Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination, Gender Transcendence and Self-Efficacy: A Study on Indian Female University Students

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The present paper explores the relationship between perceived familial gender discrimination, gender transcendence and self-efficacy. The study was conducted on 850 female university students aged 18 years and above who were unmarried, unemployed and have male siblings living with them. Gender Discrimination by Parents’ Behaviour subscale (from Gender Discrimination Inventory), Gender Transcendence subscale (from Social Roles Questionnaire) and New General Self-Efficacy scale were administered to the sample. Pearson correlation and linear regression analysis revealed that perceived familial gender discrimination is inversely correlated to both gender transcendence and self-efficacy. Gender Studies Psychology Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination Gender Transcendence Self-Efficacy Indian Female’s Mental Health Gender Role Norms Gender Equality I. Background Perceived familial gender discrimination (PFGD) is a subjective phenomenon wherein a female child perceives that she is being discriminated against solely because of her gender. This discrimination manifests in various ways, leading the female child to feel marginalized and relegated to second-class status within her household. Deeply rooted in societal attitudes and biases that perpetuate patriarchal norms, PFGD is evident in many patriarchal societies where a prevailing notion favours boys over girls, as boys are commonly perceived as having greater worth, leading to a preference for educating boys over girls, marriage customs involving dowries, property rights reserved for males, and boys being deemed more capable of physical labour. Recent years have seen increased academic and societal focus on understanding gender discrimination, especially its multifaceted implications within the family. Female children often face restrictions and expectations not imposed on their male siblings, characterized by mobility restrictions, limited educational and career choices, prohibition from social outings, gendered household chores, appearance scrutiny, financial disparities, early marriage pressure, verbal and emotional abuse, and subordination conditioning. This affects their emotional well-being, educational attainment, and prospects. The disparities between both genders have also been observed in research in psychology. Certain scholars in the field of gender studies propose not only challenging the socially constructed distinctions between males and females but also exploring the potential for transcending a binary system consisting of only two categories. There exist several approaches for deconstructing and reimagining the concept of gender. But, a more valuable perspective may involve questioning the basic concept of gender itself and then aspiring to surpass it. Kessler and McKenna's (2003: 223–236) study on trans-genders offers insights into ways of transcending gender, presenting three distinct interpretations of "trans": transitioning from one gender to another, navigating across or not being permanently confined to a single gender identity, and the potential to go beyond or transcend gender altogether - with the last interpretation considered the most revolutionary for those interested in eliminating gender distinctions. Despite challenges to traditional gender constructs over the past three decades, a gender binary still persists. Gender transcendence (GT), according to Pleck ( 1975 : 161–178), involves moving beyond societal gender role norms and boundaries and developing psychological androgyny based on an individual's inner needs and temperaments. It advocates for a personalized understanding of individual competence, irrespective of learned gender roles. GT allows individuals to embrace tasks, traits, and skills typically associated with the opposite gender without needing to change their sex or sexual orientation, emphasizing the importance of breaking free from societal gender norms. GT is related to the trans-humanist approach to gender neutrality, which is a part of the post-genderism movement aiming to eliminate cultural, social, biological, and psychological influences of gender on society (Dvorsky, 2008 : 2–13). Its significance includes promoting inclusivity by challenging the notion that certain traits, behaviours, and roles are exclusive to one gender, reducing stigma and discrimination faced by gender-diverse individuals. It also supports mental health by allowing individuals to align their external expressions with their internal sense of self. This results in increased self-acceptance, enhanced resilience, and alleviated gender dysphoria. Practically, GT allows individuals to pursue activities, educational subjects, and careers based on interests rather than social expectations linked to their assigned sex at birth, nurturing diversity, fostering creativity and innovation, and empowering social change. Embracing GT can lead to a more equitable and accepting world where personal competence and opportunities are not constrained by societal expectations based on gender. Self-efficacy (SE) is defined as an individual's belief in their capabilities to organize and execute the necessary actions successfully to manage future situations (Bandura, 1977: 191–215). It is the confidence a person has in their ability to carry out a task effectively and overcome challenges that may arise during the task. SE has a profound influence on various aspects of an individual's life, including their behaviours, emotions, and psychological states, revolving around the belief that one can accomplish something and be successful in doing so. According to Bandura, there are four primary sources of SE: mastery, vicarious or observational experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional and physiological states. Individuals with strong SE beliefs typically exhibit high levels of well-being and self-esteem (Bandura, 1997: 191–215), displaying readiness to take the lead, invest effort, and persist in their endeavours while experiencing less subjective stress. Despite of the prevalence of PFGD in most developing countries globally, it has fewer studies. This is because familial gender discrimination occurs at a more private and domestic setting, which is often unreported due to numerous reasons like moral and cultural dilemma of taking actions for one’s own rights and ‘disrespect to one’s parents’, perceived lack of support from relatives and/or peers if PFGD experience is confided to them, lack of awareness about facilities like Women Cell, State Commissions for Women (in India), counsellors, etc., and the non-realization in young females themselves that they have a poor status in their own homes. When PFGD experiences are prolonged, it results in negative self-concept, low self-esteem, and low self-efficacy in an adult female, as well as a higher probability that she may believe in traditional feminine gender roles. Hence, PFGD-SE relationship literature needs more researches, which the proposed study aims to do, as well as PFGD-GT relationship. II. Objectives To study the relationship between perceived familial gender discrimination, gender transcendence and self-efficacy. To explore the direct effect of perceived familial gender discrimination on gender transcendence and self-efficacy. III. Hypotheses In order to fulfill the aforementioned objectives, the following hypotheses were framed: H1: There will be a significant relationship between: Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination and Gender Transcendence Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination and Self-Efficacy H2: Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination will significantly predict: Gender Transcendence Self-Efficacy IV. Methods 1. Sample : The sample of the study consisted of 850 female college- or University-going students aged 18 years and above. Purposive sampling was used. The sample was selected with the following criteria of inclusion and exclusion: i. Criteria of Inclusion : Participants who are unmarried Participants who are unemployed, Participants who are enrolled in a full-time college or University course, Participants who have male sibling(s) living with them ii. Criteria of Exclusion : Participants having any kind of psychological disability Participants belonging to LGBTQ + community Participants pursuing a course from any course or University through correspondence or distance mode Participants pursuing part-time jobs, having own business ventures, or internship component of their course 2. Tools : i. Gender Discrimination by Parents’ Behaviours subscale in Gender Discrimination Inventory (Kira, Hanna, and Bujold-Bugeaud, 2015) : Gender Discrimination Inventory (GDI) contains a total of 33 items spread over two major scales: Gender Discrimination scales and Gender Discrimination Coping scales. The Gender Discrimination scales consist of Gender Discrimination by Parents’ Attitudes (GD-Pa), Gender Discrimination by Parents’ Behaviours (GD-Pb) and Gender Discrimination by Society (GD-S). While Gender Discrimination Coping scales consist of Internalized Gender Discrimination (IGD), Gender Identity Conflict (Gender Stigma) (GIC), and Gender Discrimination Resistance (GDR). This paper used Gender Discrimination by Parents’ Behaviours (GD-Pb) subscale, which has 6 items with 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree). GD-Pb subscale has Cronbach alpha value of 0.78 ( p > 0.05), and test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.76 ( p > 0.05). Gender Discrimination Inventory has a good overall construct validity, and GD-Pb subscale has a good fit (χ2 = 5.465, p > 0.05; comparative fit index = 1.000, p > 0.05). ii. Gender Transcendence subscale in Social Roles Questionnaire ( Baber and Tucker, 2006 ) : The Social Roles Questionnaire (SRQ) assesses attitudes towards gender roles by evaluating the variety in individuals' perspectives on societal roles for both men and women, while also identifying attitudes that go beyond traditional binary classifications. It has two subscales: Gender-Linked and Gender Transcendent. This paper has used the Gender Transcendent (GT) subscale to measure gender transcendence. It has 5 items with percentage scale ranging from 0–100%, with 10% increments (0% = Strongly Disagree, 100% = Strongly Agree). GT subscale has a Cronbach alpha value of 0.71, and test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.81 ( p > 0.01). In terms of onvergent validity, GT moderately correlated with Modern Sexism Scale (0.37, p > 0.01), and has a moderate negative correlation of -0.49 ( p > 0.01) with Career Orientation Scale. However, in order to maintain uniformity in scoring and statistical analysis of the data collected for this research, a 5-point Likert scale was used (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree), which was approved and provided by the author Corinna Tucker herself. This method was also used in a thesis by Campos ( 2018 ). iii. New General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGSE; Chen, Gully, and Eden in 2001) : New General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGSE) has 8 items with 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree). It has a test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.67 ( p > 0.01). Internal consistency was calculated with Cronbach alpha before and after a college examination, as the scale was standardized on college students. Internal consistency reliability was high on both administrations (α = .86 and .90). NGSE Scale was validated with Sherer and associates’ SGSE Scale (1982). NGSE Scale was found to have better construct validity for general self-efficacy, better discriminant validity, and is a better predictor of constructs like exam performance and specific self-efficacy. 3. Procedure : Since the students were from the authors’ university, the authors contacted the Department Heads to collect the time tables for meeting and interacting with the students and identify those eligible for the study. At a time suggested by the Department Head, the authors visited each class and explained the study briefly. Students were asked questions based on the inclusion criteria such as marital status, employment status, and having male siblings. Only those who met the criteria raised their hands. These students were assured of their confidentiality and were told they could ask the authors for help if they had any questions during the course of the study. The eligible students then provided their names and contact numbers to receive the questionnaire link via Google Forms. After collecting the data, it was scored and analysed statistically. 4. Statistical Analysis IBM-SPSS® version 22 was used to do the following data analysis: Descriptive Statistics Correlation Linear Regression Analysis V. Results and Discussion Table 1 Descriptive statistics of the sample (N = 850) Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. Error Statistic Std. Error PFGD 17.036 5.6614 − .291 .084 − .674 .168 GT 19.307 3.8501 − .323 .084 − .499 .168 SE 29.568 5.1583 − .146 .084 .194 .168 It can be inferred from the mean scores in Table 1 that the sample has moderate scores in PFGD and GT, but low-to-moderate scores in SE. The distribution of the sample for all study variables is normal and neither skewed platykurtic nor leptokurtic. Table 2 Correlations of all study variables PFGD GT SE PFGD 1 − .240 ** − .200 ** GT − .240 ** 1 .528 ** SE − .200 ** .528 ** 1 **significant at .01 levels Table 2 shows the correlations among all the variables of the study. All study variables are correlated in a highly significant manner with each other ( p < .01). There is significantly inverse but weak relationship between PFGD and GT. This proves Hypothesis 1(a), which said that there will be a significant relationship between PFGD and GT. Patel, Santhya and Haberland (2021: 1–20) found that younger and older girls who reported having discussed issues relevant to adolescents, such as school performance, friendship, being teased or bullied, physical changes during adolescence, or reproduction with their parents were more egalitarian than their counterparts who had not. This indicates that a home environment that encourages open communication between parents and their children during their growing years carries a positive impact on the latter’s holistic development, including the achievement of gender transcendence. There is an inverse but weak relationship between PFGD and SE; but, it is significant. This proves Hypothesis 1(b), which said that there will be a significant relationship between PFGD and SE. Dercon and Singh’s ( 2013 : 31–50) cohort study delves into the impact of gender bias and discrimination on self-efficacy among children aged 8, 12, and 15 in Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Vietnam. The findings reveal an entrenched gender bias against girls in education, particularly visible in India and, to some extent, in Ethiopia. Girls in these regions exhibited lower levels of self-efficacy. Specifically, the research underscores that self-efficacy is considered as a masculine trait within the contexts of India and Ethiopia, a phenomenon directly linked to the prevailing institutionalized gender bias. Table 3 Regression coefficients predicting Gender Transcendence (GT) from Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination (PFGD) Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 22.090 .407 54.280 .000 PFGD − .163 .023 − .240 -7.205 .000 a. Dependent Variable: GT As per Table 3 , Hypothesis 2(a) has been proven, which states that PFGD will significantly predict GT. The linear regression analysis revealed a statistically significant model (F (1,848) = 51.909, p < .05), with an adjusted R² of .057. This finding suggests that PFGD accounts for approximately 5.8% of the variance in GT among the subjects. Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977: 1–41) states that a behavior or attitude is learnt when an individual observes another individual performing that particular behavior or expressing that particular attitude. One way that an adolescent or an adult displays gender role attitudes similar to his or her parent(s) is that, there is a strong possibility of a parent(s) or any other influential adult family member conveying the appropriateness or acceptability of that gender role norm. For example, the female child facing discrimination probably observed another female child like her quietly obeying her parent(s) and being rewarded for it; or there can be a possibility that the child observed a female member of her family being scolded for something deemed inappropriate for the female sex by an elderly male or female, or the head of the family, after which the child learnt to not repeat the same mistake as that female member. This adherence to traditional, gender-linked norms can also be explained by social role and role congruity theories. Social role theory (Eagly (1987: 7–34) explains that males and females are different from each other due to the biological and social differences, and these differences influence the expectations society has towards a male and a female. The prejudice that arises when an individual of a particular group does not comply with the stereotypes of his or her group is known as role congruity theory (Eagly and Karau, 2002: 573–598). In the case of PFGD, the female child is likely to align herself with role expectations that her family has towards females in order to prevent being prejudiced by her family, along with other adverse consequences such as restrictions on mobility, leisure, education, socialization, etc. Table 4 Regression coefficients predicting Self-Efficacy (SE) from Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination (PFGD) Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 32.678 .550 59.384 .000 PFGD − .183 .031 − .200 -5.955 .000 a. Dependent Variable: SE As per Table 4 , Hypothesis 2(b) has been proven, which states that PFGD will significantly predict SE. The linear regression analysis revealed a statistically significant model (F (1,848) = 35.465, p < .05), with an adjusted R² of .039. This finding suggests that PFGD accounts for approximately 4% of the variance in SE among the subjects. Self-determination theory, developed by Deci and Ryan ( 1985 : 41–175), posits that optimal human functioning and psychological well-being are contingent on the fulfillment of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In the context of this study on Indian female college students, PFGD undermines the need for competence by conveying that girls' abilities are less valued, thereby reducing their confidence in their capabilities. Additionally, discrimination erodes the sense of autonomy, as these students may feel constrained by gendered expectations and less in control of their own educational and career paths. Lastly, relatedness is compromised when familial support is biased, leading to feelings of isolation and diminished social support. Together, these thwarted needs result in lower self-efficacy, as the discriminatory environment inhibits the internalization of positive self-beliefs and diminishes the motivation to pursue and achieve personal goals. The findings can also be explained by social cognitive theory, which offers a robust framework for understanding the negative impact of PFGD on self-efficacy. According to social cognitive theory, individuals' beliefs in their abilities, or self-efficacy, are shaped by the interplay of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors. For Indian female college students, PFGD constitutes a significant environmental factor that adversely influences their cognitive processes and self-beliefs. Observing gender-based preferential treatment within the family can lead these students to internalize a belief in their own inferiority, reducing their motivation and perseverance in academic and personal endeavors. The lack of positive reinforcement and support from their families further undermines their self-efficacy, as they receive fewer opportunities to experience mastery and success. Additionally, the stress and anxiety stemming from perceived discrimination can negatively impact their emotional states, further weakening their confidence in their capabilities. VI. Conclusion The present study explores the relationship between perceived familial gender discrimination with gender transcendence and self-efficacy among Indian female college and University students. Perceived familial gender discrimination has a significant inverse relationship with both gender transcendence and self-efficacy, and also significantly predicts both the dependent variables. VII. Implications Community-based programs can educate families about gender equality and the long-term negative impacts of discrimination on young women's psychological well-being. Establishing support groups and mentorship programs for young women can provide them with a platform to share their experiences and receive guidance. Mentorship from women who have successfully navigated similar challenges can be particularly empowering. Engaging fathers and brothers in discussions about gender equality can help address the root causes of familial gender discrimination, leading to more supportive home environments for young women. Incorporating gender studies and discussions on gender equality into the educational curriculum can sensitize students to issues of gender discrimination from an early age, fostering a more inclusive and supportive environment within educational institutions. Implementing integrated care models that combine mental health services with educational and social support can provide comprehensive care for young women facing gender discrimination. This holistic approach can address both the psychological and social aspects of their experiences. Strengthening legal frameworks and policies to protect young women from gender discrimination is essential. This includes laws that explicitly address gender discrimination within families and ensure that young women have access to legal recourse and support services. Allocating funds for programs that promote gender equality and support young women affected by familial gender discrimination can lead to long-term societal benefits. Funding should prioritize educational initiatives, community programs, and mental health services. Policy makers should collaborate with NGOs that specialize in gender issues to design and implement effective interventions. Future research should explore the impact of perceived familial gender discrimination on different demographic groups, including women from various socioeconomic statuses, cultural backgrounds, and geographic regions. This can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the issue. Conducting longitudinal studies can help establish causal relationships and track the long-term effects of familial gender discrimination on psychological outcomes. This can inform more effective interventions and policies. Investigating the intersection of gender discrimination with other forms of discrimination (e.g., based on race, ethnicity, or sexual orientation) can provide insights into the compounded effects on young women's well-being. This intersectional approach can lead to more inclusive and effective solutions. Cultural campaigns and media representations that promote gender equality can gradually shift societal attitudes. Utilizing media platforms to share stories of women who have overcome gender discrimination can inspire and empower other young women. Positive media representation can also influence public perceptions and contribute to cultural change. References Baber KM, Tucker CJ (2006) The Social Roles Questionnaire: A New Approach to Measure Attitudes toward Gender. Sex Roles 54:459–467 Bandura A (1977a) Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change. Psychol Rev 84(2):191–215 Bandura A (1977b) Social Learning Theory. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Campos NR (2018) Re-entering the Workforce after a Gap in Employment: Biases, Stereotypes, and Gender Roles (Master’s Thesis), Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro Chen G, Gully SM, Eden D (2001) Validation of a New General Self-Efficacy Scale. Organizational Res Methods 4(1):62–83 Deci EL, Ryan RM (1985) Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behaviour. Plenum Publishing, New York Dercon S, Singh A (2013) From Nutrition to Aspirations and Self-Efficacy: Gender Bias over Time among Children in Four Countries. World Dev 45:31–50 Dvorsky G (2008), March 20 Postgenderism: Beyond the Gender Binary , https://philpapers.org/archive/HUGPBT.pdf Eagly, Alice H, Karau SJ (2002) Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders. Psychol Rev 109(3):573–598 Eagly Alice H (1987) Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Social-Role Analysis. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey Kessler S, McKenna W (2003) Who put the trans in transgender? Gender theory and everyday life. In Suzanne LaFont (2003) (editor), Constructing sexualities: Readings in sexuality, gender, and culture (pp. 223–236). Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, pp. 223–226 Kira, Ibrahim A, Hanaa S, Bujold-Bugeaud M (2015) Gender Discrimination (GD): A Conceptual Trauma-based Framework for GD and the Development of Gender Discrimination Inventory. Psychology 6:2041–2070 Patel S, Kishore, Santhya KG, Haberland N (2021) What shapes gender attitudes among adolescent girls and boys? Evidence from the UDAYA Longitudinal Study in India. PLoS ONE 16(3):1–20 Pleck JH (1975) Masculinity-Femininity. Sex Roles 1(2):161–178 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5029419","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":349321352,"identity":"60e09a8d-4254-439b-971a-b5b0e014ff57","order_by":0,"name":"Kanwal Shergill","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4395-4493","institution":"The IIS University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kanwal","middleName":"","lastName":"Shergill","suffix":""},{"id":349321448,"identity":"adadece7-9bbe-42d8-93ce-c35af6f988eb","order_by":1,"name":"Dr. Himangini Rathore Hooja","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The IIS University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"Dr.","firstName":"Himangini","middleName":"Rathore","lastName":"Hooja","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-09-04 07:17:30","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5029419/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5029419/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":64064265,"identity":"82e77d24-6b65-4399-9acf-81b457873a6b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-06 03:24:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":402479,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5029419/v1/600faf2e-6b96-465e-9c42-48cf13f26329.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePerceived Familial Gender Discrimination, Gender Transcendence and Self-Efficacy: A Study on Indian Female University Students\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"I. Background","content":"\u003cp\u003ePerceived familial gender discrimination (PFGD) is a subjective phenomenon wherein a female child perceives that she is being discriminated against solely because of her gender. This discrimination manifests in various ways, leading the female child to feel marginalized and relegated to second-class status within her household. Deeply rooted in societal attitudes and biases that perpetuate patriarchal norms, PFGD is evident in many patriarchal societies where a prevailing notion favours boys over girls, as boys are commonly perceived as having greater worth, leading to a preference for educating boys over girls, marriage customs involving dowries, property rights reserved for males, and boys being deemed more capable of physical labour. Recent years have seen increased academic and societal focus on understanding gender discrimination, especially its multifaceted implications within the family. Female children often face restrictions and expectations not imposed on their male siblings, characterized by mobility restrictions, limited educational and career choices, prohibition from social outings, gendered household chores, appearance scrutiny, financial disparities, early marriage pressure, verbal and emotional abuse, and subordination conditioning. This affects their emotional well-being, educational attainment, and prospects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe disparities between both genders have also been observed in research in psychology. Certain scholars in the field of gender studies propose not only challenging the socially constructed distinctions between males and females but also exploring the potential for transcending a binary system consisting of only two categories. There exist several approaches for deconstructing and reimagining the concept of gender. But, a more valuable perspective may involve questioning the basic concept of gender itself and then aspiring to surpass it. Kessler and McKenna's (2003: 223\u0026ndash;236) study on trans-genders offers insights into ways of transcending gender, presenting three distinct interpretations of \"trans\": transitioning from one gender to another, navigating across or not being permanently confined to a single gender identity, and the potential to go beyond or transcend gender altogether - with the last interpretation considered the most revolutionary for those interested in eliminating gender distinctions. Despite challenges to traditional gender constructs over the past three decades, a gender binary still persists. Gender transcendence (GT), according to Pleck (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e: 161\u0026ndash;178), involves moving beyond societal gender role norms and boundaries and developing psychological androgyny based on an individual's inner needs and temperaments. It advocates for a personalized understanding of individual competence, irrespective of learned gender roles. GT allows individuals to embrace tasks, traits, and skills typically associated with the opposite gender without needing to change their sex or sexual orientation, emphasizing the importance of breaking free from societal gender norms. GT is related to the trans-humanist approach to gender neutrality, which is a part of the post-genderism movement aiming to eliminate cultural, social, biological, and psychological influences of gender on society (Dvorsky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e: 2\u0026ndash;13). Its significance includes promoting inclusivity by challenging the notion that certain traits, behaviours, and roles are exclusive to one gender, reducing stigma and discrimination faced by gender-diverse individuals. It also supports mental health by allowing individuals to align their external expressions with their internal sense of self. This results in increased self-acceptance, enhanced resilience, and alleviated gender dysphoria. Practically, GT allows individuals to pursue activities, educational subjects, and careers based on interests rather than social expectations linked to their assigned sex at birth, nurturing diversity, fostering creativity and innovation, and empowering social change. Embracing GT can lead to a more equitable and accepting world where personal competence and opportunities are not constrained by societal expectations based on gender.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy (SE) is defined as an individual's belief in their capabilities to organize and execute the necessary actions successfully to manage future situations (Bandura, 1977: 191\u0026ndash;215). It is the confidence a person has in their ability to carry out a task effectively and overcome challenges that may arise during the task. SE has a profound influence on various aspects of an individual's life, including their behaviours, emotions, and psychological states, revolving around the belief that one can accomplish something and be successful in doing so. According to Bandura, there are four primary sources of SE: mastery, vicarious or observational experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional and physiological states. Individuals with strong SE beliefs typically exhibit high levels of well-being and self-esteem (Bandura, 1997: 191\u0026ndash;215), displaying readiness to take the lead, invest effort, and persist in their endeavours while experiencing less subjective stress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite of the prevalence of PFGD in most developing countries globally, it has fewer studies. This is because familial gender discrimination occurs at a more private and domestic setting, which is often unreported due to numerous reasons like moral and cultural dilemma of taking actions for one\u0026rsquo;s own rights and \u0026lsquo;disrespect to one\u0026rsquo;s parents\u0026rsquo;, perceived lack of support from relatives and/or peers if PFGD experience is confided to them, lack of awareness about facilities like Women Cell, State Commissions for Women (in India), counsellors, etc., and the non-realization in young females themselves that they have a poor status in their own homes. When PFGD experiences are prolonged, it results in negative self-concept, low self-esteem, and low self-efficacy in an adult female, as well as a higher probability that she may believe in traditional feminine gender roles. Hence, PFGD-SE relationship literature needs more researches, which the proposed study aims to do, as well as PFGD-GT relationship.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"II. Objectives","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo study the relationship between perceived familial gender discrimination, gender transcendence and self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explore the direct effect of perceived familial gender discrimination on gender transcendence and self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"III. Hypotheses","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn order to fulfill the aforementioned objectives, the following hypotheses were framed:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH1: There will be a significant relationship between:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived Familial Gender Discrimination and Gender Transcendence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived Familial Gender Discrimination and Self-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH2: Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination will significantly predict:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender Transcendence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"IV. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1. Sample\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sample of the study consisted of 850 female college- or University-going students aged 18 years and above. Purposive sampling was used. The sample was selected with the following criteria of inclusion and exclusion:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ei. Criteria of Inclusion\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants who are unmarried\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants who are unemployed,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants who are enrolled in a full-time college or University course,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants who have male sibling(s) living with them\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eii. Criteria of Exclusion\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants having any kind of psychological disability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants belonging to LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants pursuing a course from any course or University through correspondence or distance mode\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants pursuing part-time jobs, having own business ventures, or internship component of their course\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"display: inline !important;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2. Tools\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"display: inline !important;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"display: inline !important;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"display: inline !important;\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldUnderline\"\u003ei. Gender Discrimination by Parents\u0026rsquo; Behaviours subscale in Gender Discrimination Inventory (Kira, Hanna, and Bujold-Bugeaud, 2015)\u003c/span\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGender Discrimination Inventory (GDI) contains a total of 33 items spread over two major scales: Gender Discrimination scales and Gender Discrimination Coping scales. The Gender Discrimination scales consist of Gender Discrimination by Parents\u0026rsquo; Attitudes (GD-Pa), Gender Discrimination by Parents\u0026rsquo; Behaviours (GD-Pb) and Gender Discrimination by Society (GD-S). While Gender Discrimination Coping scales consist of Internalized Gender Discrimination (IGD), Gender Identity Conflict (Gender Stigma) (GIC), and Gender Discrimination Resistance (GDR). This paper used Gender Discrimination by Parents\u0026rsquo; Behaviours (GD-Pb) subscale, which has 6 items with 5-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Disagree, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Agree). GD-Pb subscale has Cronbach alpha value of 0.78 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), and test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.76 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Gender Discrimination Inventory has a good overall construct validity, and GD-Pb subscale has a good fit (\u0026chi;2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.465, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; comparative fit index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.000, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldUnderline\"\u003eii. Gender Transcendence subscale in Social Roles Questionnaire (\u003c/span\u003eBaber and Tucker, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldUnderline\"\u003e)\u003c/span\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Social Roles Questionnaire (SRQ) assesses attitudes towards gender roles by evaluating the variety in individuals' perspectives on societal roles for both men and women, while also identifying attitudes that go beyond traditional binary classifications. It has two subscales: Gender-Linked and Gender Transcendent. This paper has used the Gender Transcendent (GT) subscale to measure gender transcendence. It has 5 items with percentage scale ranging from 0\u0026ndash;100%, with 10% increments (0% = Strongly Disagree, 100% = Strongly Agree). GT subscale has a Cronbach alpha value of 0.71, and test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.81 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). In terms of onvergent validity, GT moderately correlated with Modern Sexism Scale (0.37, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), and has a moderate negative correlation of -0.49 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) with Career Orientation Scale.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, in order to maintain uniformity in scoring and statistical analysis of the data collected for this research, a 5-point Likert scale was used (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Disagree, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Agree), which was approved and provided by the author Corinna Tucker herself. This method was also used in a thesis by Campos (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldUnderline\"\u003eiii. New General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGSE; Chen, Gully, and Eden in 2001)\u003c/span\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNew General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGSE) has 8 items with 5-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Disagree, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Agree). It has a test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.67 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). Internal consistency was calculated with Cronbach alpha before and after a college examination, as the scale was standardized on college students. Internal consistency reliability was high on both administrations (\u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.86 and .90). NGSE Scale was validated with Sherer and associates\u0026rsquo; SGSE Scale (1982). NGSE Scale was found to have better construct validity for general self-efficacy, better discriminant validity, and is a better predictor of constructs like exam performance and specific self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3. Procedure\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSince the students were from the authors\u0026rsquo; university, the authors contacted the Department Heads to collect the time tables for meeting and interacting with the students and identify those eligible for the study. At a time suggested by the Department Head, the authors visited each class and explained the study briefly. Students were asked questions based on the inclusion criteria such as marital status, employment status, and having male siblings. Only those who met the criteria raised their hands. These students were assured of their confidentiality and were told they could ask the authors for help if they had any questions during the course of the study. The eligible students then provided their names and contact numbers to receive the questionnaire link via Google Forms. After collecting the data, it was scored and analysed statistically.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4. Statistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIBM-SPSS\u0026reg; version 22 was used to do the following data analysis:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col style=\"list-style-type: lower-roman;\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDescriptive Statistics\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrelation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLinear Regression Analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"V. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive statistics of the sample\u003c/em\u003e (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;850)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStd. Deviation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSkewness\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKurtosis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStd. Error\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStd. Error\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePFGD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17.036\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.6614\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.291\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.084\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.674\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.168\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e19.307\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.8501\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.323\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.084\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.499\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.168\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e29.568\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.1583\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.146\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.084\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.194\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.168\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt can be inferred from the mean scores in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e that the sample has moderate scores in PFGD and GT, but low-to-moderate scores in SE. The distribution of the sample for all study variables is normal and neither skewed platykurtic nor leptokurtic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCorrelations of all study variables\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePFGD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGT\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePFGD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.240\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.200\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.240\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.528\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.200\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.528\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e**significant at .01 levels\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 shows the correlations among all the variables of the study. All study variables are correlated in a highly significant manner with each other (\u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .01).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is significantly inverse but weak relationship between PFGD and GT. This proves Hypothesis 1(a), which said that there will be a significant relationship between PFGD and GT. Patel, Santhya and Haberland (2021: 1\u0026ndash;20) found that younger and older girls who reported having discussed issues relevant to adolescents, such as school performance, friendship, being teased or bullied, physical changes during adolescence, or reproduction with their parents were more egalitarian than their counterparts who had not. This indicates that a home environment that encourages open communication between parents and their children during their growing years carries a positive impact on the latter\u0026rsquo;s holistic development, including the achievement of gender transcendence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is an inverse but weak relationship between PFGD and SE; but, it is significant. This proves Hypothesis 1(b), which said that there will be a significant relationship between PFGD and SE. Dercon and Singh\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e: 31\u0026ndash;50) cohort study delves into the impact of gender bias and discrimination on self-efficacy among children aged 8, 12, and 15 in Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Vietnam. The findings reveal an entrenched gender bias against girls in education, particularly visible in India and, to some extent, in Ethiopia. Girls in these regions exhibited lower levels of self-efficacy. Specifically, the research underscores that self-efficacy is considered as a masculine trait within the contexts of India and Ethiopia, a phenomenon directly linked to the prevailing institutionalized gender bias.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRegression coefficients predicting Gender Transcendence (GT) from Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination (PFGD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnstandardized Coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStandardized Coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStd. Error\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeta\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Constant)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e22.090\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.407\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e54.280\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePFGD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.163\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.023\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.240\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-7.205\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"7\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ea. Dependent Variable: GT\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs per Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Hypothesis 2(a) has been proven, which states that PFGD will significantly predict GT. The linear regression analysis revealed a statistically significant model (F (1,848)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;51.909, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05), with an adjusted R\u0026sup2; of .057. This finding suggests that PFGD accounts for approximately 5.8% of the variance in GT among the subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial learning theory (Bandura, 1977: 1\u0026ndash;41) states that a behavior or attitude is learnt when an individual observes another individual performing that particular behavior or expressing that particular attitude. One way that an adolescent or an adult displays gender role attitudes similar to his or her parent(s) is that, there is a strong possibility of a parent(s) or any other influential adult family member conveying the appropriateness or acceptability of that gender role norm. For example, the female child facing discrimination probably observed another female child like her quietly obeying her parent(s) and being rewarded for it; or there can be a possibility that the child observed a female member of her family being scolded for something deemed inappropriate for the female sex by an elderly male or female, or the head of the family, after which the child learnt to not repeat the same mistake as that female member.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis adherence to traditional, gender-linked norms can also be explained by social role and role congruity theories. Social role theory (Eagly (1987: 7\u0026ndash;34) explains that males and females are different from each other due to the biological and social differences, and these differences influence the expectations society has towards a male and a female. The prejudice that arises when an individual of a particular group does not comply with the stereotypes of his or her group is known as role congruity theory (Eagly and Karau, 2002: 573\u0026ndash;598). In the case of PFGD, the female child is likely to align herself with role expectations that her family has towards females in order to prevent being prejudiced by her family, along with other adverse consequences such as restrictions on mobility, leisure, education, socialization, etc.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRegression coefficients predicting Self-Efficacy (SE) from Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination (PFGD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnstandardized Coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStandardized Coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStd. Error\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeta\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Constant)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e32.678\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.550\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e59.384\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePFGD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.183\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.031\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.200\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-5.955\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"7\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ea. Dependent Variable: SE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs per Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, Hypothesis 2(b) has been proven, which states that PFGD will significantly predict SE. The linear regression analysis revealed a statistically significant model (F (1,848)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35.465, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05), with an adjusted R\u0026sup2; of .039. This finding suggests that PFGD accounts for approximately 4% of the variance in SE among the subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-determination theory, developed by Deci and Ryan (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e: 41\u0026ndash;175), posits that optimal human functioning and psychological well-being are contingent on the fulfillment of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In the context of this study on Indian female college students, PFGD undermines the need for competence by conveying that girls' abilities are less valued, thereby reducing their confidence in their capabilities. Additionally, discrimination erodes the sense of autonomy, as these students may feel constrained by gendered expectations and less in control of their own educational and career paths. Lastly, relatedness is compromised when familial support is biased, leading to feelings of isolation and diminished social support. Together, these thwarted needs result in lower self-efficacy, as the discriminatory environment inhibits the internalization of positive self-beliefs and diminishes the motivation to pursue and achieve personal goals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings can also be explained by social cognitive theory, which offers a robust framework for understanding the negative impact of PFGD on self-efficacy. According to social cognitive theory, individuals' beliefs in their abilities, or self-efficacy, are shaped by the interplay of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors. For Indian female college students, PFGD constitutes a significant environmental factor that adversely influences their cognitive processes and self-beliefs. Observing gender-based preferential treatment within the family can lead these students to internalize a belief in their own inferiority, reducing their motivation and perseverance in academic and personal endeavors. The lack of positive reinforcement and support from their families further undermines their self-efficacy, as they receive fewer opportunities to experience mastery and success. Additionally, the stress and anxiety stemming from perceived discrimination can negatively impact their emotional states, further weakening their confidence in their capabilities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"VI. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study explores the relationship between perceived familial gender discrimination with gender transcendence and self-efficacy among Indian female college and University students. Perceived familial gender discrimination has a significant inverse relationship with both gender transcendence and self-efficacy, and also significantly predicts both the dependent variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"VII. Implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eCommunity-based programs can educate families about gender equality and the long-term negative impacts of discrimination on young women's psychological well-being. Establishing support groups and mentorship programs for young women can provide them with a platform to share their experiences and receive guidance. Mentorship from women who have successfully navigated similar challenges can be particularly empowering. Engaging fathers and brothers in discussions about gender equality can help address the root causes of familial gender discrimination, leading to more supportive home environments for young women. Incorporating gender studies and discussions on gender equality into the educational curriculum can sensitize students to issues of gender discrimination from an early age, fostering a more inclusive and supportive environment within educational institutions. Implementing integrated care models that combine mental health services with educational and social support can provide comprehensive care for young women facing gender discrimination. This holistic approach can address both the psychological and social aspects of their experiences. Strengthening legal frameworks and policies to protect young women from gender discrimination is essential. This includes laws that explicitly address gender discrimination within families and ensure that young women have access to legal recourse and support services. Allocating funds for programs that promote gender equality and support young women affected by familial gender discrimination can lead to long-term societal benefits. Funding should prioritize educational initiatives, community programs, and mental health services. Policy makers should collaborate with NGOs that specialize in gender issues to design and implement effective interventions. Future research should explore the impact of perceived familial gender discrimination on different demographic groups, including women from various socioeconomic statuses, cultural backgrounds, and geographic regions. This can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the issue. Conducting longitudinal studies can help establish causal relationships and track the long-term effects of familial gender discrimination on psychological outcomes. This can inform more effective interventions and policies. Investigating the intersection of gender discrimination with other forms of discrimination (e.g., based on race, ethnicity, or sexual orientation) can provide insights into the compounded effects on young women's well-being. This intersectional approach can lead to more inclusive and effective solutions. Cultural campaigns and media representations that promote gender equality can gradually shift societal attitudes. Utilizing media platforms to share stories of women who have overcome gender discrimination can inspire and empower other young women. Positive media representation can also influence public perceptions and contribute to cultural change.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBaber KM, Tucker CJ (2006) The Social Roles Questionnaire: A New Approach to Measure Attitudes toward Gender. Sex Roles 54:459\u0026ndash;467\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBandura A (1977a) Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change. Psychol Rev 84(2):191\u0026ndash;215\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBandura A (1977b) Social Learning Theory. 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Sex Roles 1(2):161\u0026ndash;178\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination, Gender Transcendence, Self-Efficacy, Indian Female’s Mental Health, Gender Role Norms, Gender Equality","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5029419/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5029419/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eGender discrimination in familial settings carries significant adverse consequences for females across their life span, due to their status being relegated in the household like a second class citizen, restricting their mobility, leisure, and aspirations. The present paper explores the relationship between perceived familial gender discrimination, gender transcendence and self-efficacy. The study was conducted on 850 female university students aged 18 years and above who were unmarried, unemployed and have male siblings living with them. Gender Discrimination by Parents’ Behaviour subscale (from Gender Discrimination Inventory), Gender Transcendence subscale (from Social Roles Questionnaire) and New General Self-Efficacy scale were administered to the sample. Pearson correlation and linear regression analysis revealed that perceived familial gender discrimination is inversely correlated to both gender transcendence and self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Perceived Familial Gender Discrimination, Gender Transcendence and Self-Efficacy: A Study on Indian Female University Students","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-09-06 03:24:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5029419/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c801d184-246c-41a7-967a-acef38bbaf54","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 6th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":37074058,"name":"Gender Studies"},{"id":37074059,"name":"Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-09-06T03:24:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-09-06 03:24:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5029419","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5029419","identity":"rs-5029419","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}