty-spotted cat, we suggest some major threats. Habitat loss and fragmentation emerge as the predominant threats to the species. Additionally, road kills represent a significant threat, as is the case of the rusty-spotted cat road kill record in Shuklaphanta National Park, Nepal (Adhikari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), highlighting the pressing need for measures to mitigate the impact of roads and transportation infrastructure on these feline populations. Moreover, roads impact the ecological landscape by causing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation, which disrupt natural processes and alter community structures and population dynamics (Underhill \u0026amp; Angold 2000). Diseases and pathogens related to the species are another threat to their conservation, emphasizing the importance of wildlife health monitoring and research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch method and approach\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe heterogeneity in types of observations across the region, from solely camera trapping in Orissa India to solely human observations in Sri Lanka, is of key concern. Non-standardized approaches to monitoring carnivores such as the rusty-spotted cat hinder regional population estimates and ecological insights (Karanth et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), preventing the employment of landscape-based, regional conservation solutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith regards to methodology in our rusty-spotted cat literature, most studies used camera trapping methods, likely since camera traps are widely used to monitor wildlife. This is because they are easy to set up, do not require large amounts of man hours (like transects do), and limit the stress of studied animals due to human interference (Karanth \u0026amp; Nichols \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, this method can cover large areas, providing comprehensive data on species distribution, abundance, and habitat use which is crucial for conservation planning and management (Rowcliffee et al. 2008). However, these studies are often not targeted to the rusty-spotted cat, but rather other animals, and as a consequence, scientists are limited in the conclusions they can make from these occasional sightings (Bist et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). We, therefore, require studies focusing solely on this species whereby camera traps are set up to target the species, and thus enhance our understanding of its behavior, ecology, and distribution in the wild.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn our review, most studies of rusty-spotted cats used primary sources of information rather than secondary data. This may be due to the limited number of peer-reviewed publications and the lack of secondary data available to concerned authorities. Most studies were conducted within a short period ranging from 1\u0026ndash;6 months, which might be due to less availability of funding resources for long-term research projects (Burton et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). However, some studies may require shorter durations such as those focusing on seasonal changes, breeding behaviors, or short-term impacts of environmental factors (Karsch \u0026amp; Foster \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e). We encourage longer-term studies to better understand the rusty-spotted cat\u0026rsquo;s ecology, behavior, and population dynamics over time. Moreover, effective collaborative efforts among researchers and institutions to share resources and data might enable longer and more comprehensive studies of species in the future.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eFrom our review, we found a large bias in the number of publications and conservation projects across the species range countries. The same can be said for research themes, with the majority of studies related to species habitat and distribution through often non-targeted camera trap surveys. Research trends of the rusty-spotted cat increased after the late 1990s in Nepal, India, and Sri Lanka, most of which were focused within the protected areas and on wild rusty-spotted cat populations. However, there are many research gaps, specifically in its biology, habitat modeling, genetics, diseases, taxonomy, and threats. Based on these results, we suggest some recommendations in priority areas of research that will aim to fill key gaps and allow us to better understand the biology, ecology, and threats associated with the species. We hope that by filling these major research gaps, we can better determine the threatened status of the rusty-spotted cat and provide more informed management solutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRecommendations\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1) Research focused on the threats and biology of rusty-spotted cats is needed to better understand their threatened status and how to best develop robust, targeted conservation management measures and plans.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2) Rusty-spotted cat studies should focus on areas where there is a newly identified extension of the species range (Nepal, for example). This may help expand our knowledge of the species across new habitats and therefore new population dynamics and behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3) A standardized monitoring protocol that is targeted for the rusty-spotted cat (i.e. camera trapping designed for the species) should be developed and employed across the species range to better grasp regional population estimates and trends as well as the variation in its ecology and threats across various habitats.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4) More long-term monitoring studies that focus directly on rusty-spotted cats are needed. The over-reliance on short-term studies in small areas can only provide a snapshot into the lives of rusty-spotted cats and likely shows local contexts, not regional trends and understanding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5) The need for multi-partner collaborations including research (universities), governmental (national agencies), and non-governmental (NGOs) stakeholders. These collaborations can allow for a better alignment of research with key national and regional strategies, have a larger influence on the implementation of these strategies, and provide the necessary expertise required for research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdhikari D, Joshi PR, Poudyal LP, Sigdel P, Poudel S, Shah GB, Sanderson JG, Chaudhary S, Dahal S (2019) Road-kill record of a rusty-spotted cat in Shuklaphanta National park, Nepal. Cat News 69:29\u0026ndash;30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmin R, Baral HS, Lamichhane BR, Poudyal LP, Lee S, Jnawali SR, Acharya KP, Upadhyaya GP, Pandey MB, Shrestha R et al (2018) The status of Nepal\u0026rsquo;s mammals. J Threatened Taxa 10:11361\u0026ndash;11378\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAryal C, Ghimire B, Bhattarai B (2018) Small cats in Nepal: Conservation status of felinae sub-family in the country. Nepal J Environ Sci 6:75\u0026ndash;80\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBallantyne M, Pickering CM (2015) The impacts of trail infrastructure on vegetation and soils: Current literature and future directions. J Environ Manage 164:53\u0026ndash;64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBasak K, Ahmed M, Suraj M, Sinha C, Reddy BV, Yadav OP, Mondal K (2018) First picture and temporal activity of Rusty-spotted Cat from Chhattisgarh, Central India. Cat News 67:27\u0026ndash;28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBhattarai BR, Wright W, Poudel BS, Aryal A, Yadav BP, Wagle R (2017) Shifting paradigms for Nepal\u0026rsquo;s protected areas: history, challenges and relationships. J Mt Sci 14:964\u0026ndash;979\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBist BS, Ghimire P, Nishan KC, Poudel BS, Pokheral CP, Poudyal LP, Wright W, Basnet A, Pradhan A, Shah KB (2021) Correction to: Patterns and trends in two decades of research on Nepal\u0026rsquo;s mammalian fauna (2000\u0026ndash;2019): examining the past for future implications. Biodivers Conserv 30:3791\u0026ndash;3792\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBora JK, Awasthi N, Kumar U, Goswami S, Pradhan A, Prasad A, Laha DR, Shukla R, Shukla SK (2020) Assessing the habitat use, suitability and activity pattern of the rusty-spotted cat Prionailurus rubiginosus in Kanha Tiger Reserve, India\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBornmann L, Mutz R (2015) Growth rates of modern science: A bibliometric analysis based on the number of publications and cited references. 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Zoo\u0026rsquo;s Print 34:31\u0026ndash;33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWilliams DR, Balmford A, Wilcove DS (2020) The past and future role of conservation science in saving biodiversity. Conserv Lett 13:e12720\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWorah S (1990) Rusty spotted cat Felis rubiginosa. Cat News 12:12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYadav SK, Lamichhane BR, Subedi N, Acharya HB, Macdonald DW, Fitzmaurice A (2021) Rusty-spotted cat Prionailurus rubiginosus (I. Geoffroy Saint-Hillaire) camera trapped in the Bardia-Banke complex of Western Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal. J Anim Divers 3:49\u0026ndash;55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Supplementary Files","content":"\u003cp\u003eSupplementary Files not available with this version.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Agriculture and Forestry University, Nepal","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Conservation strategies, Felid, Literature review, Occurrence records, South Asia, Threat assessment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5738983/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5738983/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe rusty-spotted cat (\u003cem\u003ePrionailurus rubiginosus\u003c/em\u003e), the world\u0026rsquo;s smallest felid, is native to India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. Despite its \u003cem\u003eNear Threatened\u003c/em\u003e status on the IUCN Red List, research on this elusive species remains fragmented, focusing mainly on species distribution through incidental camera-trap data. With the development of tailored, evidence-based conservation strategies requiring sufficient knowledge of the species' biology and threats, we aim to summarize critical knowledge gaps and provide recommendations for filling them. We systematically reviewed the existing literature to assess the state of research on the species, identify key research trends, and highlight areas requiring urgent attention. Additionally, we mapped 121 occurrence records and delved into 15 conservation projects to understand current monitoring and conservation efforts throughout its range. Our findings from 52 studies indicate that most studies focus on habitat preferences and distribution, with limited research on biology, genetics, disease, and threats to the species. Major threats identified include habitat loss, fragmentation, road mortality, and potential disease risks. Occurrence records are heterogeneous in terms of the methods employed but do identify potential species range expansions in India. Most conservation projects stem from India, however, efforts in Nepal and Sri Lanka have increased in recent years, reinforcing the growing conservation importance of this species. The review underscores the need for standardized monitoring protocols, long-term targeted research, and collaborative conservation efforts across the species\u0026rsquo; range. By addressing these gaps, we envisage the development of more robust research and conservation strategies for the rusty-spotted cat in the future.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Surviving in a changing world: A systematic review of research trends and threats to the mysterious rusty-spotted cat","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-01-02 18:02:43","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5738983/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1313c80e-2710-4072-b4f5-520c7ce28714","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 2nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":42189304,"name":"Wildlife Biology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-01-02T18:02:43+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-01-02 18:02:43","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5738983","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5738983","identity":"rs-5738983","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}